Laboratory 07.

Capacitor

I. Theoretical backgrounds
The capacitor is a two terminal passive electronic component used in the electronic
circuits to store electric energy. The electric symbol for the capacitor is presented in Figure 1.a,
where C represent the fundamental parameter of the capacitor that characterizes its behavior,
called electrical capacitance and has the SI (International System) unit the Farad (F).
polarized capacitor

terminal terminal terminal terminal

Figure 1 Electric symbol of a capacitor

The structure of the capacitor consists of 2 conductive plates, called reinforcements,

superimposed on a surface S, separated by a dielectric material of thickness d, which has
properties of insulating material. Depending on the dielectric type, capacitors are of several
types, the important ones being presented below:
• capacitors with ceramic materials as dielectric, called ceramic capacitors,
• film capacitors,
• mica capacitors,
• metal oxide dielectric capacitors, called electrolytic capacitors.
The behavior of the real capacitor deviates from the behavior of an ideal capacitor, due to
the influence of parasitic elements, present in the structure of the capacitor, which model certain
physical phenomena, specific to the capacitor. There are several sources of the parasitic
elements, of which the most important are the dielectric, the terminals, the contact elements of
the reinforcements and the capacitor reinforcements.
The parasitic elements, which affect the behavior of the real capacitor, have an inductive,
respectively resistive nature. Inductive parasitic elements set a maximum frequency of operation
for the capacitor, called self-resonant frequency, over which its behavior changes from capacitive
to inductive. For this reason, in an electronic circuit, the operation frequency of capacitor must
be smaller than its self-resonant frequency.
If the working frequency of the capacitor is smaller than the self-resonance frequency, its
behavior is influenced only by the parasitic resistive element, which causes losses of the
electrical energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor, by dissipative effect.
To estimate the electrical energy losses of the capacitor, a parameter that is modeled as a
total loss resistance is defined, which sums up all the electric resistances sources specific to the
capacitor that cause electrical losses, namely the dielectric, terminals, contact elements and
plates. The respective parameter is called Equivalent Series Resistor, abbreviated ESR.

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
sums up all the
energy losses

terminal terminal

Figure 2 Equivalent circuit of the real capacitor that models the energy losses

From energy losses point of view, the behavior of the real capacitor is modeled by the
equivalent circuit from Figure 2, where the losses resistance ESR is connected in series with the
electrical capacitance C of the capacitor.
The value of losses resistance ESR depends on the frequency at which it is measured. For
this reason, in the capacitor’s datasheet, the value of the ESR parameter is provided at a certain
test frequency, for electrolytic capacitors being measured at the frequency of 100 [Hz], and for
the other types of capacitors, being specified at the frequency of 1 [kHz].
The ESR resistance is a very important parameter of the capacitor, especially for the
electrolytic capacitors. In the case of aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the ESR value is in order
of milliohms, for the capacitors whose electrical capacitance is in the order of microfarads,
hundreds of milliohms, for capacitors whose electrical capacitance is of the order of hundreds of
microfarads, respectively of tens of ohms, for capacitors with an electrical capacitance greater
than one millifarad.
The capacitors with the lowest ESR values are those with plastic film dielectric,
respectively with mica dielectric.
The level of energy losses for a capacitor is indicated by the dissipation factor D of the
capacitor (or tangent of the phase angle tg). The dissipation factor D is defined as the ratio
between the lost energy through dissipative phenomena on the parasitic resistive elements, and
the electrical energy stored by the capacitor, then is working in permanent sinusoidal regime.
Based on this definition and considering the impedance of the capacitor modeled by the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2, the dissipation factor D is determined as:
𝐷 = 2 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝐸𝑆𝑅 ∙ 𝐶
where f represents the working frequency of the capacitor.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by zero energy losses; thus, the dissipation factor D
indicates how "pure" the tested capacitor is, or, in other words, how closed is the behavior of the
tested capacitor to the one of an ideal capacitor. A lower value of the dissipation factor D means
that the capacitor behavior is closer to the behavior of an ideal capacitor. A capacitor with
dissipation factor D <0.0002 tends towards the behavior of an ideal capacitor ("pure" capacitor).
The behavior, as well as the correctness usage of a capacitor in an electronic circuit,
depend on its operating parameters, whose numerical values are specified in the datasheet, at the
nominal working temperature, which, according to the manufacturer, can be 200C or 250C. Also,
in the capacitor’s datasheet the meaning of the values marked on the capacitor body are
indicated. If a capacitor is connected in an electronic circuit, without taking into consideration

