168. Anderson's Bridge. This bridge, in fact, is a modification of the Maxwell’s inductance- capacitance bridge. In this method, the self inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor. This method is applicable for precise measuremént of self-inductance over a very wide range of values. Fig, 16°6 shows the connections and the phasor diagram of the bridge for balanced conditions. & ne » \ ame RI) Eh Rae ie 4 Fig. 16, Anderson's Bridge,Ry=resistance of self-inductor, ry=resistance coanected in series with self-inductor, F, Ro, Rs, Ra= Known non-inductive resistances, and C=fixed standard capacitor. At balance, — y=Ig and Ineke ts. Bgetexcte el Now LialeXeG 2. Te=hjoCRs. ‘Writing the other balance equations NrtRctfolaBReHer and 1 rig AGW. Substituting the valué of J. in the above equations, we have: Kt} Crbjola) eRe lajoC Kor ot y(t Rit jolr—joCRer) «eRe ld) and joka H( rhs Cato) Ra or ICRF oCROREERI=TARA (Ml From Bqus, (2) and (i), we obtain Hee Rchjoks joc) hy ABMs. PORK oct), Equating the real and the imaginary parts : Ryo a, 1626) and nao # Wot Ro) Ree] (1627) An examination of balance equations reveals that to obtain easy convergence of balance, alternate adjustments of ry and r should be done as they appear “in only one of the two balance equations. : i tat tare mgAdvantages . 1, Incase adjustments are carri¢d out by manipulating control over r, and r, they become independent of each other. ‘This is a marked superiority over sliding balance conditions met with low @ coils when measuriug with Maxwell’s bridge. A study of convergence conditions would reveal that it is much easier to obtain balance in the case of Anderson's b#idge than in Maxwell’s bridge for low Q-coils. brid 2. A fixed capacitor can be used instead of a variable daptci ridge. 3. This bridge may be used for accurate determination pf cépacitance in terms of inductance. Disadvantages 1. ‘The Anderson's bridge is more complex than its prototype Maxwell’s bridge. The Anderson’s bridge has more parts and.is more complicated to set up aa! manipulate. ‘The balance equations are not simple and in fact are much tedions. 2. An additional junction point increases the difficulty of snielding the bridge. Considering the above complications of the Ardersun’s brittge, in ali the eases where 3 fab capacitor is permissible the more simple Maxwell’s bridge is used instead of Anderson’s ridge. 469, Owen's Bridge. This bridge may be used for measurement cf au inductance in torms of as in the case of Maxwell’s A.C. BRIDGIS 50S1612. Schering Bridge. The connections and phasor diagram of the bridge under balance @ o Fig. 1611. Low voltage Schering Bridge, | ‘Let C1=capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined, series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1, Ca stanidard’ capacitor. This capacitor is either an air or a gas capacitor and hence 4s loss free, However, if necessary, a.correction may be made for the loss angle of this capacitor. Rs=n non-inductive resistance, C1=a variable capacitor, and Ry=a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable capacitor Cy.At balance, ( nt teh 510 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Ra, Ra, RoR o Rem oe. Fath tC Equating the real and imaginary terms, we obtain rv=-Cl=, Rp A16'38) and a= me ; wu (16°36) Two independent balance equations. are obtained if Cy and Ra-are-chosen as the variable elements, Dissipation factor Di=tan o=0Cyri =u. i co Gt Rg= wCaRy (16°37) Therefore values of capacitance Ci, and its dissipation factor-are obtained from the values of bridge cements at balance. Permianently~ set up Schering bridges are sometimes arranged so-tuat. balancing is dong by‘Two independent balance equations. are obtained If Cq and Kq-are-chosen as the variable elements. x4, 4 ue Therefore values of capacitance Ci, and its dissipation factor-are obtained froth the values of pridge elements at balance. - Permianéntly- set up Schering bridges are sometimes arranged so twat barapeng is dong by adjystment of Re and Cy with Cyand Ky remaining fixed. Since Ry-appears in both \he balance equations-and therefore there is some difficulty in obtaining balance butat has certain advantages as explained below : Dissipation factor Dy=tan o=aCyri=o, RE Rex oCARs (1637) The equation For capacitance it Cie-#!-Czand since Ry std Cp are fied, the dut of resistor Rg may be calibrated to read the capacitance directly. Dissipation factor Di =wC,Ry and in-case the frequency is fixed the dial of capacitor Cs can be cahbrated to read the dissipation factor directly, Let us say:that the working frequency is 50 Hz-and the value of Re is-Kept fixed at 3,180 0. .'