DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING: BEng Tech

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN 2A

TECHNICAL REPORT X OR SUMMARY REPORT

Surname, Initials Student Percentage Student Signature

Number/s contribution

Pillay, CT 21910221 33.33% CT Pillay

Ntshangase, K 22010747 33.33% K Ntshangase

Nkwanyana, S 21919586 33.33% SB Nkwanyana

PROJECT TITLE Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production

GROUP NUMBER 14

ISSUE DATE 1st April 2021

SUBMISSION DATE 13th May 2021

LECTURER Dr PT Ngema

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 1
 Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl
Acetate Production

Authors:

Christine Tyreesa Pillay – 21910221

Khanyisani Ntshangase – 22010747
Sinqobile Bahlakaniphile Nkwanyana – 21919586

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for Chemical Process Design 2A in the Department
of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of
Technology

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 2
 PREFACE

The research for the project was done in the hometowns of the group members. The discussions were
held via a WhatsApp Group chat due to the current pandemic.

Dr PT Ngema supervised the progress of the report through weekly minutes. We have also supervised
each other’s work, making sure things are done accordingly.

This technical report was conducted over approximately one-month.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 3
 DECLARATION

I, Christine Tyreesa Pillay, Khanyisani Ntshangase and Sinqobile Bahlakaniphile Nkwanyana

declare that (according to the Durban University of Technology. n.d.)
1. I know and understand that plagiarism is using another person’s work and pretending it is one’s
own, which is wrong.
2. This project is my own work.
3. Each contribution to this work from another person has been acknowledged and has been cited and
referenced.
4. I have not allowed and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off
as his or her own work.

C T Pillay
CHRISTINE TYREESA
21910221

K Ntshanagse
Khanyisani
22010747

S B Nkwanyana
Sinqobile Bahlakaniphile
21919586

Submitted on the 13th of May 2021 via DUT4life email to Dr Ngema.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge Dr PT Ngema for his continuous help and motivation through the
duration of this report.
We would also like to acknowledge our fellow group members. Through the duration of the project,
help was given when needed, along with providing each other with a better understanding towards
certain topics.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 5
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A technical and economic feasibility study was conducted for a plant situated in Durban. The aim of
this study is to determine whether it is feasible to produce 110 metric tons of vinyl acetate in 330
days. The following main objectives were investigated in depth, Vinyl Acetate in South Africa,
Ethylene and Acetic Acid as a Raw Material, Production of Vinyl Acetate, Financial Feasibility, and
Environmental Considerations. Doing such research helped determining whether this project is worth
all the money and time.
The results portray a positive outcome. Vinyl acetate is in high demand and the south African market
is continuously growing. A positive total income was achieved when conducting a feasibility study,
meaning the total income is sufficient.
It is concluded that the study conducted is feasible and has a promising future. It is recommended that
the plant find alternative ways to reduce utility costs and invest their saving towards a self-owned
building.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE.............................................................................................................................................3
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................................5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................6
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................9
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................9
NOMENCLATURE............................................................................................................................10
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................11
TECHNICAL COMPONENT.............................................................................................................13
1. Vinyl Acetate in South Africa..................................................................................................13
 Present an overview of the SA market.................................................................................13
 Sources of raw materials......................................................................................................13
 Regulation policies that influences this project....................................................................14
 Summary of major equipment for vinyl acetate production and Processing Options...........14
 Major equipment..................................................................................................................15
2. Ethylene and Acetic Acid as a Raw Material...........................................................................15
3. Production of Vinyl Acetate....................................................................................................17
 Current status of vinyl acetate..............................................................................................17
 Advantages of vinyl acetate.................................................................................................17
 Production of vinyl acetate..................................................................................................18
 Other products and by-products from vinyl acetate: Composition and Properties...............19
 Establish flowrates, thermal and physical properties of all process streams........................22
 Identification and discussion on the Governing Variables in the Production of Vinyl Acetate
Process: Temperature, Raw Material composition, Handling raw material, Pressure, Heating Rate
etc. 22
4. Financial Feasibility.................................................................................................................24
 Identification of Factors Affecting the Financial Model: Cost of Feedstock, Production
Process of vinyl acetate, Post treatment of Products, etc.............................................................24
 Estimation of capital and operating costs and income projections.......................................25
 Financial Feasibility Analysis..............................................................................................26
5. Environmental Considerations.................................................................................................27
 Identification of Legal / Regulatory Environment legislation applicable.............................27
 End-of-Life Vehicles Directive - Hazardous Substances.....................................................27
 General Product Safety Directive - Hazardous Substances..................................................27

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 7
  Estimation of Air Emissions, Combustion emissions, Particulate Emissions, VOC
Emissions, liquid and solid waste................................................................................................28
 Some comparative emission factors for heating and LPG....................................................29
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................31
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................32
APPENDIX A.....................................................................................................................................33
APPENDIX B......................................................................................................................................34

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 8
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1- Structure of Vinyl Acetate----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

Figure 2- Structure of Polyvinyl Acetate------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9
Figure 3- Structure of Ethylene--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Figure 4 - Structure of Acetic Acid----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 - A table showing the properties of Acetaldehyde--------------------------------------------------18

Table 2 - A table showing the properties of Water-----------------------------------------------------------19
Table 3 - A table showing the properties of Carbon Dioxide-----------------------------------------------19
Table 4 - General production process for ethylene-----------------------------------------------------------20

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 9
 NOMENCLATURE

CCU – Carbon Capture and Utilization

DEA – Drug Enforcement Administration
LPG – Liquified Petroleum Gas
OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PVA – Polyvinyl Acetate
VAM - Vinyl Acetate Monomer
VOC – Volatile Organic Compounds

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 10
 INTRODUCTION

Vinyl acetate, also known as vinyl acetate monomer (VAM), is an organic compound with the
chemical formula C4H6O2. Poly (vinyl acetate) was first discovered in 1912, and since then, has been
produced on an industrial scale.