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
the parameters information provided in its datasheet then the integrity of the respective capacitor
is endangered.
1. Nominal Capacitance, denoted by CN, represents the numerical value of the electrical
capacitance, which is desired to be obtained in the manufacturing process of the capacitor. The
nominal capacitance value is indicated on the capacitor body, either numerically or, in the case
of older ceramic capacitors, by means of the color code. If numbers are used to represent the
value of the nominal capacitance, then their significance depend on the type of capacitor.
2. Tolerance of the capacitor, denoted , expresses in percentage (%) the maximum
relative deviation of the capacitor electrical capacitance, compared to its nominal value CN. For
this reason, the values range of the capacitor's electrical capacitance is
𝐶𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐿 ∈ [𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 ]
where
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑁 − 𝛿 ∙ 𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑁 + 𝛿 ∙ 𝐶𝑁
In the above equations, the value of tolerance  is expressed as a subunit value. For
example, for tolerance class 20%, in the above formulas, δ = 0.2.
For the capacitor, unlike in the resistor case, the tolerance value can be asymmetric. For
example, the value of the capacitor tolerance can be  = 0 ... + 100%. In this case, the
manufacturer guarantees that the actual value of the capacitance cannot be lower than the value
of the nominal capacitance, but can be higher by 100%. In this case, if we consider a capacitor
with nominal capacitance CN = 100 [pF], which has a tolerance  = 0 ... + 100%, then the
capacitor manufacturer guarantees that the real value of its capacitance is in range of values 100
[pF]  200 [pF].
The tolerance value  can be marked on the capacitor body with alphanumeric symbols,
or, in the case of older ceramic capacitors, using the color code. If the tolerance value is
expressed by alphanumeric characters, two variants are used namely:
• the tolerance value is expressed directly, with the help of numbers, for example 20%;
• the tolerance value is expressed by means of a literal code, which respects the
convention indicated in Table 1:
Table 1 Tolerance value representation

Character Tolerance value  Character Tolerance value 

A 0.05pF K  10 %
B 0.01pF L  15 %
C 0.25pF M  20 %
D 0.5pF N  30 %
E  0,5 % P - 0%, + 100 %
F 1% S - 20%, + 50 %
G 2% W - 0%, + 200 %
H 3% X - 20%, + 40 %
J 5% Z - 20%, +80 %
3. Rated Voltage, denoted VN, represents the maximum value of the continuous voltage,
or the maximum effective value of the sinusoidal voltage, which can be continuously applied on

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
the capacitor, at any temperature within its nominal temperature range, without damaging this
component. In the datasheets, this parameter is also referred to under the name of Maximum
Working Voltage.
In datasheets, for some types of capacitors, the rated voltage value is specified according
to the working regime. Thus, the notation cc, or Vcc, indicates the value of the voltage rated in
DC (maximum value of direct current voltage), and notation ca indicates the nominal voltage
value in indicated for alternating current regime (the maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage,
or the sum between the average value and the maximum value of the voltage).
For electrolytic capacitors, the rated voltage value is directly marked on the capacitor ‘s
body, using numerical value.
4. Tangent of losses angle tg, or dissipation factor D, represents the ratio between the
electrical power dissipated on the capacitor and its reactive electrical power, when the capacitor
is working in permanent sinusoidal mode. This parameter indicates the level of electricity losses
of the capacitor, or how close is the behavior of considered capacitor to the behavior of an ideal
capacitor.
5. Operating Temperature Range represents the range of temperatures at which the
capacitor can operate continuously without breaking down. The manner in which the nominal
temperature range is indicated depends on the capacitor type.
6. The Temperature Coefficient of Capacitance of the capacitor, represents a specific
parameter for ceramic capacitors and is denoted TCC or T. The temperature coefficient
indicates how the value of the electric capacitance varies with the working temperature of the
capacitor, within the temperature range defined by the nominal temperature range. The
temperature coefficient is provided according to the ceramic capacitor class. For I class ceramic
capacitors, the value of the TCC parameter is provided in ppm / 0C and can be used to
determine the value of the electrical capacitance at any working temperature, from the nominal
temperature range, with the relation below, where T0 = 250C represents the nominal temperature
at which the nominal capacitance CN value is reported:
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑁 + 𝐶𝑁 ∙ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) ∙ 𝑇𝐶𝐶 ∙ 10−6
For the ceramic capacitors in classes II and III, the value of the TCC parameter is
expressed as a percentage and is used to determine the maximum variation of the capacitance
value, throughout the nominal temperature range, based on the equation below:
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑁 + 𝐶𝑁 ∙ 𝑇𝐶𝐶
Figure 3 illustrates how the value of the capacitance C of a ceramic capacitor varies in
percentages from its nominal value CN, in the nominal temperature range, considered in this case
[-100C ÷ 800C] - blue curve. From the variation graph of C with working temperature, it is noted
that the nominal capacitance value is reported to the nominal temperature T0 = 250C, and the
maximum variation of the electric capacitance C of the capacitor, in the nominal temperature
range is about -7%. For example, for a capacitor with a nominal capacitance CN = 100 [nF], that
has the graphical representation from Figure 3, the electric capacitance value at the working
temperature T = 800C decreases by 7%, so the electrical capacitance is:

