A Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce Sr SE ae CHAPTER 13 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 13.1 Introduction An oscilloscope is a voltage sensing electronic instrument that is used to visualize certain voltage waveforms. An oscilloscope can display the variations of a wave form on the oscilloscope screen 13.2. Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes Electronic equipments can be divided into two types analog and digital. Analog equipments works with continuously variable voltage, while digital equipments works with binary no’s (Is and zeros), oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital. Analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and down proportionally tracing the waveform on the screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform. Digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an (ADC) Analog to digital converter to convert the voltage being measured into digital information. The oscilloscope is useful for making measurements in both the A.C and D.C. It allows us to view the input waveforms and verify their validity. The device works essentially by plotting (or) tracing the amplitude of the input waveform against time on a cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display. The waveform is plotted many times per second so itis important that the signal is in some way periodic so that the signal seen on the display remains static. 529ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa ee eer 530 _Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Horizontal deletion Vertical destin) Plates tat ne /\ signal Verical Delay ff Screen Sampler Prine f Piece HV supply Si TV poly Vioaicisit —bletn pm Electron beam “rigger Horizontal amplifier Fig. 13.1 Block diagram of a general purpose CRO A Basie CRO consist of © Cathode Ray tube ‘© Time Base (sweep) generator © Horizontal amplifier © Trigger circuit © Vertical amplifier © Delay line 1, Time Base Generator: A Time Base Generator is used to generate the saw tooth Voltage required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The circuit used to ‘generate the sawtooth is called the Continuous Sweep Generator. 2. Horizontal Amplifier: The Horizontal Amplifier is used to amplify the saw tooth voltage before itis applied to the Horizontal section, 3. Trigger Cireuit: A trigger circuit is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses, so that the i/p signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized, 4. Vertical Amplifier: It is a wideband amplifier used to amplify (or) attenuate the input signal to make it seen properly on the screen. This process is controlled by “voltidiv” control that is used to select the suitable vertical voltage that caused deflection of one division. Note the (voltdiv) is called the oscilloscope sensitivity 5, Delay Line: A delay line is used to delay the signal in the vertical section, ‘The signal in the Horizontal has to pass through the "Trigger pick of?” circuit, “Time Base” Generator and Horizontal amplifier before it finally reaches the Horizontal Deflection plates (HDP). The signal therefore takes longer to reach the HDP asA Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa Se eo Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 531. compared to the vertical section, this gives an error, in which the initial portion of the input signal is lost. The distortion can be overcome by using a delay line in the vertical section. 133. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) (Fig. 13.2) | cannot Aemingae || Aesemion a 7 gL heen eae (meas ai a ~~ Focus control Brightness control Fig. 13.2 Block diagram of the CRT 13.3. Idea of Operation of CRT 1. Electron Gun: Electron gun is used to generate a beam of electrons. 2. Seren: The screen of a CRT is formed by depositing a coating of a phosphor material on the inner side of the tube face. When the electron beam strikes on the screen, electrons within the strike area are raised to a higher energy level. ‘Then they loss this energy in the form of light as they return to their normal energy level. The glow may persist for a few milliseconds (or) even longer, depending on the material employed. ‘The colour of the glow produced at the sereen may be blue, red, green (or) white If no deflecting fields are present, the electrons travel in a straight line from the hole in the accelerating anode to the center of the screen where they produce a bright spot.A Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa SE Een 532__ Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Vertical and Horizontal Deflection Plate During the way to the screen, the electron beam passes between two pairs of deflecting plates (horizontal and vertical plates. If there is no potential difference between both pairs of plates, the electrons strike the sereen on the org A potential difference between the horizontal pair of plates deflects the electrons horizontally, and a potential difference between the vertical pair deflects them vertically. Cathode x % ; . plates Seren Fig. 13.3 Vertical and horizontal deflection plate As shown in the Fig.13.3, when the upper vertical plate potential is +B/2 and the lower potential is ~E/2 the (negatively charged) electrons will be attracted towards the upper (positive) plate. So the bright spot will be deflected vertically upwards. If the potential difference between the vertical plates is reversed, the bright spot will be deflected vertically downwards. The deflection height depends on potential difference. 