Figure 1- Structure of Vinyl Acetate

Vinyl acetate is made by catalysing acetic acid with ethylene and oxygen in a reactor. It is a monomer
by composition and reacts with a wide range of chemicals. The compound must be stored and
transported with great caution since it is extremely flammable and explosive. This colourless liquid,
with a pungent smell, is used to make products in our everyday lives. Some of the products are paints,
paper and adhesives. The most well-known adhesive, PVA glue, or better known as wood glue, is
made from vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) through polymerization. Polyvinyl Acetate is used in such
products because of its strong properties and zero toxicity.

Figure 2- Structure of Polyvinyl Acetate

The aim of this study is to determine whether it is feasible to produce 110 metric tons of vinyl acetate
per year for a chemical plant in the south of Durban. Many aspects need to be taken into consideration
such as the market price of the reactants, transportation, water and electricity, labour, and rent. We
also need to determine the estimated income from producing the vinyl acetate, this needs to be
sufficient to cover all expenses as well as to generate a profit. It is important that we conduct an
economic and financial feasibility study because one needs to determine whether the project will be
efficient for the future, before committing and spending a substantial amount of money towards it.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 11
 There are five main objectives in this report. A study needs to be conducted on each of the following:

 Vinyl Acetate in South Africa

An overview of the South African market, including the rules and regulations, and the
equipment required.

 Ethylene and Acetic Acid as a Raw Material

Details about the reactants, such as their properties, are researched.

 Production of Vinyl Acetate

Characteristics of vinyl acetate is investigated, details about the overall production process,
including process variables.

 Financial Feasibility
Overall production cost is formulated through an excel spreadsheet.

 Environmental Considerations
Environmental laws in the area are researched, and the amount of waste and emissions is
estimated.

The goal is to determine whether this project is feasible or not. At the end of the financial study, one
of the following three may be concluded:
1. An overall positive value = Feasible
2. An overall negative value = Not feasible
3. A zero value is produced = Neutral

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 12
 TECHNICAL COMPONENT

1. Vinyl Acetate in South Africa

 Present an overview of the SA market

The global vinyl acetate monomer market was expected to reach $9.86 billion in 2020 according to
the study by Grand view Research. There is a continuously increasing demand for this adhesive in
industries such as construction, furniture and automotive. The demand for paint and coatings is also
increasing and is said to continue for the next 6 years. The stringent environmental regulations and
cost of raw materials are the major issues for South African businesses.
Due to the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020, the demand of these petrochemicals weakened, impacting the
growth of the South Africa petrochemical market. With a high supply-demand imbalance and shifting
trade trends, the petrochemicals market in South Africa will remain challenging. With a high supply-
demand imbalance and shifting trade trends, the petrochemicals market in South Africa will remain
challenging. A 1 million MT/Year export terminal would increase the availability of cheap ethylene
from the United States to the rest of the world, starting in 2020 due to expanded supply capacity.
A key factor driving the South African petrochemical market is strong demand for petrochemicals,
driven by the surge in consumption. Other major factors driving market growth include increased
investments in the petrochemicals market, joint venture production of new technologies, and
increased refining capacity.

 Sources of raw materials

Acetic acid is polymer as well as a raw material for acetic acid manufacture. Depolymerization and
reaction of cracking of lignin are able to create by-products called acetic acid. In addition, cellulose
can be distorted into levoglucosan throughout pyrolysis. The lane engages cyclization, hydrogen and
depolymerization fundamental thought.

Ethylene- is commercially formed by mist cracking of hydrocarbons. 

Palladium catalyst- It is normally formed as a by-product in the distillation of copper and nickel ores. 

Some other raw materials concerned in the creation or vinyl acetate are:

Oxygen - Oxygen gas may be distributed to oxygen producers, moreover as packed together gas in
bottles or as liquid oxygen, which the farms transform to gas under prohibited circumstances.

Acetic anhydride - Formed from improved acetic acid, which is from a cellulose acetate procedure.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 13
 Acetaldehyde – This is created from acetic acid by reducing the carboxy group A formation of alcohol
metabolism that is further poisonous than alcohol itself. Acetaldehyde is shaped when the alcohol in
the liver is conked out by an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase.

Methyl acetate – Produced by esterification of acetic acid by means of methanol in the existence of
strong acids such as sulfuric acid; this manufacturing progression is well-known because of Eastman
Kodak 's stronger practice using an imprudent distillation.

Hydrogen - Comes from an ordinary gas. If hydrogen is prepared from water, the byproduct is
unadulterated water. If remnant fuels can be worn as the unique basis of hydrogen there will be extra
by-products, such as carbon dioxide.

Carbon monoxide - is shaped by an incomplete combustion of remnant fuels (oil, gas, wood and cool).
Therefore, no matter which fuel burns, carbon monoxide can be a basis. It is factual that frequent
foundations of carbon monoxide stem from wrongly installed, deprived or lack of ordinary servicing.