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
7
CT=800C = CN − ∙ C = 100[nF] − 0.07 ∙ 100[nF] = 93[nF]
100 N

Electric capacitance of capacitor

nominal temperature range

variation range for

electric capacitance

working temperature of capacitor

Figure 3 Variation of capacitance in temperature range

7. The leakage current, denoted DCL (Direct Current Leakage) represents the electric current
that appears through the capacitor, when a DC voltage is applied to it, equal to the nominal
voltage - it is a specific parameter for electrolytic capacitors and is desirable to be as small as
possible.
II. Ceramic capacitor
The ceramic capacitor is one of the most widely used types of capacitors in electronic
circuits, being characterized by electric capacitance values in the range of hundreds of
femtofarads ÷ units of microfarads. The ceramic capacitor can reach the lowest possible values
of electrical capacitance, being the only type of capacitor, whose minimum value of electric
capacitance can reach the order of picofarads, or even hundreds of femtofarads. Depending on
the structure, ceramic capacitors fall into two main categories, namely:
• monolayer ceramic capacitors,
• multilayer ceramic capacitors.
The structure of the two types of ceramic capacitors is shown in Figure 4. In the case of
the monolayer capacitor, shown in Figure 4.a, the dielectric of the capacitor has a single layer
ceramic material in the form of a disc. Due to the particular shape of the used dielectric, this type
of capacitor is simple to identify. The capacitor dielectric is covered on both sides by silver
electrodes, which represent the reinforcements. In the case of the multilayer capacitor, shown in
Figure 4.b, the ceramic dielectric is made of several layers, superimposed with conductive layers,
arranged alternately towards the ends of the capacitor structure. This type of capacitor can be
easily recognized by its approximately rectangular shape.

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor

ceramic dielectric
aluminum electrode
aluminum electrode
ceramic dielectric

a. monolayer ceramic capacitor b. multilayer ceramic capacitor

Figure 4 Ceramic capacitors types

Due to the electrical properties of the dielectric, the ceramic capacitors can work at very
high voltages, the maximum values of the working voltage reaching for some ceramic capacitors
thousands of volts.
The value of the electric capacitance C of the ceramic capacitor depends on the type of
dielectric, which, based on its behavior at the temperature variation, can be classified into 3 main
classes, which also establish the class to which the ceramic capacitor belongs, namely:
• class I; the ceramic capacitors belonging to this class are the most performing:
o they have the most stable electrical capacity with the working temperature,
o the value of the electric capacity does not depend on the working voltage, the
working frequency and does not change over time,
o are characterized by the lowest values of the parasitic elements and dissipation
factor D;
o the electric capacitance has the smallest values domain from all classes of
ceramic capacitors,
o they have the disadvantage that they occupy the largest volume, compared to
the ceramic capacitors of other classes, due to the reduced efficiency electric
capacitance / volume;
• class II; the ceramic capacitors belonging to this class are less performant than those
of I class:
o the value of the electric capacitance varies with the working temperature, with
maximum 15% of the nominal capacitance CN (parameter defined in the next
section),
o the value of the electric capacitance depends on the working voltage, working
frequency and operating time,
o the values of parasitic elements and dissipation factor D are greater than those
of I class ceramic capacitors;