. Dissipation factor Di=2n x 50 x 3180 x Cy 4X 108, : Since C4 is a variable decade capacitance box, its setting in wi” directly gives the value of the dissipation factor. It should, however, be understood that the calibration for dissipation factor holds good for one- particular frequency, but may be used at another frequency if correction is..made—by multiplying by the ratio of frequencies;potential, But the point 2 is at the ground potential de to There are capsciances exiting fromm points C and D to ground but the addition of the Wagner ground connection eliminates then as curent Hough these capacitances the prose forth (ERI Transformer Ratio Bridge mer ratio bridge uses ratio transformer which is highly accurate and eral. Thus conventional ac. bridge ae now getting replaced by the transformer 3) No resistance of winding hence no winding loss oF voltage dro i) No core loss ence very small current required 10 produce Mux i) Perit coupling ie. no leakage hx The Fig, 4171 shows, sting ansfrmer ratio brid theEXIEE theory ese bq = Maries vale offi the cone in We Frequency in He N = Number of tums Aietly proportional to the respective numberof tun changing the tap poston sng sling contac, itferent values of Ey and Ep can [EEA Practical Construction To achieve the ideal the transformer, practical pps ati The toroidal cove helps to minimise the magnaiing curentsequired to produce the are in the form of multconduior rope. If voltage is to be divided in en sections, it consists of ten wires with aucesive set of tums connected in series. The tipping i shen out from each joEXIZI Applications of Ratio Transformer The various applications of ratio tansformers ae 1. Measurement of R, Land C in comparison with standard R, Land C respectively 2. Messurement of phase sift 4. Messurement of transformer ratios. IEEEI Measurements using Transformer Ratio Bridge = The trnsfonmer rato bridge is practically used to measure varlous elements such as resistance inductance, capaciance and alzo to measure phase angle, Let us study few of those measurements using transformer rato bidge IEEIEI measurement of Resistance The messurement of resbiance ls done by comparing the unknown resistance with the standard resistance, The clicult used for dhe measurement i shown in the Fg. 4.18. Fig. 418-1 Measurement of resistance Ey E y= Bt white =F and E, = KiNy and Ey = KiNEEEEY Measurement of Capacitance The € represents the unknown capacitor while R represents the loss of the capacitor ct capacitor while R, isthe standard resist magnitude and phase ofthe currents passing through the detector must be same. To EEE] Measurement of Phaso Angles The small phase anges ean be measured us t Fig. 4.18.4 Measurements of phase angiethe RC circuit with a variable capactor is used. The R detested by The Fig, 4192 shows the atrangoment of transformer double Fig. 4194 Transformer double ratio bridge(ZED) soit Balancing Bridge om The bridges discussed uptil now are manual as manually, the adjustments ar bridge, Now a days, self balancing. bridges are developed which get balanced The Fig. 4201 shov principle of transformer rao bridge used for the measurement of atypical automatic self balancing bridge. Bally it ses the Comparison with the standard capacitance sey | ale andonown soe teal, Ths he cnret inthe poe decir is zo The range is selected automatically by the relays that select the decade lappings on the rato transformer, The phase detictor detects whether the cutent through unknownete Meas and nrmenion 4-80 26. and AC. Bone This information is then used by the decade counter and with the help of digital lecronie sitehing cect it adjusts the lappings on zatio tansfomer, The counter Keeps the tick of the alder movement as error dectnses tl a pereet balance i Ca IZZIE introduction to Interferences Many systems require electcal measurements which involve detection and measurement of very lw lve signals. The amplitudes of low level slgnals are generally less than 100 mV. These signals are amplified and then displayed or used. [Now in practice, the instruments sed for sich measufements are in an environment ces of eectrcal and Another main source of unwanted vallage 8 utility power line voltage. The unwraned, extra vollges occuring du to uly power line vllage are called paride voltages. These voltages also affect the acursey of the overall menntetent sytem, Th intererence signals cnsed by vollage or