 Regulation policies that influences this project

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACT

The National Environmental Management Act approves DEA to forbid or manage definite gist or
chemicals that pretense danger to the environment and human wellbeing.

HAZARDOUS SUSTANCES ACT

Hazardous Substances Act is most likely the vital chemical parameter in South Africa. It manages the
production, bring in, use, treatment as well as dumping of dangerous matters. Beneath the Act,
hazardous substances are explained and put into categories that are noxious, caustic, aggravation,
powerfully sensitizing, combustible as well heaviness producing beneath convinced conditions, it may
harm, cause sick health, or still decease on human being.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT

Hazardous Chemical Substances Regulations of the OSHA needs workers to obey with work-related
publicity restrictions and discuss chemical hazards information to employees throughout gratis
security information page that are compliant with relevant national standards.

 Summary of major equipment for vinyl acetate production and Processing

Options

Processing options

The vinyl acetate plant consists of two processes:

 Synthesis – This is the combination of components, in this case, we are combining acetic
acid, ethylene and oxygen.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 14
  Distillation – This is the action of purifying a liquid in order to get the desired product. For
the production of vinyl acetate, water is removed.

 Major equipment

 Packed column – A packed column is a tube that is filled with materials and fine particles.
The contact between the gas and the liquid is constant. The liquid would flow down the
column and move through the packaging material. The vapor or gas will flow up the column,
while the liquid flows down.
 Reaction vessel – This is a vessel that contains/holds chemical reactants for a reaction. The
vessel is under the required conditions for the reaction to take place.
 Decanter centrifuge – This is a device that separates solid materials from liquids in a slurry.
It uses rotational speed, which separates the materials according to their density.
 Distillation column – A column used to separate a mixture into its components, this is
usually done through heating.
 Reactor cyclone system – This is used to separate a catalyst from the flue gas (hydrocarbon
vapors).
 Catalyst transfer vessel – An apparatus used to transfer solid matter from low to high
pressure system. This is useful for when a solid catalyst needs to be recycled.
 Thermosyphon reboiler – The reboiler works hand in hand with the distillation column. Its
aim is to convert the bottom tray liquid to a gas so that it can be separated.
 Centrifugal compressor – The compressor adds kinetic energy to the gas, so that it can
divert to an upper outlet.

The majority of major equipment is Stainless to accommodate the deterioration countermeasure by

acetic acid. An improvement to this plant is the installation of the second low boiling tower and
soaring well-organized refrigerator for power saving.

2. Ethylene and Acetic Acid as a Raw Material

 ETHYLENE

Ethylene (C2H4) is a hydrocarbon, also known as ethene is a colourless gas with a sweet odour. It is
highly flammable, as well as being an irritant, and should therefore be handled with great care. It is
the easiest alkene (a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon twofold bonds). Ethylene is broadly utilized in
the substance business, and its overall creation (more than 150 million tons in 2016) surpassing that of
some other natural compound. A lot of this creation goes toward polyethylene.

Figure 3- Structure of Ethylene

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 15
 Ethylene is an essential organic chemical used in industries for anaesthetic purposes, as a refrigerant
and to make other chemicals. It is sourced naturally through plants and petroleum by heating it to
about 800oC, which results in a mixture of gases from which ethylene is extracted. Vinyl acetic acid
derivation is totally solvent in natural fluids however not in water. With a melting point of -169.4oC
and a boiling point of -103.9oC.

 ACETIC ACID
Acidic corrosive is a synthetic reagent for the creation of substance compounds. The biggest single
utilization of acidic corrosive is in the creation of vinyl acetic acid. Acetic acid (C2H4O2), also known
as ethanoic acid is an organic colourless liquid with an odour similar to vinegar. It also requires
careful handling since it is flammable and corrosive to metal and tissue. This monomer is utilized in
the creation of polyvinyl acetic acid derivation (PVA) and other vinyl acetic acid derivation co-
polymers.

Figure 4 - Structure of Acetic Acid

Acetic acid occurs naturally from plants and animals. It is also formed in air, by the reaction of
hydrocarbons with the ozone layer, this is what causes acid rain. It is an important reagent in most
industries to produce glues and synthetic fibres. A process called methanol carbonylation produces the
majority of acetic acid. Methanol and carbon monoxide react to produce acetic acid, shown below:

Acetic acid is miscible in water (forms a homogenous mixture), with a melting point of 16 oC and a
boiling point of 118oC.
Acetic corrosive is utilized as a germicide because of its antibacterial characteristics. The production
of fibre includes the utilization of an ethanoic corrosive. Restoratively, acidic corrosive has been
utilized to treat disease by its immediate infusion into the tumour. Being the significant constituent of
vinegar, it discovers use in the pickling of numerous vegetables. The production of elastic includes the
utilization of ethanoic corrosive. It is likewise utilized in the production of different fragrances. It is
broadly utilized in the creation of VAM (vinyl acetic acid derivation monomer).

 OVERALL REACTION

The reactions that take place are:

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 16
 i. C2H4 + C2H4O2 + 0.5O2 → C4H6O2 + H2O (Catalyst required – Pd)

ii. C2H4 +3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O (Catalyst required – Pd)

These reactions are extremely exothermic. The temperature needs to be kept below 200 oC, to avoid
damage to the catalyst.