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
o the advantage of these capacitors over those of I class consists of the occupied
volume, less than one of the I class at the same electric capacitance, due to a
more efficient electric capacitance/ higher volume;
• class III; ceramic capacitors belonging to this class are the least performing of all
ceramic capacitor’s classes:
o the value of the electric capacitance varies with the working temperature,
more than 15% from the nominal capacitance value CN,
o the value of the electric capacitance depends on the working voltage, working
frequency and it changes over time,
o the values of parasitic elements and dissipation factor D are the highest;
o the main advantage of these capacitors, compared to other capacitors classes,
consists of the smallest volume occupied, related to the occupied volume by
one ceramic capacitor from the other classes, on the same electrical
capacitance, due to efficiency of electrical capacitance / volume, superior to
other ceramic capacitor classes.
How the capacitor parameters are marked on their body depends on the manufacturer and
is explained in the capacitor datasheet. On the body of the ceramic capacitors the nominal
capacitance CN is always marked and optional, depending on the manufacturer and the capacitor
body size, tolerance  (rare), rated voltage VN and the type of dielectric, from which we can
extract the information about the nominal temperature range and the thermal coefficient TC.
The nominal capacitance value CN is indicated on the capacitor body in several ways,
which depend on the digits of the expressed value and the agreement adopted by the
manufacturer.
The most frequently mode, used to express the value of the nominal capacitance CN of a
ceramic capacitor, is based on a 3-digit numeric code. According to the convention, the first two
digits represent a number that is multiplied with a value given by the last digit. The multiplier is
equal to 10 at power indicated by the last digit. The calculated result represents the value of the
nominal capacitance of the capacitor, expressed in picofarads. The table below shows various
examples of the nominal electrical capacitance value CN, by means of the 3-digit code.
Value Value indicated
indicated on Value of CN on capacitor Value of CN
capacitor body body
0
100 CN = 1010 = 10 [pF] 102 CN = 10102 = 103 [pF] = 1 [nF]
0
220 CN = 2210 = 22 [pF] 332 CN = 33102 = 3300 [pF] = 3,3[nF]
101 CN = 10101 = 100 [pF] 103 CN = 10103 = 10000 [pF] = 10[nF]
221 CN = 22101 = 220 [pF] 684 CN = 68104 = 680 [nF]
If the electrical capacitance value of the ceramic capacitor is less than 100pF, the
numerical value of the electrical capacitance is marked directly on the capacitor body. If only
one numeric value composed of 1 or 2 digits appears on the capacitor body, without other
indications marked by letters, then the value represents the value of the nominal capacitance CN
of the ceramic capacitor, expressed in picofarads.

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
If, between the digits indicated on the capacitor body, the letter p is inserted, then its
position denotes the position of the decimal point in the number composed of the digits of the
marked number. The table below presents various examples of the expression of the nominal
capacitance value CN, when its value is less than 100pF.
Value indicated on capacitor body Value of CN
1 1 [pF]
3 or 3p3 3,3 [pF]
5 or 4p7 4,7 [pF]
10 10 [pF]
22 22 [pF]
The tolerance value  is marked on the ceramic capacitor body through the character
code, according to the convention presented in the theoretical section, or most often is omitted
and needs to be extracted from the datasheet, depending on the size of the capacitor body.
The value of the rated voltage VN, or the maximum working voltage, is sometimes
indicated on the body either directly, through a number that can be followed or not by the unit in
which the nominal voltage value is expressed, or by means of a composite code of a single
character (digit most often), the significance of which depends on the manufacturer and is
specified in the capacitor datasheet. For the first case, the value of the rated voltage is specified
under the marking used to express the value of the nominal capacitance CN, or on the back of the
capacitor.
For the second case, the character by which the nominal voltage value is indicated by 3-
character string (see example of multilayer capacitor in Figure 5), whose significance depends on
the manufacturer and is presented in the capacitor datasheet. The characters sting can be
inscribed under the marking used to express the value of the nominal capacitance CN, or on the
back of the capacitor.
The dielectric type used for the capacitor determines the class to which the ceramic
capacitor belongs, and it is indicated on the capacitor body either through a 3-character code or
by means of a single character code, the meaning of which depends on the manufacturer and is
specified in the capacitor datasheet.
In the first case, the 3 characters string indicate a minimum value of the working
temperature, the maximum value of the working temperature, respectively the value of the
thermal coefficient TC, expressed as maximum percentage variation of the nominal capacitance
CN. The table below indicates the conventions used for the 3-character code. Exception to the
rule presented in the table below is made by the I class dielectric types, which are indicated,
based on the fabrication mode, by CGO or NPO codes. For these types of ceramic capacitors,
the value of the temperature coefficient is expressed in ppm / 0C (parts per million / degree
Celsius).

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
Minimum working Maximum working Value of temperature coefficient TC /
temperature temperature Capacitor class
-550C +1250C 30 ppm/0C / Class I, NPO or CGO
X = - 550C 2 = + 450C A =  1% / Class II
Y = - 300C 4 = + 650C B =  1,5% / Class II
Z = + 100C 5 = + 850C C =  2,2% / Class II
6 = + 1050C D =  3,3% / Class II
7 = + 1250C E =  4,7% / Class II
F =  7,5% / Class II
8 = + 1500C - special
9 = + 2000C- specialP =  10% / Class II
R =  15% / Class II
S =  22% / Class III
T = + 22% / -33% / Class III
U = + 22% / -56% / Class III
V = + 22% / -82% / Class III
Thus, a X7R dielectric capacitor is characterized by the following parameters: minimum
working temperature of -550C, maximum working temperature + 1250C and a thermal coefficient
TC = 15%.
monolayer ceramic capacitors multilayer ceramic capacitors
nominal nominal nominal
capacitance capacitance capacitance
10x104pF 22x101pF 10x103pF