13.3.2 The Deflection System The Deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, reffered to as vertical and horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently connected to the ground (zero volt), where as the other plate of each set is connected to input signals (or) triggering signals of the CRO. As shown in the Fig. 13.4 the electron beam passes through the deflection plates. In reference to the schematic diagram Fig. 13.5, a positive voltage applied to the Y-input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically upward, due to attraction forces, while a negative voltage applied Y-input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically downward, due to repulsive forces. Similarly a positive voltage applied to theA Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce Sr Se eo Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 533, X-input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally towards the left of the sereen. The amount of horizontal and vertical deflection is ditectly proportional to the corresponding applied voltage. When the electron hit the screen, the phosphor emits light and a visible light spot is seen on the screen, Horizonal Vertical efletion plates deflection plates Fluorescent coating —S— CRO sereen Electron gun Deflection system Fig. 13.4 Deflection system Vertical deflection plate CRO serven v Horizontal deflection plate Fig. 135 Horizontal deflection plates cample: Suppose v. = sin t, vy = €0s t are reat applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates respectively then bright spot would follow a circular path on the CRO V,ssint 13.33 Displaying a Voltage Waveform In numerious applications it will be required to display a periodical voltage waveform as a function of time. By applying the voltage to be Fig. 13.6A Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce Sr Se ae 534 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation displayed on the CRO, to the vertical deflection plates (¥;), the vertical deflection of the beam spot will be proportional to the magnitude of this voltage. It is then necessary to convert the X-axis (horizontal deflection) into time axis. If the signal to be observed is periodic, then a periodic voltage waveform that varies linearly with time as shown in Fig.13.7 is applied to the horizontal deflection plates. This type of waveform is called sawtooth waveform. se Extreme right Extreme let Trace time (1) Fyback time Fig. 137 When S(t) = OV, the bright spot is at the extreme left hand position, and when s(t) is maximum, the bright spot is at the extreme right position. Therefore, the bright spot travels from extreme left to extreme right in a time equal to the trace time, a high negative voltage pulse is applied to the control grid of the electron gun to prevent electron beams reaching the CRO Seren. This action is called blanking and prevents any reverse retrace as the beam is going back to the extreme left-hand position. The time period including the trace time and the flyback time is called the sweep period. yo) CRO sereen ‘Steady waveform is obtained Fig. 13.8eye ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa Se eo Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 535, Suppose the input vs(t) and s(t) in Fig. 13.8 are applied to the vertical and horizontal deflection plates of the CRO respectively. Note that at the beginning of each sweep eye (ie., when the bright spot is at extreme left) vt) gets exactly the same value. Therefore the bright spot is following exactly the same path in each sweep cycle, Thus we can observe a steady waveform on CRO screen. Notice that the time between the beginning of two consecutive sweep cycles is a multiple of input signal period, 1334. Pulse Generator and Sweep Generator Verte amplifier CRO display ts Horizontal [S00] Sweep ]BO[ Pulse amplifier J&L generator J] generstor Fig. 13.9 Block diagram of the pulse generator and sweep generator Pulse Generator: The main function of the pulse generator is to produce periodical pulses with a period of T, which is equal to the period of the input signal. For that purpose, the input signal is compared to a certain voltage level as shown in Fig. 13.10 producing pulses each time the input voltage is equal to that certain voltage level, may seem to result pulses which are periodic with period T. But this is not case, notice that the level intersect the input signal more than once in one period. ‘Therefore one of the intersection point is neglected in each period. The decision on which intersection point to neglect made by inspecting the slope of the signal atthe intersection point. Y input (0) Level ~ Py si N Trace time Fig. 13.10A Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa SE ued 536 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Sweep Generator: The main function of sweep generator is to produce the one cycle of sawtooth waveform, when it receives a pulse at its input. If the sweep generator receives a trigger pulse during its sweep cycle it will simply ignore the pulse and continue with completion of its sweep cycle. Depending on the selected level and the slope of the input signal, the output of the pulse generator will consist of narrow trigger pulses separated from each other by one period T. Each time the input signal erosses a preselected level, the pulse generator emits one narrow trigger pulse. X-Y Operation ‘When the variation of one voltage form v,(t), as a funetion of another, v,(t), eliminating the parameter time t, is desired. x-y mode of operation is used. In x-y mode one signal is applied to the vertical deflection plates whereas the other signal is applied to Horizontal deflection plates. The xy button on the front panel of the oscilloscope disconnects the triggering signals from the horizontal deflection system, and connects the second input signal instead. This process is done by using a switch shown as x-y button on the Fig. 13.11 External Triggering Rather than the input signal itself an extemal signal can also be used for triggering, For that purpose multi positional switch, which corresponds to external button of the CRO should be set to position 2 as shown in Fig. 13.11. The extemal signal should satisfy certain conditions in order to obtain a steady wave form on the CRO screen. Verical CH0 sip [ Pr orzonl Sweep [201 Puke |_ 27 amplifier generator | [generator 4 Ny , ev Veen button a + bution Fig. 13.1 13.4 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) ‘The concept behind the digital oscilloscope is somewhat different to an analog oscilloscope. Rather than processing the signals in an analogue fashion, the DSO convertsA Meee) ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa Se ee Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 537 them into a digital format using an Analog to Digital converter (ADC), then it stores the digital data in the memory, and then process the signals digitally, finally it converts the resulting signals in a picture format to be displayed on the screen of the scope. Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, that data can be processed either within the oscilloscope itself, or even by a pe connected to it. One advantage of using the DSO js that the stored data can be used to visualize or process the signal at anytime. The analog oscilloscopes do not have memory therefore the signal can be displayed only instantaneously. The transient part of the signal cannot be observed using an analog oscilloscope. ‘The DSO’s are wi performance ely used in many applications in ew of their flexibility and 13.4.1 Measurement Techniques The major concer in observing a signal, the oscilloscope sereen is to make voltage and time measurement, or the circuit itself, depending on what you measure. Except for the X-Y mode of operation, the oscilloscope displays the voltage value of the waveform as a function of the time. The oscilloscope screen is partitioned into the grids, which divides both the horizontal axis and vertical axis into divisions which will be helpful in making the measurement as in Fig, 13.12. Obviously one needs to know the time (or) the voltage values corresponding to each division, in order to make accurate calculations. These values are determined by two variables namely the time/div and volt/div both of which can be adjusted from the relevant buttons available on the front panel of the oscilloscope. Also note that the time/div button controls the trace time of the sweep generator, where as the voltidiv button controls the ‘gain’ in the vertical amplifiers in the vertical deflection system. Fig. 13.12 Oscilloscope screen The typical quantities, which are of primer interest when observing a signal with the scope are shown in Fig. 13.13,Teed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa eer 538 _ Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Peak to peak [—T t | sale : Peak g i value 1 DC value MYA round > Potiod Fig. 13.13 Sinusoidal signal on oscilloscope screen, For the given Fig. 13.13 suppose the variables voltidiv and time/div are set to Voltidiv = 2 voltsidiv Timeidiv milli second/div ‘Then the corresponding values shown on the figure are calculated to be: Peak value = 6 volts 12 volts Peak to peak valu DC value (Average value) = 2 volts Period = 3 milliseconds Frequency = =333 Hz period Note that the signal s(), shown on the screen can be expressed as: S(t) = Vpan Sin 2Rft) + Voc =6 sin(2nft) +2 = 6 sin (666 nt) +2-volts Phase Difference Fig. 13.14 In-phase wav Fig. 13.15 Out-phase wavesTeed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa Sed Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 539 In some applications, one may need to monitor or compare two or more signals simultaneously. A typical example