3. Production of Vinyl Acetate

 Current status of vinyl acetate

Cognitive Market Research provides a detailed examination of engineering Vinyl Acetate in its lately
available report. The investigation is a result of widespread primary and lesser research accomplished
by extremely skilled analyst team situated transversely in the sphere. The market study focuses on
business dynamics, counting driving issues to give the key rudiments fuelling the present market
expansion. The report also categorizes fetters and chances to recognize high expansion sections
associated in the Industrial Vinyl Acetate market. Main industrial aspects such as microeconomic and
macroeconomic aspects are considered in detail with help of PESTEL scrutiny in a way to cover a
holistic vision of aspects impacting Industrial Vinyl Acetate South African market growth abroad.
Market growth is estimated with the assistance of involved algorithms such as regression analysis,
sentiment analysis of end users and others.

 Advantages of vinyl acetate

 Clarity: Vinyl acetate is transparent and colorless, permitting them to be used in a variety of

relevance exclusive of affecting the color and end of a creation. This lucidity constructs these
essences a brilliant option for paint, adhesives as well as covering and films.

 Chemical Resistance: Vinyl acetate yield normally acquires a few levels of resistance

to oil and gas, making them suitable protective coatings.

 Adhesion: Many of vinyl acetate's derivatives possess adhesive and gap-filling

properties, permitting them to fasten successfully to a diversity of float up. This creates
substances models for the invention of many kinds of adhesives and glues in profitable
and industrial applications.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 17
  Toughness: Upon ventilation or situation, many vinyl acetate derivatives are remarkably
tough, resisting tear typically by exhibiting some point of flexibility. This possession
formulates them into a model component in the manufacturing of coatings and films.

 Oxygen Barrier: Ethylene vinyl alcohol is an admired derivative of vinyl acetate, recognized

principally for its ability to supply an oxygen blockade. This makes it an exceptional
barrier resin in food packaging, as it guards foods from spoiling without increasing
inflexibility.

 Production of vinyl acetate

Below is the equation for the production of vinyl acetate:

CH 3 COOH +C 2 H 4 Pd catalyst C 4 H 6 O2 +CO2 H 2 O

→

The main reaction produces vinyl acetate monomer, but the secondary reaction produces carbon
dioxide, which is an undesirable by-product. The reacted gas is collected in a separator, and is then
cooled with unreacted acetic acid, vinyl acetate monomer, and water in a divider. A provisional
amalgamation column receives unreacted ethylene and oxygen, as well as carbon dioxide and
uncondensed vinyl acetate monomer. In a wash torrent, the uncondensed vinyl acetate monomer is
engrossed by acetic acid serving as a solvent, with the residue fed to a second amalgamation feature
that uses MEA as a solvent to remove the carbon dioxide. A compressor transports the gas residue to
the vaporizer. The bottoms of the de-euthanizer distillation column are fed to the azeotropic
distillation column, and the vinyl acetate monomer crude from each step is sent to the de-euthanizer
distillation column to remove ethylene. The aqueous VAM mixture is fed to a decanter and separated,
with the concentrated acetic acid recycled to the vaporiser.

The process has three major sections: Reaction, Separation and Purification.
Reaction
New and recycled ethylene, along with make-up and salvage acetic acid, pass into a vaporizer. The
feed stream is mixed with oxygen, preheated, and fed to multi-tube reactors with an excess of
ethylene over acetic acid. The reaction takes place in the presence of palladium and gold catalysts.
Evaporative cooling on reactor shells removes heat. Ethylene and acetic acid are eventually converted
to vinyl acetate. The major by-products are water, CO2, and a small amount of ethyl acetate,
ethylidene diacetate, and glycol acetates.

Separation
The pre-dehydration column receives chilled reactor seepage, which flows to the bottom and is
deposited as crude vinyl acetate. The top stream is separated into two phases: a natural phase that is
recycled back into the column, and an aqueous phase that flows to the bottom stream of the decanter.
Acetic acid is used to clean uncondensed gases. The produced solution is retreated to the crude vinyl
acetate monomer tank, while scrubber gases are recycled back into the reaction. A portion of these

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 18
 gases is washed with water to remove any remaining acetic acid, and the remainder is guided to the
crude VAM tank. Gases are directed to an absorption column after being washed with water, while
CO2 is removed using a potassium carbonate solution.

Purification
The vinyl acetate monomer water mixture is filtered in the azeotropic column, then fed to a decanter
with the aqueous phase separated in pre-dehydration. At the light-end column, the organic phase
containing VAM is separated, while the aqueous phase retreats to the wastewater column, separating
residual VAM from wastewater.
Acetic acid is cast-off to the vaporizer, while ethyl acetate is saved and discharged. The acetaldehyde
and other volatiles in the crude vinyl acetate are removed by the light top’s column. Finally, the heavy
ends and residual acetic acid are left in the pure VAM column.
Since this stream is returned to the reactor, the attentiveness of the absorbing manager was a critical
feature taken into account during the carbon dioxide removal level. Since CO 2 is essential, it was
critical to maintain a constant level of awareness. To accomplish this, it is critical to exert control over
attentiveness at this point, so that the absorbing managers ponder increases as internal acidity rises.
An amine solution (due to their essential characteristic) or potassium carbonates are the most widely
used carbon dioxide absorbents at the industrial level (due to their affinity).

 Other products and by-products from vinyl acetate: Composition and Properties

As a result of the process, water and carbon dioxide are generated. The stoichiometric reactor is used
to combine ethylene, oxygen, and acetic acid to produce vinyl acetate. The reactions are irreversible,
with Arrhenius-type reaction rates that change with temperature. Acetaldehyde is one of the other by-
products.