curent variations in the 80 He power line wires are also called hum. In some cates such paraie vllages becomes a0 dominant that they distort the signals to be roeaured. This lads fo inaccurate and meaning! results, inant electrical noise signals ako can be generate external to the measurement system, Such signa canbe coupled into the actual system in many ferent ways. Once the nose signals get coupled into system, the signals pratuce distorting eet and affect the overall measitement, There are some interal sues also which can generate noise which are seeiive to porate voltages mst bu Acsigrd wiry careful The two methods to eliminate erors due to paras lwansformers and shielding. Th shielding of lads op the Induced parasite voliage> away. But us tages are use of tsolation Isolation transformers and sheng also can induce some errors in theete Meas and nrmenion 4-80 26. and AC. Bone This information is then used by the decade counter and with the help of digital lecronie sitehing cect it adjusts the lappings on zatio tansfomer, The counter Keeps the tick of the alder movement as error dectnses tl a pereet balance i Ca IZZIE introduction to Interferences Many systems require electcal measurements which involve detection and measurement of very lw lve signals. The amplitudes of low level slgnals are generally less than 100 mV. These signals are amplified and then displayed or used. [Now in practice, the instruments sed for sich measufements are in an environment ces of eectrcal and Another main source of unwanted vallage 8 utility power line voltage. The unwraned, extra vollges occuring du to uly power line vllage are called paride voltages. These voltages also affect the acursey of the overall menntetent sytem, Th intererence signals cnsed by vollage or curent variations in the 80 He power line wires are also called hum. In some cates such paraie vllages becomes a0 dominant that they distort the signals to be roeaured. This lads fo inaccurate and meaning! results, inant electrical noise signals ako can be generate external to the measurement system, Such signa canbe coupled into the actual system in many ferent ways. Once the nose signals get coupled into system, the signals pratuce distorting eet and affect the overall measitement, There are some interal sues also which can generate noise which are seeiive to porate voltages mst bu Acsigrd wiry careful The two methods to eliminate erors due to paras lwansformers and shielding. Th shielding of lads op the Induced parasite voliage> away. But us tages are use of tsolation Isolation transformers and sheng also can induce some errors in theClassification of External Interference Signals The extemal interference signals are generated. duc to some physical phenomena According fo the physical phenomena the eneral interference signals reclassified 9 4. Conductvely coupled interference conductor, If conductor poseses an electric charge, an electrical eld eis around it symeheonism with the variations In charge and current. These synehron called near felds or induction flels. The capacitive and Inductive imerfrences are due io such induction Hels the intensity of electric as well as magnetic eld plane wave propagation of electromagnetic energy may be the cise of intrtrence Radiat electromagnetic waves can ince a. volages of some frequency a8 theit Signals are called electromagnetic interference or radiated interference. The region propagation takes over i ale far fed The ground lop ineference can generate du to neat Fld effects as wall asf fl fects. The ground loop interference can be due to some electrical phenomena as well et us study the details of these interferences and comsponding method of IEEE] Capacitive interference When two conductors are near each other, they form a capacitive effect and get ‘ectrically coupled with each other. Thus voltage change in one conductor alfscts the rotage change in other, Solow level signal carrying conductors and low level signal tanaducers get affected de tothe interference, Such interference eto epactve elect s slo calle electrically coupled interference,Let us see how capacive interference cause parasitic conser k owing tog the —f——}- Fig 423: 6) tapscitive eect between the two conductors 1 and Due to this capacitive effect, when conductor 2 i at +'V current to flow. Due to this curend, the condoctor suites a volage which Vj =i R/2 2. This nitude of capacitance and called Fig, 423. (6) parasitic voltage, This voltage Varies with a frequency hich depends on the frequency of variations of