can be the comparision of the input voltage with the output voltage of two-port circuit, Ifthe signals that are being monitored have the same frequency, a time delay may occur between the signals. Two waves that have the same frequency have a phase difference that is constant (Independent ). When the phase difference that is constant (Independent t), When the phase difference (Modulo 2n) is zero, the waves are said to be “in phase” with each other, otherwise, they are out of phase with each other. If the phase difference is 180° (x radians), then two signals are said to be in “antiphase”. If the peak amplitudes of two anti-phase waves are equal, then their sum is zero at all values of time, t Phase difference is expressed in terms of radians (or) degrees. In dual mode of the oscilloscope the difference can be calculated easily as follows: Given the two signals having the same frequency as shown in Fig. 13.16. Phase ‘ig, 13.16 Two signals displayed in dual mode AT worizontal spacing of the peak value ofthe two signals ‘T= horizontal spacing for one period ‘The phase difference 0 is, 0 = 8360 in does a «2m in radians: 13.4.3 Controls Display system may vary between analog and digital oscilloscope. Common controls include,Teed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa eer 540 _Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation An intensely control to adjust brightness of e waveform, ‘A focus control to adjust sharpness of the waveform. ‘Vertical controls are used to position and scale waveform vertically. Horizontal control are used to position and scale the waveform horizontally. XY-Button: Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal along the X-axis, this is called xy mode. Dual-Button: The oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying both channel signals con the sereen at the same time. This is called the Dual mode, 13.5 Applications of CRO 1. Used to investigate transient waveforms Slowly varying waveforms can be monitored continuously. Waveforms can be stored in memory as reference for comparision. Stored waveforms can be reproduced. ‘Complex signal processing can be built into the oscilloscope. The primary uses of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope are to measure voltage, to measure frequency and to measure phase. 13.6 CRO Probes An oscilloscope probe is a device specifically designed to minimize the capacitive load and maximize the resistive load added when the instrument is connected to the circuit, The price to pay is an attenuation of the signal that reaches the oscilloscope input. Let's analyse the behaviour of a passive probe. The Fig. (13.17) shows the equallant circuit of a passive probe and of the input stage of an oscilloscope. The capacitance of the probe cable can be considered. Considering the voltage divider equation we have: whereTeed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a SS eee Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 541 ° ™ r Coaxial PT I ie My fa \ 7 DONT owt tes we Jl 1 0 i wage I Fig. 13.17 Oscilloscope input stage and passive probe schematics and ‘equalant circuit using ideal components Defining the following parameters 1 p-—2 7 Ro+R'P' 6, +CP after substion all the parameters in H(jw) ~ gg Ltiwe HGy)= a. te 1+ jw B Ry __RP jwese jest which is the transfer function from the probe input to the oscilloscope before the ideal amplification stage. The DC and high frequency gain of the transfer function Hw) are respectively. H(o) =a H(» )=B the numerator and denominator of H(jw) are respectively equal to zero (the zeros and poles of H) when wey, =3. ap Fig. 13.8 shows the qualitative behaviour of H for &>1Teed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa SE Een 542 _ Electrical and Electronic Measurements and instrumentation 13.6.1 Probe Frequency Compensation By tuning the variable capacitor “Cy” of the probe, we can have three possible cases: - 1= over—compensation @ © <1 = compensation B £515 under compensation Lo Wo. wo Frequency Fig. 13.18 Qualitative transfer function from the under compensated input to the oscilloscope before the ideal amplification stage If ‘a. B the transfer function attenuates more at frequencies below wp and the input signal (vi) is distorted. ‘The ideal case is indeed the compensated case, the oscilloscope input impedence by a fator “a without distorting the signal.Teed ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a ce ae aa See end Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 543 ‘The probe compensation can be tuned using a signal able to show a clear distortion when it is filtered. A square wave signal is very useful in this case because it shows a quite different distortion if the probe is under (or) over compensated. Fig. 13.19 sketch is the expected square wave distortion for the two uncompensated cases. It is important to notice that if &e c and this condition implies that: the voltage difference v; across Rs is equal the voltage difference V2 across Cs ie., Vie Va The voltage difference Vs across Rp is equal to the voltage difference V, across Cr, ie, Vs= Vu and therefore V; + V2= Vs + Vs. v v Fig. 13.19 Here Vit V2=Vs+Va This means that no current is flowing through the branch AB when the probe is compensated and we can consider just the resistance branch of the cireuit to calculate vs Applying the voltage divider equation, We finally set ola) ‘The capacitance of the oscilloscope does not affect the oscilloscope input any more, and the oscilloscope + probe input impedence R, becomes greater ic., Ri=Rs+RpSeo ny @ kopykitab.com Doe eee a 2 ey Pa ee 544 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Review Questions 10. 