Other product-composition and properties

Acetaldehyde- Acetaldehyde is a liquid with a pungent smell and is miscible with water and most
organic solvents. The liquid-phase oxidation of ethylene with a catalytic solution of palladium and
copper chlorides accounts for around 80% of global acetaldehyde output. The hydration of acetylene
and the oxidation of ethanol produce the rest.

Ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde by the cytoplasm alcohol dehydrogenizes enzyme (ADH),

acetaldehyde is then oxidized to acetic acid by the mitochondrial acetaldehyde dehydrogenize
(ALDH).

Acetaldehyde composition

The acidity (as acetic acid) of commercial acetaldehyde should be less than 0.1 percent and contain at
least 99 percent of the compound.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 19
 Acetaldehyde properties

Molar mass 44.05 g

mol

Molecular formula C2 H4 O

Melting point -123.37oC (149.78K)

Boiling point 20.2oC (293.3K)

Water solubility Completely miscible in water

Specific density 0.784 g/cm3

Autoignition temperature 185-193oC

Vapor pressure 101.3 kPa

Table 1 - A table showing the properties of Acetaldehyde

By products-composition and properties

 Water

Composition of pure water is composed of only two substances namely, hydrogen and oxygen.

Physical properties of water

The condensed form of water has extraordinary properties due to the wide hydrogen bonds between
its molecules. As a result, it has a high melting and boiling point. Water has a higher specific heat,
thermal conductivity, surface tension, and dipole moment than other liquids. These characteristics
account for its importance in the biosphere. Since water is such a good solvent, it aids in the
transportation of ions and molecules necessary for metabolism. It has a high vaporization dormant
heat, which aids in body temperature regulation. Water is mostly used in industries as a cooling agent.

Chemical properties of water

Water is amphoteric in nature because it can function as both an acid and a base. Water is a tasteless,
odorless, inorganic, colorless, and odorless chemical substance that makes up a large part of the
Earth's hydrosphere, as well as the fluids of all known living organisms. It is essential for all known

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 20
 forms of life, despite containing no calories or organic nutrients. Its chemical formula is H 2O, which
means that each of its molecules is made up of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that are joined
together by covalent bonds.

Molar mass 18.015 g

mol
Boiling point 99.98 °C (373.13 K)
Melting point 0.00 °C (273.15 K)
Acidity and 13.995( kPa)
Basicity
Viscosity 0.890 cP
Solubility  Not soluble in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers
 Soluble in amines, ketones, alcohols, carboxylates.

Vapor pressure 3.1690 kPa at 25oC

Table 2 - A table showing the properties of Water

 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is not flammable. Carbon dioxide is also a colourless gas with a density about 53%
higher than that of dry air. Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a carbon atom covalently double
bonded to two oxygen atoms. It occurs naturally in Earth's atmosphere as a trace gas. The current
concentration is about 0.04% by volume, having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm. Natural
sources include volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate rocks by
dissolution in water and acids. As carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it happens naturally in
groundwater, rivers and lakes, ice caps, glaciers, and seawater. It is present in deposits of petroleum
and natural gas. Carbon dioxide has a sharp and acidic smell and creates the taste of soda water in the
mouth.

Molar mass 44.01 g

mol
Melting point -56.6 ° C (216.55K)
Density (gas at 1 atm) 1.977 kg/m3
Viscosity 0.834 cP
Specific volume 0.0245 m3 /mol
Vapor pressure 5.73 MPa
Table 3 - A table showing the properties of Carbon Dioxide

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 21
  Establish flowrates, thermal and physical properties of all process streams

The required calculations for the process streams can be seen in the excel spreadsheet in Appendix B.

 Identification and discussion on the Governing Variables in the Production of

Vinyl Acetate Process: Temperature, Raw Material composition, Handling raw
material, Pressure, Heating Rate etc.

 Temperature

At a temperature of 120°C to 200°C, the process for preparing vinyl acetate in the gas phase by
reacting ethylene, acetic acid, and oxygen begins. This happens over a catalyst containing a valuable
metal. In the reactor inlet, the temperature is constantly between 45°C and 60°C.
Vinyl acetate monomer is highly flammable with a flash point of -7°C. A chemical's flash point is the
lowest temperature at which it can evaporate enough fluid to create a flammable gas concentration. It
is necessary that one stores VAM under a dry nitrogen blanket and not under air atmosphere (normal
environmental conditions). However, when stabilized and oxygen free, VAM can be transported in
25°C to 50°C temperatures.

 Raw material composition

Ethylene is a significant organic chemical in the industrial sector. A natural gas is heated (ethane,
propane, or petroleum) to 800-900°C. A mixture of gases is formed, from which ethylene is extracted.

Table 4 - General production process for ethylene

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 22
 The initial stage for the production of ethylene is to take the feed and crack it in a furnace. This
process is known as pyrolysis, which utilizes steam to crack hydrocarbons. A heat exchanger preheats
the feed source, which is then combined with steam and heated to the required cracking temperature
(500°C to 680°C depending on the feed). It is then heated to cracking temperatures in a reactor
(750°C to 875°C). Hydrocarbons in the feed are broken down into smaller molecules during this
reaction, resulting in ethylene and other by-products. The process of cracking requires a large amount
of energy, but in order to receive a maximum production, a saturated feed needs to be used.
Acetic acid was originally formed by bacteria, but in order to meet the demand, it is also produced
synthetically. Methanol carbonylation, in which methanol and carbon monoxide react to create acetic
acid, produces the majority of acetic acid. This method produces about 75% of the acetic acid used in
the chemical industry. While the biologic approach accounts for only 10% of global output, it is
critical in the production of vinegar since many food purity laws require vinegar to be of biological
origin.