manufacturer code dielectric U →dielectric Z5U

code →TMIN=+100C
TMax=+850C
rated voltage
U=+22%/-56%→ III Class
R →VN=50V

Figure 5 Marking examples for ceramic capacitors

In the second case, the character by which the type of the dielectric is indicated is part of
a group of 3 characters (see the example of multilayer capacitor from Figure 5), the significance
depends on manufacturer and is presented in the capacitor datasheet. These characters string can
be inscribed under the mark used to express the value of the nominal capacitance CN, or on the
back of the capacitor. Figure 5 illustrates how the ceramic capacitors are marked.
III. Film capacitor
The film capacitor is characterized by electrical capacitance values in the range 5pF ÷
100F. Depending on the dielectric type, the film capacitors are of several types, namely:
• plastic film capacitors, which, at their turn are divided into the following subtypes:
o polypropylene film capacitors, whose electrical capacitance is in the range of
100pF ÷ 10F; are characterized by great performances, have a low dissipation
factor, manifest self-repair properties at faults, have rated voltages that can reach

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
a maximum value of 3000V; thus, they are suitable for electronic power circuits,
which works with high electrical voltages, they are precise, the minimum value of
tolerance reaching 1%; are among the most commonly used types of capacitors;
o polyester film capacitors, sometimes referred to as mylar, whose electrical
capacitance is in the range of 1nF ÷ 15F; are characterized by modest
performances: they are not very stable with temperature, having high values of the
temperature coefficient, a high dissipation factor, but they are cheap and occupy a
small volume, which is why they are used in electronic circuits where
performance is not a critical design criterion; have rated voltages up to 1500V;
o teflon capacitors, whose electrical capacity is in value range 1nF ÷ 10F; are
characterized by remarkable performances, superior to other types of film
capacitors, having a very low dissipation factor, extended nominal temperature
range, very good stability with temperature, but very high price.
o polycarbonate film capacitors, whose electric capacitance is in the range of
100pF ÷ 10F; they are very stable with temperature- but less accurate than other
types of plastic film capacitors, having a minimum tolerance value of 5%; They
are now replaced by capacitors with polypropylene due to their superior quality;
o polystyrene film capacitors, whose electrical capacitance is in range of 5pF ÷
47nF; are precise capacitors, the minimum value of tolerance reaching 1%, have
rated voltages that can reach maximum values of 630V; have a relatively high
dissipation factor and at working temperature above 700C, the value of the electric
capacitance undergoes permanent changes; in present they are replaced by
polypropylene capacitors due to superior quality of the latter;
• paper capacitors, whose electrical capacitance is in the range of 500pF ÷ 50F; are
characterized by high rated voltages, being suitable for power electronic circuits; they
are not very precise, having a minimum tolerance of 10%.
The general structure of the film capacitors is shown in Figure 6 and is characterized by
alternating metal layers with dielectric layers. There are three different technologies that
establish three constructive types of film capacitors, namely metalized film capacitor, foil film
capacitors, respectively hybrid film capacitors.
In metallic film capacitors, the dielectric layers are covered with very thin layers of
aluminum, of the thickness of tens of nanometers, which form the metal layers from the
capacitor structure. Due to the very thin metallic layers, this type of capacitors occupies a smaller
volume, at the same value of electrical capacitance, than the foil film capacitors. Another
advantage of the metallized capacitors is their property to self-repair, if they are overloaded at
high working voltages. The typical range of electric capacitance values of metallized capacitors
is 10 [nF] ÷ 100 [F].
In foil film capacitors, the metal layers are distinct from the dielectric, made of metal
foils. The dielectric layers are thicker, for their protection at breakdown, this type of capacitor
does not have the property to self-repair when overloaded with high working voltages. For this

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
reason, the volume occupied by the foil capacitors is higher than the one occupied by the
metallized ones, at the same value of the electrical capacitance. Thus, the maximum values of the
electrical capacitance specific to the foil film capacitors are lower than metallic ones, their
typical range of electrical capacitance values for foil film capacitors is 100 [pF] ÷ 100 [nF]. The
main advantage of this type of capacitor is the maximum value of the working current, higher
than in the metallized capacitors.
Hybrid film capacitors use a hybrid structure, which combines the two types of capacitors
presented above, combining the advantages of each technology.
metal layer
dielectric