1 Draw the Block diagram of CRO and explain the operation of each block Draw the Block diagram of CRT and explain the operation of each block. Explain the operation of ‘Det jon System’ in detail Explain the operation of sweep generator and pulse generator. Explain the operation of Digital storage oscilloscope by taking measurement techniques. Explain in detail about CRO probes. What is the difference between Analog oscilloscope and digital storage oscilloscope. What isthe function of Delay line in CRO. What is the function of trigger circuit Write the applications of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Write the Advantage of Digital Storage Oscilloscope. Quiz Questions CRO displays (a) AC signals (b) D.C signals (©) Both (a) and (b) (A) None of above Digital oscilloscope is more preferable because (a) Digital display (b) Storage (©) aandb (4) None of above Sawtooth voltage of CRO means? (a) Only sweep time (b)_ Flyback time + sweep time (©). Sweep time + flyback time (@) Only flyback time Deflection sensitivity of CRO depends on (a) Deflection voltage, separation between the plates and plate length (b) Only deflection voltage (©) Only separation between plates (@)_ Electron densityTeed ny @ kopykitab.com [riers a 5 ce oy Se eee Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 5. The difference between CRO and Spectrum Analysis (a) CRO and SA both measure the time domain signal. (b) CRO and SA both measure the frequency domain signal (©) CRO measure time domain and SA measure frequency domain (4) CRO measure frequency domain and SA measure time domain Questions and Answers 1. Where do you use Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. Ans. To calculate time period and amplitude of a signal 2. What is the Deflection Sensitivity ofa CRO? Ans. Itis the deflection on the screen (meter) per volt of deflection, 3. Why pre-amplifier is required to CRO? Ans. To get high acceleration for the beam. 4. How a CRO is used to measure period’? Ans. Period is measured in CRO by using (or) calculating time division. 5. Explain the working of delay line in CRO. Ans. Delay line is used to delay the incoming signal vertical information and syncronize it with horizontal Quiz Questions Key Lo 2 © 3. (b) 4 @) 5. ©)@ kopykitab.com & Been CHAPTER 10 Dual Trace Oscilloscope The comparison of two or more voltages is invariably necessary in the analysis and study of many electronic circuits and systems. This is possible by using more than one oscilloscope but in such a case it is difficult to trigger the sweep of each oscilloscope precisely at the same time. A common and less costly method to solve this problem is to use dual trace or multitrace oscilloscopes. In this method, the same electron beam is used to generate “two traces” which can be deflected from two independent vertical sources. Dual trace oscilloscopes are used extensively by industrial firms and research laboratories. - Electron switch Channel Attenvator ‘ TocRT 7 « amplifier Vertical amplifier ‘Auenuator Pre ampl Prom trigger Fig. 10.1 Block diagram of a dual trace oscilloscopes ‘These oscilloscopes produce a dual-trace display by means of electronic switching of two separate input signals. Fig. 10.1 Shows the block diagram of a dual trace oscilloscope 469,nyN @ kopykitab.com & SS eI Tee: 470 _Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation ‘There are two vertical input circuits marked channels A and B with identical preamplifiers. The outputs of these preamplifiers are fed to an electronic switch which alternately connects them to the main vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope. In this type of oscilloscope there in only one electron beam. There are two common operating modes for the electronic switch, called alternate and chop; these are selected from the Instrument’s front panel. In alternate mode the electronic switch alternates between channels A and B, letting each through for one cycle of the horizontal sweep. The display is blanked during the fly back and hold-off periods, as in conventional oscilloscope provided the sweep speed is much greater than the decay time of the CRT phosphor, the screen will show a steady display of the both the waveforms at channels A and B. This mode cannot be used for displaying very low frequeney signals. In the chop mode, the electronic switch free runs at a high frequency of the order of 100 kHz to 300 kHz, The result is the small segments from channels A and B are connected alternately to the vertical amplifier, and displayed on the