 Handling raw material

Ethylene
It is critical to ensure that all engineering controls are operational and that all safety equipment and
personal hygiene standards are met before handling ethylene. Any form of a heat source nearby needs
to be removed. A safety plan needs to put in place if any leaks or spillage occurs. Make sure the
correct form of transportation for the cylinders is used, to avoid any damages.
Ethylene needs to be stored in a cool, dry area, away from direct sunlight and ignition sources. When
dealing with large volumes, it may be safer to store in an isolated building off sight. Lastly regularly
check the containers for any damage or leaks.
Acetic acid
When handling acetic acid, it is important that water does not get added to the chemical. Make sure
that there are no heat sources in the area of storage. A safety plan should be implemented, such as
making it a must to wear safety equipment when dealing with the acid and have the necessary clean
up equipment readily available if a spill occurs.
Acetic acid should be stored in an airtight container, in a well-ventilated room. It is recommended that
it be kept away from discordant materials, so placing it in an off-sight building is much safer.
When disposing these raw materials, one must follow the regulations accordingly.

Hand and Skin Protection

It is crucial to keep these chemicals away from your skin contact. To prevent this, it is important to
wear suitable and properly fitted PPE. To be reliable, clothing and glove materials should be chosen
for suitability for the intended application and worn properly. Many traditional clothing and glove
materials aren't appropriate for work environments where exposure is a possibility.

Industrial Hygiene
Both contaminants should be avoided by workers' skin and eyes, as well as inhaling their vapours. In
storage and handling areas, safety showers and eyewash facilities should be available. Workers should

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 23
 be taught to wash any exposed skin with copious quantities of water as soon as possible. Remove any
dirty footwear and garments as soon as possible.

Protection to prevent crushing-related injuries

For the majority of industrial activities, safety footwear with built-in steel toe caps is recommended.
Chemically resistant safety footwear should be worn over safety shoes for additional foot protection
from chemical contact. Except for chemical-resistant boots, all contaminated footwear should be
discarded. Before reusing chemical-resistant or electrostatic discharge (ESD) safety foot coverings,
make sure they're clean.

 Pressure

The effects of unintentional or uncontrolled vinyl acetate polymerization vary depending on the
process conditions. The bulk polymerization of vinyl acetate is extremely violent, and it can result in a
pressure surge of more than 40 bar, which is much higher than the pressure resistance of most storage
vessels. Uncontrolled polymerization of vinyl acetate in reactors, in the presence of light solvents, will
lead to a high-pressure surge due to the solvent's high vapour pressure at the runaway reaction final
temperature. If the vessel ruptures as a result of the runaway polymerization, there can be serious
mechanical and blast consequences (Gustin JL , n.d).

 Heating rate

Heating rate can be defined as how fast the temperature is raised. It can also be referring to the heat
capacity or the heat transfer rate. The heat capacity can be described as the amount of heat a fluid can
absorb or release. The heat transfer rate is the transfer of energy through phase changes. Vinyl acetate
has a burning rate of 3.8mm/min.

4. Financial Feasibility

 Identification of Factors Affecting the Financial Model: Cost of Feedstock,

Production Process of vinyl acetate, Post treatment of Products, etc.

Cost of feedstock

The cost of feed stock is also known as the cost of raw materials. To produce vinyl acetate, there are
three main materials, namely, Acetic acid, Ethylene and Oxygen. Obtaining the raw materials can
have a great effect on the financial model, since availability changes each day. If availability is low,
the prices can increase, and drastically decrease your income at the end of the month. Fortunately,
Acetic Acid and Ethylene are readily accessible and a spike in cost is highly unlikely. Oxygen can be
acquired through air which is free.
Production process of Vinyl Acetate

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 24
 Vinyl Acetate is produced by combining Acetic Acid, Ethylene and Oxygen into a distillation column.
Firstly, a mixture of the reactants is created and heated, in order to meet the required temperature. The
cost of electricity needed to raise the temperature needs to be taken into consideration for the utility
costs. The amount of vinyl acetate produced is calculated according to market value price, and the
final number is your income.
Labour costs
At the beginning stage, it is important to keep number of employees low. This avoids unnecessary
salaries, which is an expense. The money can be used to pay off any debt or put towards maintenance
costs. The plant needs to ensure the recommended labour rates are met, with an hour break included in
their day, but will be excluded from their salary.
Rent
The plant is situated in the South Coast of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. The proposed amount for a
10 000 m2 building is R200 000. In due time, the plant can save the profits made each month or take
out a loan and put it towards planning and constructing their own industrial building. This plan will
remove the rent costs in approximately 5 years (once the loan payment is complete), thus increasing
their profit.
Transportation costs
There are many factors that needed to be taken into consideration for transportation, such as the fuel
costs, maintenance and insurance, toll fees, and labour. Therefore, it is more feasible that the plant
contracts a chemical transportation company, and only pay one fee. This enables delivery to be
reliable because if a truck fails, it is the responsibility of the transportation company to provide an
alternative, to ensure delivery is completed in time, to receive full payment.
Utility costs
Water, electricity, sanitation, refuse collection and disposal are the necessary utility bills that need to
be taken into consideration. These expenses are determined per amount used, which can get costly in
an industry. The plant should inquire about recycled water, which is available in certain industrial
areas, as well as treat and reuse the wastewater produced.