voltage of other conductor, It also rnc It ground‘timate the value of coupling expacior C The undesirable capacitive pickup is dite 10, 2. lap impedance f nroment 2. Capacitance between interfering source and test ads EXEZEI Electrostatic Shielding A very common method of avoiding the capacitive effects is to provide clecrostai surrounds the low level signal source. The shield also provides brided metal leer 1 care must be tken t[EEZI inductive interference futrent carrying conductors produce inductive Interference. IF the current cari b onductors Is varying, the magnetic Weld associated with it also varying, I there ts a tlosed path in the vicinity of such varying magnetic feld then em gets induced and tirelates current through the closed path, IF such a closed path is a pert of magnetically coupled interference. Such extemal fils are also called stray magnetic fields tlecroynamoneter type instruments which work on weak magnetic eld wicca A cay magnetic feld can adversely aft the magnetic Rel soi is responsible for he The various sources of such inductive interference are, 2, The-cuent flowing in power: 2. Inductors and power tensformers 4 Convent sages due to connection of lange sing exuipmnenks to the powerline 5. Abruplly changing current occuring due to operation of motors, relay EEZEI Shietaing is not easy to provide shielding against inductive interference. The inductive interference can be lnited and can not be completely eliminated, (One technique to rece the induced cumrents i to race the effective aren between the conics. This fs possible by rennin the signal sites and power and return lace ofan instrument asa twisted pai. This is shown inthe Fig. 4241. This twisting reduces the external magnetic field surrounding the poser conThe magnetic fel has ap concentrate around ferromagnetic materials eS oowatan =[bedooo the encloaure and will not spread around. Such ig 24s can be provided with ferromagnetic enclose Thus the magnetic Held will concenicat within Cee eee, cae Terapoee 3. Th res ike relays, motors should be kept far away from Keep the low level signal lands fr away fromthe twist power cables 6 Providing the shield of high magnetic permesbilly to the elements to be [EEE] Electromagnetic Interference [say.10, 12, Doc-07, 08,11) Called electromagnetic saves, Thare called radiofrequency (REY waves, Such waves may be the signals from radio ot lowing are the sores of radio Frequency signals 1. Gas discharges in flaorescent igh ‘Sparking in lotic switches relay 6 Lightning ls an important natural source The interferences dive to electromagnetic waves are comparable with capacitive and inductive interferences, As frequency incrnses capacitive and indice interferences cree. So electromagnetic waves may be the cause of capsctive and inductive [EEE shietaing The property of electromagnetic waves is that such waves travel consisting of both ‘lscrc and magnetic components an st haked i one of the feo components is lectosatie fields can be designed sasly whic is sendy disused in capacitive interference shielding, Once elcre component = eliminate with the help of shield, the magnetic component sso gets hated and can not propagate, Thus overall dectromegnetic interference gels vanished IEEE] Conductively Coupled Interference other electrical devies connect inthe same circuit. Sch interference which are coupled Aiectlythrough te electra condcoes ae called concictvey couple interferThe common sources of such conductvely coupled interference ae 1. The presence of common impedance ground path in a measuring cic. This is possible bee nductor. This problem is very dominant ifthe path has a substantial impedance to earth grou The problem can be mirimised by using following procidume. Al he low level analog signal grounds should be seperate ; and the digital signal ground Possible, The connections ofall the ground lads should be made ata particular ingle point where the common imp ground has the sllest vale 2. The conduetvely ple interferences due to the porver trans relays which ate supplied by power trnsfonners, spikes Powerline voltage get generated. Such nose spikes may afect the instruments operate from the same powerline, The interferences are transmitted through spikes, very strongly to internal power conductors of the instrument Providing a capacive interference shielding betwee peimary and secondary windings of power transfoemess is one way of reducing such Intefoence. Sach shisling i called Faraday shielding IF is made up of ciucting metal fol which attenuates