screen. Provided the chopping rate is much faster than the horizontal sweep rate, the display will show a continuous line for each channel. If the sweep rate approaches the chopping rate then the individual segments will be visible and the alternate mode should now be used. 10.1 Voltage Measurement The voltage to be measured is applied to y-deflection plates through the vertical amplifier. Generally, a coaxial cable is used for connection. ‘The X-deflection plates are exicited by the time-base generator. To aid the measurement, a set of squares is marked on the transparent screen cover. Using these marking and the gain of the vertical amplifier, the peak-to-peak (P-P) value (and hence rms value) of the voltage wave can be measured. ‘After noting down the selection in —Y°"'S from the front panel (selected for division measurement) the peak-to-peak value, amplitude and rms value of sinusoidal signal can be obtained as given below: 1, Peak-to-peak value, Volts Vp. (division (number of tvisions) the volts dv. is nothing but deflection on sensitivity of CRO 2. Amplitude,@ kopykitab.com & Be Dual Trace Oscilloscope 471. 3. RMS value, (for sinusoidal signal only) It must be remembered that an oscilloscope is very complex device and that the accuracy of measurements is not better than £3 It is basically a display device so that we can observe the waveform in detail and find ut the extent of harmonics in the wave. Example: For the waveform shown in Fig. below if vertical attenuation is 3 mv/div determine: 1. Peak-to-Peak value 2. Amplitude, and 3. RMS value of the signal Positive peak Negatife peak Solution: Vertical attenuation = 3 myv/div From the figure, itis evident that the screen is divided such that one part is subdivided into 5 units. I subdivision===0.2units (See Fig.) 1, Peak-to-Peak value, VesPa ee @ kopykitab.com & ee rac, 472__Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation It can be observed that positive peak of the signal corresponds to two full divisions and three subdivisions Hence Positive Peak is 243 0.2=2.6 units While the negative peak also corresponds to 2.6 units Vin = 2.6 + 2.6 = 5.2 divisions Also, Vpp= "Sx No. of division division =3«52=15.6 mv Amplitude, Vai RMS Value, Vins: y, v2 10.1.1 Lissajous Figures/Patterns y, Lissajous pattems (named in the honour of French scientist who first obtained them geometrically and optically) are formed when two sine waves are applied simultaneously to the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates of CRO. The two since waves may be obtained from two audio oscillators. Obviously, in this case, a sine wave sweeps a sine-wave input signal. ‘The shape of the lissajous pattern depends on the frequency and phase relationship of the two sine waves, Two sine waves of the same frequency and amplitude may produced a line, an ellips or a circle depending on their ‘phase difference” as shown in Fig. 10.2. In general, the shape of Lissajous figures depend on. 1. Amplitude 2. Phase difference 3. Ratio of frequency of two waves.@ kopykitab.com & eee arr acrn, 104.2 Uses ‘The Lissajous figures are used for the following purposes: 1. To determine an unknown frequency by comparing it with a known frequency. 2. To check audio oscillator with a known frequency signal 3. To check audio amplifiers and feedback networks for phase shift Lissajous Verical deflection voltage figures ©, Ema sin (+9) # 0-180" [4] $ ¥ arizontal defection voltage Fig, 10.2 Lissajous patterns for same frequency different phase shift Major axis Fig. 10.3 Measurement of phase angles by using CROPa ee @ kopykitab.com & ed 474 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation corr Voltage applied ¥- plates frequency f) Fig, 104 Lissajous patterns with two equal voltage of same frequency and phase shift of “* Harizontat tangency Vertical CC X tangeney I 3:1 4 32 Fig. 105 Lissajous patterns with different frequency ratios tH Fig. 10.6(a) For integral frequenciesray) ete @ kopykitab.com & Sor ed Dual Trace Oscilloscope 475 Horizontal regdncies' 62) 03) 62) w-3201 f= 23H f= sm Fig, 10.6(b) For non-integral frequencies Fig, 10.6(¢) Lissajous patterns 10.1.3 Phase-angle 0 easurement An oscilloscope can be used to find the phase angle between the two sinusoidal quantities of the same frequency. One of the signals is fed to the Y - plates. The time-base generator is switched out and the second signal is fed to the X-plates. It is necessary that X and Y are of equal magnitudes. This fact ean be checked by measuring the amplitudes separately (as in voltage measurement) If the two signals are in phase, the display would be a straight line at 45° to the horizontal. If the phase angle is 90°, the display would be a circle. For any other phase difference, the display would be an ellipse. If the phase difference is between 0° and 90° or between 270° and 360°, the ellipse ‘would have its major axis in the first and third quadrants. For difference between 90° and 180° or 180° and 270°, the major axis would be in the second and fourth quadrants. Consider the Lissajous figure obtained on CRO with an unknown phase difference ‘has