 Estimation of capital and operating costs and income projections

Referring to the excel spreadsheet in Appendix A, we can see an estimate of most possible expenses
and incomes. As an industry it is important to look for ways to save and become more
environmentally friendly. The most common way is to recycle. Wastewater and the water produced
during production can be reused in the process or for sanitary purposes. This will lower the utility cost
generating a larger revenue at the end of the month.
The income projection statement provides a financial estimate for the future of a business. It considers
the total revenue, gross profit, and operating expense. This provides the project manager with the
opportunity to alter certain aspects in the plan.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 25
  Financial Feasibility Analysis

There are 7 main steps to follow when conducting a feasibility analysis (Bridges, 2019):

1) Preliminary analysis

This is the first step to determine whether a project is feasible or not. A preliminary analysis
investigates factors that may affect the company, such as economic and market trends. At the start of
the project, we need to determine whether this project is profitable, are the resources being used
effectively, how much money is available, and will there be a profit. This analysis ensures that all the
effort, time and money put in, will produce something profitable the end.
2) Projected income statement

The projected income statement is an estimate for the total profits within a set period. We begin by
determining the expected income and then what investments will assist in achieving this goal. We also
need to look at the factors that contribute to it, such as what services are needed, how many people are
in team, and how much money is distributed among the different sectors in the project.
3) Market research

This step requires research involving competitors. We need to find out their selling price in order to
surpass them on the market. Clients need to be researched to ensure there is a continuous flow of
demand. This is a vital step, as it can tell us how good or bad the project may be since all of the
income is generated from the market. It is also helpful to conduct a survey for people residing near the
industrial area. This avoids strikes which can result in a large financial loss.

4) Plan business organization and operations

The information described in this step should be detailed, some of the information include, starting
costs, investments, and process costs. It is important to plan what is expected of the plant, how money
is distributed, and other ways to increase the final income(investments). For the costs, these include
equipment, employees, rent, and the cost and supply of the required materials.
5) Prepare an opening day balance sheet

There are two main items needed to construct a balance sheet namely, assets and liabilities. The end
goal is to make sure the plants assets is equivalent to the liabilities to avoid debt. Assets can be
described as everything a company owns, such as machinery and vehicles. Liabilities are what the
company owes to an individual, these include salaries and financing for assets.
6) Re-examine previous steps

Reviewing previous decisions is of utmost importance, before determining whether a plan is feasible
or not. This is an opportunity to make sure everything is according to plan and if necessary, changes
can be made. For example, when looking over the income statement, compare the total income to the
total expenses, and ask yourself if the project is realistic. One can also analyse different risk factors
and provide solutions.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 26
 7) Determine whether project is feasible

This is the final step for the financial feasibility analysis. This is where a decision is made on whether
the project is feasible or not. All the previous steps need to be evaluated, as well as determining
whether the project is worth the time, money, and effort. It is important to confident in the final
decision as this will be a long-term commitment.

5. Environmental Considerations

 Identification of Legal / Regulatory Environment legislation applicable

 Respiratory Protection

According to OSHA-2015, respiratory protection should be of a kind that has been approved by the
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Medical assessment and approval,
worker fit testing, and instruction in the use and treatment of respiratory equipment are all guidelines
that must be followed when using personal protective equipment. When cleaning and repairing
equipment, decontaminating areas after a spill, or if piping or equipment containing VAM fails,
extremely high VAM exposures may occur.

 Availability and Use of Protective Equipment

For each work operation, a hazard review should be conducted to determine specific personal
protective equipment (PPE) that should be worn by staff employed with VAM.

 CAD - Chemical Agents Directive, Hazardous Agents

This is a non-exhaustive list of substances with harmonized classification and labelling. While several
hazardous substances are covered by the harmonized list, some that aren't on it can still meet the CLP
Regulation's classification requirements.

 End-of-Life Vehicles Directive - Hazardous Substances

The End-of-Life Vehicles Directive-2000 defines dangerous substances in this list, which is not
exhaustive. It is based on Table 3 of Annex VI of the CLP Regulation, which lists the related subset of
substances with harmonized classification.

 General Product Safety Directive - Hazardous Substances

This regulation orders producers to not put a product in the market unless it is safe. In the vinyl
acetate market, this product needs to be stabilized with the necessary labeling on the containers.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 27
  Estimation of Air Emissions, Combustion emissions, Particulate Emissions, VOC
Emissions, liquid and solid waste

 Environmental releases

Vinyl acidic corrosive used is widely in the formation of an extent of polymeric materials.
Appearances of the monomer into the environment may be ordinary during various life cycle stages
and from the final products and articles delivered from VAM. VAM is an almost unsteady substance
that is likely going to disappear into the barometrical compartment, fundamentally through off gas.
From the high-water dissolvability of VAM, releases may happen to the liquid stage if the substance
is getting into contact with water. Wastewater may in this way be a huge focal point for releases to the
air during treatment (for instance stripping).

 Environmental fate

VAM goes through quick photo-oxidative change in air.