protective layer

terminal

Figure 6 General structure of film capacitors

The film capacitors are manufactured both in radial mode, both terminals are placed on
the same side of the capacitor, as well as in the axial mode, the terminals are placed on opposite
sides of the capacitor.
The way of marking the parameters of the film capacitors on their body depends on
manufacturer and is explained in the capacitor datasheet. On the film capacitors body are always
marked the nominal capacitance CN and optionally, depending on the manufacturer and on the
size of the capacitor body, the tolerance , the nominal voltage VN and the dielectric type. In the
case of paper capacitors, on the capacitor body is also indicated its temperature range. The
temperature range is reported in the following format: Tmin / Tmax / number of test days, where
by Tmin ÷ Tmax is indicated the nominal temperature range, and by the number of test days is
indicated the number of successive days in which the capacitor was tested in the nominal
temperature range. For example, the mark 40/085/21 indicates the minimum temperature Tmin = -
400C, maximum temperature Tmax = + 850C, respectively number of test days = 21.
The nominal capacitance value CN is expressed numerically, but the unit of
measurement depends on presence of the point indicating the position of the decimal point. Thus,
if the decimal point appears at the beginning, or inside the string, then the nominal capacity value
is expressed in microfarads.

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
Measuring nit Examples
2.2  CN = 2.2 [F];
Decimal point inside the
3.3  CN = 3.3 [F];
characters string F
0.47  CN = 0.47 [F];
0.068  CN = 0.068 [F];
If the decimal point is missing, or is placed at the end of the string, then the value
nominal capacity is expressed in picofarads.
Measuring unit Exemple
1  CN = 1 [pF];
3  CN = 3,3 [pF];
Without decimal
5  CN = 4,7 [pF];
point, of 1, 2 or 4
pF 10  CN = 10 [pF];
digits
22  CN = 22 [pF];
1000  CN = 1000[pF] = 1 [nF];
4700  CN = 4700[pF] = 4,7 [nF];
When the nominal capacitance is marked on the capacitor body by 3 digits, then the value
of the nominal capacitance is determined according to the convention presented in the case of
ceramics capacitors: the third digit represents the exponent of 10, the value thus determined
representing the multiplier by which the value of the first 2 digits is multiplied.
The tolerance value  is expressed either numerically or through the literal code, as it
was presented in the theoretical section. Often, the tolerance value  is marked on the back side
of the capacitor body.
The nominal voltage value VN is specified according to the operating mode. Thus, the
notation cc, or Vcc, indicates the value of the nominal voltage in DC, which is the maximum
value of the DC voltage, that can be applied on the capacitor terminals, and the notation ca
indicates the nominal voltage value in alternating current regime, which is the maximum value of
the sinusoidal voltage, or the sum of the mean value and the maximum instantaneous value of
voltage that can be applied to the capacitor terminals. Some manufacturers use the line
continuous "-", as a symbol for the DC regime, respectively the wavy line "~", as a symbol for
AC current.
The nominal voltage value VN is marked either directly, by means of a numerical value,
either through a literal code or through colors, specific to the marking of polystyrene dielectric
capacitors. The meaning of the letters depends on the manufacturer of electronic components and
of capacitor type. An example of nominal voltage value encoding VN for polymers dielectric
capacitors (polyester, polypropylene, respectively polycarbonate) is as follows: 1H → VN = 50
[V], 2A → VN = 100 [V], 2T → VN = 150 [V], 2D → VN = 200 [V], 2E → VN = 250 [V], 2G →
VN = 400 [V], 2J → VN = 630 [V]. To indicate the dielectric type of the film capacitor, the
marking system is shown in the table below, used by the most of the producers:

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
Code Capacitor type
MPP, MKP, PPS polypropylene metallized capacitor
KP, FKP polypropylene film capacitor
MFP hybrid polypropylene capacitor
MKT, MKS polyester metalized capacitor
FKT, FKS polyester film capacitor
MFT hybrid polyester capacitor
TFT, TFE, PTFE, FEP teflon capacitor
KS polystyrene capacitor
FKC, KC polycarbonate metalized capacitor
MKC polycarbonate film capacitor
MP, MPK, MKV paper metalized capacitor
Figure 7 shows examples of film capacitors and how to mark the electrical parameters on
their body.
nominal
Code PPS= polypropylene nominal
capacitance
metalized capacitor capacitance tolerance
0.012µF
47x103pF J=±5%

nominal
capacitance
4x103pF

Code MKP= rated voltage

tolerance rated voltage polypropylene rated voltage
VN=1000V in DC
J=±5% VN=1600V metalized capacitor VN=250V
VN=600V in AC

radial polypropylene capacitors axial polypropylene capacitors

nominal nominal
nominal
capacitance tolerance capacitance
J=±5% capacitance
68x104pF 15pF
0.068µF

tolerance
J=±5%

rated voltage
VN=2A=100V

rated voltage
VN=630V DC
rated voltage Code MKS= polyester
VN=400V metalized capacitor

polyester capacitors

nominal
nominal
capacitance
capacitance
0.47µF
1µF

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
tolerance tolerance
±10% ±5%