capacitive inference. And another way reducing noise spikes isto idenfy the sources of such spikes and separate them from the loal a, power distribution network Wrong connections of power supplies to load is also an important source of onductvely coupled interference, If two loads are connected wrongly in Paral! t the same supply then Mlctuations in one los can affect ater: Only Temedy in sich cases sto ienifyincorect comactions and core them. Such eect her frequency signals can be minimised using electronic flere if the low level signal frequency s known. The noise reduction i also posible using propesy designed fers.EZEZA Ground Loop interference fe Know that the boy of electrical equipment should be grounded from electrical safety point of view. Incase of poner installations such a ground connection is achieved ising 4 copper o ion rod wh 10 « depth of 10 to 100 fest below the surface. fone rod is insulfilent, numberof rods are used to achleve proper rounding. In any «ase, posible leakage produce a vollage more than 42 V between body ofthe equipment and ground, po conductor ofthe sytem is connected a 7 concept of ground 0p Consider an example of measuring system shown in the Fig. 4272, whleh cesely Fig, 4272 Formation of ground loop The resistance Ry and Ry are the cable resistances. The transducer can be recorder, impedance bridge of cellEEIEI Common Mode and Series Mode Voltages The common mode vollages are those volliges which appese on both sides of a gna Kine to a common reference point which is generally ground a Fig. 427.4 Common mode voltage generating series mode voltage called commen mode voltage denoted 3 Ezy. The path of aod Zq &8 input impedence of path weed But in practice Zi >> Ry hence the current through path wefeda ery small compared to current though path atbeda Sill due to the fro liferent carrots avenge wil exist woes poinls bre. This vollage is eooidered to be in is Jot us se another case which creots common mode noise voltage. Consider a low level signal source of vollage V, having intemal resistance R,, It grounded at one point say point 1. The source is shielded and shield is also grounded. The source I Connected to an amplifier having input resistance Ry. I one end is alo grounded, The Amplifier is also shielded and the shield is also grounded, But the shield of source andGece Measure andnrmenion 4-96 26. and AC. Bone In such a measuring set up to ensure the human safety and stabilised output recording at displaying syste, he output shied, uipment encene and lw side of amplifier output are generally ground. The guard shickl is connected to the cable is holated from the amplifier outpet shield and the ‘stipment enclose. The cable shld is connects! to the source signal ground. Tt in such a setup signal source is ground and if source ground ig resistance Ra small then a very small common mode voltage of the order of a” appear at amplifier input, even if floating amplifier Is used, But in many measurement such a small common mode vllge i tlerable tus see howe input grounding i useful, Inthe circuits without input sanding 66 have seen that the common mode curents flow in ground loop path which directly sind sting cable shield afect the measurement But ina set up like that shown inthe Fig, 4284, the g loop currents are diverted into an allemate ground Toop pot sircit. In the cleut shown instead of path 1-237. 23-461 Is used. This le because the cable shield path has much low resistance, tha other path consisting of Rand coupling capacitors Cry and Cy. Thus the common the cable shield. path as ode vallige Eo» aceuring at the amplifier input ges reduced and becomes of the IEEIERD overt Rules fr input Guarding Tecbique The general rules for input guarding are Connect the signal cable shield tothe shielded se of the signal source, This oops the amplifier guard and signal cable shld at the same potential as tht o Tow side of signal source Enoure that equipment enclosure, low sie of the amplifier output and output held are grounded fo the power line ground ofthe ampli The guard shield is also called floating se the CMRR of. ferential amplifier. The input guard technique i very effective forthe set ups having guard which belps to in tigoal sources which prodace small onl volage signals and having lange source resttance valve of the ender of TKO The examples of such soures are strain gop te: White measuring the ouiput signal of wuch sources with foaing, single ended amplifies, common mode voltage of about 5 mV! can cate The input guneding is the best me