shown in Fig 10.2, The frequency and amplitude of the two wave’s are same” The parameters ys, y2, OF X1, X2 can be measured [see fig 2(a)] the phase angle then can be obtained as,@ kopykitab.com & Secon 476 _ Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 10.1.4 Frequency Measurement ‘The unknown frequency can be measured by the following methods: 1. Lissajous method 2. Spot whee! method 3. Gear wheel method issajous Method: In this method of measurement a standard frequency is applied to one set of deflection plates (X-plates) of the CRT tube while the unknown frequency (of approximately the same amplitude) is simultaneously applied to the other set of plates (Y-plates). The resulting pattems depend on the integral and phase relationship between the two frequencies. The horizontal signal is designated as fy, and the vertical signal asf, ‘Typical Lissajous pattern are shown in Fig, (10.5) & (10.6) for sinusoidal frequencies which are equal, integral and in ratio. 10.15 Measurement Procedure Setup the oscilloscope and switch off the internal sweep (change to ext). Switch off syne. Control Connect the signal source as shown in fig. (10.7). Set the horizontal and vertical gain control for the desired width and height of the patter, Keep frequencies f, constant and vary frequency fiy noting that pattem spins in alternate directions and changes shape. The pattern stands still whenever fy and fix are in an integral ratio (either even or odd. 6. When f, = fu patter stands still and is a single circle or ellipse. 7. When f, = 2 fy, a two loop horizontal pattern is obtained as shown in fig. (10.5), For determining the frequency from any Lissajous Pattern, count the number of horizontal 100 Ps in the pattern, divide it by the number of vertical loops and multiply this quantity by fi, (known or standard frequency), If the two frequencies being compared are not equal, but are fractionally related, a more complex stationary pattern results, whose form is dependent on the frequency ratio and the relative phase between the two signalsray) ete @ kopykitab.com & SEs Dual Trace Oscilloscope 477 ‘The fractional relationship between the two frequencies is determined by counting the number of cycles in the vertical and horizontal £, = (Fraction) * fix No.of horizontal tangencies fy No.of vertical tangencies Limitations ‘The Lissajous method of frequency determination has limitations and is being discarded gradually because Low-cost digital frequency counters are becoming increasingly available in market. Following are the two limitations of this method 1. ‘The numerator and denominator of the frequency ratio must be whole number. 2. The maximum ratio of frequencies that can be used is 10:1. Beyond that, the Lissajous patterns become too complex to anal (oss) Daknown Known frequency frequency Fig. 10.7 Basic circuit for frequency measurement with Lissajous Patterns 10.16 Digital Storage Oscilloscope The “digital storage oscilloscope” is a superior method of trace storage. In this technique the waveform to be stored is digitized, stored in a digital memory, and retrieved for display on the storage oscilloscope. The stored display can be displayed indefinitely as long as power is applied to the memory, which can be supplied with a small battery. Fig. 10.8 shows the block diagram of a digital storage oscilloscope.rae nyN @ kopykitab.com & Sere Tce: ‘Aetenuator and hold [~Leonveror Read-write ‘Address ————_—__ Teri dfeson mplir paps ( Y- deflection Horizontal (digital) Da}—| arizona defletion amplifier Fig. 10.8 Digital storage oscilloscope The digital storage oscilloscope uses the same types of input circuitry and oscilloscope probes as conventional oscilloscope, and many digital storage oscilloscope can operate in a conventional mode, by passing the digitizing and storing features, ‘The output of the input signal amplifiers feeds an A/D (Analog-to-Digital) converter. The main requirement of the A/D converter is its speed, while accuracy and resolution are of secondary independence. ‘The digitized output is in the uinary form and not BCD form. Generally, successive approximation type of ADC is used in digital storage oscilloscope. If a 12 bit converter is used then accuracy of about 0.1% and resolution of about 0.025% is obtained, while if a 10 bit ADC is used then the resolution of about 0.1% is obtained. Digitizing the analog signal means to take samples of the input signal at periodic intervals of time, The sampling rate should be greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input signal, so that the sampling theory is satisfied. ‘This ensures that aliasing effect will not occur and there is no loss of information. The sampling rate may be as high as 100,000 samples per second. For such high sampling rates a fast conversion AID convertor is required. “Flash” A/D converters are used at the cost of decreased resolution with increase in sampling rate.ray) ete @ kopykitab.com & es Dual Trace Oscilloscope 479 ‘The size of the memory is related to the an own of horizontal segments of the trace that can be divided into one sweep of the time