Code TFT= teflon rated voltage rated voltage

capacitor VN=200V VN=1000V

Teflon capacitors
nominal Code MP= paper
capacitance 0.33µF capacitor rated voltage nominal
VN=440V AC capacitance 0.15µF

rated voltage
VN=630V DC Code MP= paper
VN=300V AC capacitor

rated temperature rated temperature

TMIN=-400 C TMAX=+700 C TMIN=-400 C TMAX=+1100 C

Paper capacitors

nominal tolerance
capacitance tolerance capacitor code nominal
±10%
68x102pF K=±10% rated temperature capacitance 4.7µF

TMIN=-550 C TMAX=+1250 C

rated voltage
Code MKC= VN=100V DC
rated voltage nominal rated voltage tolerance
polycarbonate
VN=630V DC capacitance 0.47µF VN=2500V DC K=±10%
capacitor

Polystyrene capacitor axial polycarbonate capacitor radial polycarbonate capacitor

Figure 7 Marking examples for different types of capacitors

IV. Electrolytic capacitor

The electrolytic capacitor is characterized by a greater value of the electrical capacitance
C than in the case of the other types of capacitors and is used to disconnect electronic circuits, or
for low frequency filtering. Due to its structure, the capacitor terminals have a certain polarity
("+" respectively "-") and for this reason, it is said that is a polarized capacitor. The electrical
symbol of the electrolytic capacitor is shown in Figure 8.a. Due to the polarity, then when
integrated into a circuit, the electrolytic capacitor must be placed with the positive terminal at the
higher electric potential, and the negative one at the lower electric potential, otherwise, the

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
capacitor may be destroyed by explosion. Depending on the nature of the dielectric, the
electrolytic capacitors are divided into two major types namely:
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, with electrical capacitance values in the range of
100 [nF]  1 [F],
• tantalum electrolytic capacitors, with electric capacitance value in the range 100 [nF]
 100 [mF];
positive
electrolyte
terminal

metallic coating
aluminum aluminum
foil foil tantalum powder film
dielectric: tantalum pentoxide
positive
terminal negative manganese dioxide
terminal pore
Carbone coating

negative
dielectric: aluminum paper impregnated
terminal
oxide with electrolyte

Figure 8 Structure of electrolytic capacitor a. with aluminum b with tantalum

The structure of the electrolytic capacitor with aluminum is shown in Figure 8.a. The
structure is composed of two aluminum sheets, which represent the capacitor fittings, separated
by a layer of electrolyte material, in which a paper separator layer is inserted. One of the
aluminum foils is covered with a dielectric layer, made of aluminum oxide Al2O3. The terminal
attached to this foil represents the positive terminal of the capacitor, and the terminal attached to
the aluminum foil not covered with dielectric is the negative terminal of the capacitor.
The electrolyte is a liquid material, or gel, used to increase the electrical capacitance C of
a capacitor. Due to its nature, liquid/gel material, the electrolyte can dry over time, which
reduces the value of the electric capacitance and therefore the electrolytic capacitors with
aluminum oxide dielectric have a limited lifetime, compared to other capacitors, this being one
of the specific disadvantage of this type of capacitor. Another disadvantage is represented by the
relatively large values of the parasitic elements, which determine a value of about 100 [kHz] for
the resonant frequency. Last but not least, this type of capacitor is characterized by the presence
of leakage currents, which appear between the capacitor terminals, when a continuous voltage is
applied between its terminals.
The structure of the electrolytic capacitor with tantalum is shown in Figure 8.b. One of its
reinforcement is made of a metallic powder that contains tantalum particles, which communicate
with each other, covered by a dielectric layer made of a tantalum oxide Ta2O5 and a solid
electrolyte material layer, made from manganese dioxide MnO2. The respective structure is
covered with a layer of graphite (carbon), over which a metallic layer is superposed, representing
the second reinforcement.
The terminal attached to the tantalum particles represents the positive terminal and the
terminal connected to the metal layer represents the negative terminal of the capacitor. Tantalum
capacitors have higher performance than aluminum: lower values of parasitic elements, including
equivalent loss resistance ESR, smaller dissipation factor D, lower leakage current, longer
operating life and lower volume than the one occupied by the aluminum electrolytic capacitor, at
the same value of the electrical capacitance.
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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
Figure 9 shows three examples of electrolytic capacitors, together with the using mode
and interpretation of the markings on their body, as well as how the polarity of the two terminals
ca be identified. In the case of the aluminum electrolytic capacitor, it is produced in two distinct
modes, namely radial and axial respectively.
nominal rated nominal rated nominal
capacitance voltage capacitance voltage capacitance
470µF VN=25V 22µF VN=450V 2.2µF

positive
terminal
rated
negative voltage positive
terminal VN=25V terminal

radial aluminum electrolytic axial aluminum electrolytic tantalum electrolytic

capacitor capacitor capacitor

Figure 9 Electrolytic capacitors

V. Laboratory procedure
In this laboratory, we will test different types of capacitors. The set is presented in Figure
10 and contains following capacitors:
A. Ceramic capacitors
• C1: monolayer ceramic capacitor, I class (manufacturer Murata)
• C2: multilayer ceramic capacitors, II class with X7R dielectric
(manufacturer Kemet)
B. Film capacitors
• C3: polypropylene capacitor (manufacturer WIMA)
• C4: polyester capacitor (manufacturer WIMA)
• C5: paper capacitor (manufacturer Kemet)
C. Electrolytic capacitors
• C6: tantalum capacitor (manufacturer AVX)
• C7: aluminum capacitor (manufacturer Aishi)

Figure 10 Resistors set

1. Identify each capacitor from the set; for the given capacitor identify and extract
from the body respectively from datasheet the parameters value indicated in the
“Datasheet parameters” section from Results table. The identified values are noted down
in the Results table (numerical value and measuring unit). In order to ease the

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
identification procedure of the parameters value, use the information form the table
below, based on the tested capacitor
• read from capacitor body the values of the parameters CN and VN,
• from datasheet, in the capacitors table, based on the value from Capacitance column identify the Part
C1 Number of the capacitor
• from datasheet, identify the fields from capacitor code (specified by ①÷⑥), as well as their significance,
then extract from the identified fields the values of the capacitor parameters
• from datasheet, see how the parameters value are marked on the capacitor body and read the value of
C2 parameters CN, VN and ,
• from datasheet, based on the specified dielectric (X7R) determine the parameters of the capacitor
• from the capacitor body, determine the parameters values CN, VN and ,
C3 • from datasheet, determine the values of capacitor’s parameters: the value of D is determined for a test
C4 frequency of 1kHz, based on the value of parameter CN, and for polyester capacitor (C4), the operating
temperature range), is determined based on the value of rated voltage, denoted in datasheet Ur.
• from datasheet, see how the values of the parameters are marked on the capacitor body and determine from
C5 the capacitor body the parameters values CN, VN and the operating temperature range
• from datasheet, determine the values of capacitor parameters
• determine for the capacitor body the value of the parameters CN, VN,
C6
• from datasheet determine the rest of the capacitor parameters
• read from the capacitor body the parameters values CN, VN and ,
C7
• from datasheet, determine the rest of the parameters.

The following parameters are extracted from the capacitors body:

Condensator C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

Marcaj 22 103 1.1 22nF 4.7nF

componentă 1KV K5M

Next, using the Orcad software the following parameters of a capacitor are determined:
• electrical capacitance L,
• dissipation factor D,
• parasitic resistance ESR.

2. Build the equivalent circuit of the capacitor in Orcad using for the components the values
given in the specifications. Apply at the input of the equivalent circuit a sinusoidal test signal
with an amplitude equal to the value given in the lab and a frequency of 1kHz. And perform a
transient analysis for 5 signal periods.
3. Visualize the voltage and current from the equivalent circuit and determine the amplitudes of
the two quantities, AV and AI and determine the absolute value of the electrical impedance | Z |.
Write the results in the Results Table, in the corresponding cells.
4. For easier determination of the time phase shift between the two electrical quantities, Δt, the
voltage and the current multiplied by |Z| are displayed on the same graph. Calculate the phase of

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
the electrical impedance, φ and based on it, the quality factor, Q. Write the obtained values in the
Results Table, in the corresponding cells.
5. Calculate based on the electrical impedance parameters, absolute value and phase, the value of
the electrical resistance series RS and of the electrical reactance XS of the tested circuit; the
values thus determined are written in the Table of Results within the report. Based on the
1
reactance value determine the value of magnetic inductance, knowing that 𝑋 = 𝜔∙𝐶.

6. Calculate based on the series parameters, the values of the parallel electrical resistance RP and
of the electrical reactance XP of the tested circuit; the values thus determined are written in the
Table of Results within the report. Based the reactance value determine the value of magnetic
1
inductance, knowing that 𝑋 = 𝜔∙𝐶.

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
Date
NAME GROUP

Table 1. Given values for the capacitor

Analyzed C RP Ampl
capacitor [F] [Ω] [V]

Orcad circuit

Waveforms: voltage and current of the equivalent circuit + cursors for determining the parameters

Table 2. Results
Datasheet parameters
CN

VN
D
TMIN
TMAX
Measured parameters
AV
AI
‫׀‬Z‫׀‬
Δt
Φ
D
RS
XS
CS
RP
XP

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 Laboratory 07.
Capacitor
CP

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