base, e.g, if mean by size is 1 k then the trace will be divided into 1000 horizontal segments. If a 10 bit ADC is used then the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained; the total memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels, 1024 for four channels each. The selection of the sampling rate and memory size depends on the type of waveform being recorded, As the analog signal is sampled at suitable rates, the data points are readable on the memory. Once the signal is stored, the required manipulations can be done. A continuous storage oscilloscope consist of a feature called “Pretrigger View”. This indicates that the events that occurred before the trigger input signal was applied, are displayed. This selection is a percentage selection. This mode is useful when failure occurs. “Single shot events’ one sometimes transient in nature and hence they are quickly lost Unless the waveform is stored the observer cannot see such events. Such events are stored in the memory of the digital storage oscilloscope and memory can be rapidly read on the screen; a continuous waveform can be displayed. The digital storage oscilloscope has the following three modes of operation: 1. Roll Mode: This is used to observe the fast varying signal 2. Store Mode: It is called as “refresh” mode and is most commonly used. 3. Hold or Save Mode: This mode is used to lock the previously saved signal Advantages 1. Easy to operate Infinite storage time ‘Cursor measurement is possible Signal processing is possible Itis capable of displaying X- Y plots, p-v diagrams and B-H curve. Applications It can be used to measure: - AC aswell as DC, voltage and currents, - Frequency, time period, time interval between two signal etc, = Inductance, capacitance.Pa ee @ kopykitab.com & Se ers 480 _Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 2. Itis used to give the visual representation for a target of radar such as aeroplane, ship et. In medical fields, itis used to display cardiograms that are useful for diagnosis of heart of the patient. It is used to observe the radiation pattem generated by the transmitting antenna. It can be used to check the faulty components in various circuits. It ean also be used to analyse TV waveforms Review Questions With a neat block diagram explain the working of a digital storage oscilloscope Explain the significance of lissajous pattern Explain the panel details of a dual trace oscilloscope . Explain the Applications of Digital storage oscilloscope Explain with the help of block diagram of dual trace oscilloscope . Explain the working of digital storage oscilloscope Quiz Questions ‘The most useful transducer for displacement sensing with excellent sensitivity, linearity and resolution is? (a) an incremental encoder (b)_ an absolute encoder (©) LYDT (@) astrain gauge One of the following, which is not a transducer in the true sense, is? (a). thermocouple (b) piezoelectric pick up (©) photo-Voltaic cell (@ LeD In adigital storage oscilloscope, the input signals is (a) directly applied to the oscilloscope (b)- multiplexed, converted to digital form and stored and applied to oscilloscope (©) multiplexed, converted to digital form and stored, converted to analog form and applied to oscilloscope (4) applied to amplifier, stored as analog signals, Multiplexed, converted to digital form, stored in digital form, converted to analog form and applied to CRO through an amplifier.ray) ete @ kopykitab.com & es Dual Trace Oscilloscope 481 ‘The pattern used to measure phase and frequeney with a cathode ray oscilloscope we called. (a) lissajous patterns (b)_faraday’s pattems (©) ohm’s Patterns (4) philip’s patterns Lissajous pattems appearing on the sereen of a CRT, when two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequencies which are phase each others are applied to horizontal and vertical plate is (a) a straight line (b) acircle (©) anellipse (@) parabola ‘When two sinusoidal waveforms of same frequency are applied to CRO to form a Lissajous pattem, a circle is formed, when the two signals have phase difference between them. 0) (a) either 0° or 180° (b) 90° 270" oe 120° (4) 150° 330° ‘The Lissajous pattern on a CRO sereen is shown in Fig, (a) 3:2 () 5:1 (© 1:5 @ 2:3 A dual trace oscilloscope uses (a) Ibeam (b) 2 beams © 3 @ 4 A double beam oscilloscope has (a) 2 electron guns (b)_ two screens (©) 2 different phosphor coatings (4) one waveform divide into 2 parts In a dual beam oscilloscope (a) there are 2 separate vertical inputs and 2 separate horizontal inputs (b) there are 2 separate vertical inputs and 1 separate horizontal inputs (©) there are 1 separate vertical inputs and 2 separate horizontal inputs (@) there are 1 separate vertical inputs and 1 separate horizontal inputs ‘Which of the following is not correct for a storage type oscilloscope (a) the storage target is a conductive mesh covered with magnesium flouride (b)_ secondary emission & s etch a positively charged pattern (©) the flood gun used for display, emit high velocity electrons (d) the flood guns are placed between the deflection plates and storage target