VAM goes through hydrolysis on the surface and groundwater and is assigned quickly biodegradable
on a test with non-changed, impelled slop under oxygen burning-through conditions. No tests are
available that imitate the biodegradation of VAM in surface waters. In another investigation it was
displayed that VAM is bio changed in instances of soil ooze and sewage under oxygen burning-
through and anaerobic conditions. Four yeasts and 13 microorganisms dealing with overwhelmingly
on VAM were detached. Speeds of progress were higher under high-sway conditions, yet anaerobic
and vivacious debasement pathways both yielded comparable things, for instance acetaldehyde as a
centre and acidic destructive accordingly.
There is verification that some earth living creatures are in like manner prepared for breaking down
polymers of vinyl acidic corrosive inference. It should be noted, in any case, that de-polymerisation is
believed to be the confining development. Further biodegradation is quick so that significant VAM
centres around biological compartments are not ordinary.
VAM has just a low potential to adsorb to soils or build-up. Appropriate trade from the liquid to the
air compartment is typical. This trade is transcendently achieved by volatilisation and air stripping
during treatment of wastewater, and to a lower degree by volatilisation from surface waters. The trade
to the air is fairly adjusted the high-water dissolvability of the compound. Taking into account the
Henry's law steady, VAM can be seen as a humbly shaky compound.

 VOC Emission

The CCU impetus regenerator vent delivers a wide assortment of contaminations, including PM, SO2,
NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), VOC, metal HAP, natural HAP, and smelling salts. As a result of the
breaking responses, coke is kept on the impetus particles. The coke diminishes the movement of the
impetus, and the spent impetus that is gotten back from the CCU reactor is recovered persistently by
consuming off coke in the CCU impetus regenerator. There are two fundamental kinds of CCU
regenerators: complete ignition regenerators and halfway burning regenerators. In a total ignition
regenerator, the regenerator is ordinarily worked at around 1,200°F to 1,400°F with overabundance
O2 and low levels (< 500 ppmv) of CO in the fumes pipe gas. In a fractional (or inadequate) burning

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 28
 regenerator, the regenerator is regularly worked at roughly 1,000°F to 1,200°F under O2-restricted
conditions and moderately significant levels (1% to 5%) of CO. Before leaving the regenerator,
impetus particles entrained with the pipe gases are at first taken out by inside tornado separators and
got back to the regenerator impetus bed for distribution to the reactor. On a normal premise, a little bit
of the circling. Impetus usually alluded to as harmony impetus (E-feline), is eliminated from the
framework and new impetus is added to keep up impetus action and supplant impetus lost or
eliminated from the framework. Different added substances may likewise be incorporated with the
impetus options to lessen NOx or SO2 outflows or advance total ignition (in this manner diminishing
CO discharges). Albeit the CCU vent is the essential emanations source related with the CCU, outlaw
residue discharges related with taking care of the new impetus.

 Combustion emission

Ignition has been the establishment of overall modern advancement for as long as (200 years) [1].
Industry depends vigorously on the ignition interaction as the significant uses for burning in industry
have recorded a portion of the basic warming applications utilized in industry, Typical mechanical
ignition applications can likewise be portrayed by their temperature ranges, As can be found in the
interest in energy is required to keep on expanding quickly. The greater part of the energy (88%) is
created by the burning of petroleum products like oil, flammable gas, and coal. As per the U.S.
Division of Energy, the interest in the modern area is projected to increment by 0.8% each year to the
year 2020. three components are needed to support burning cycles: fuel, oxidizer, and a start source
generally as warmth. Mechanical ignition is characterized here as the fast oxidation of hydrocarbon
fills to create enormous amounts of energy for use in modern warming.

 Pollution effects

The significant worry for a long time was improving the energy e fficiency of mechanical burning
cycles. The worry has changed lately away from energy e fficiency toward different issues including
contamination outflows. Ecological quality and ozone harming substances are viewed as a portion of
the key drivers forming the eventual fate of modern burning. Strangely, the weight of future
enhancements in modern burning cycles apparently falls essentially on scholastic analysts and gear
providers, instead of on end clients. Brilliant notes that the lower atmosphere has verifiably been the
''trash dump'' for contamination outflows. A rundown of regular air poisons, their properties, and their
meaning of barometrical contamination. As can be seen, now and again there are different
contaminations joining together and sometimes poisons may take an interest in more than one
interaction. Most air toxins begin from burning cycles. This incorporates portable sources, for
example, cars and trucks and fixed sources, for example, power plants and modern burning cycles.

 Some comparative emission factors for heating and LPG

LPG is a colourless petroleum-derived gas made up of propane or butane, or a combination of the

two. Depending on the climate of each area, different mixtures are used daily. While butane has a
higher caloric value, and propane evaporates at lower temperatures, more propane must be used in the
mixture in colder countries. LPG has a high-octane rating of 112, allowing for higher compression
ratios and therefore increased thermal performance.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 29
 Characteristics of LPG (National Gas Company Oman, n.d):

 Enable cooking - Since LPG is so easy to manage, it allows consumers to cook with the heat
or flame intensity they like.
 LPG is heavier than air - As LPG escapes from the cylinder, the vapor rises to the surface and
collects. As a result, leaks are hazardous because LPG will ignite when it comes into contact
with a source of ignition.
 Density - At ambient pressure and temperature, LPG is 1.5 to 2.0 times heavier than air. It
liquefies easily under moderate pressure. The substance has a density of around half that of
water, ranging from 0.525 to 0.580 at 15°C.
 LPG is colourless - LPG is given a distinct odour to detect leakage by adding a special
stanching agent that ensures it can be detected even if the leakage is far below the
flammability limit.
 LPG is portable - LPG can be packed, shipped, and used almost anywhere. Despite the fact
that LPG is stored as a liquid, it is most often used as a vapor.
 Explosive limit - The explosive range of LPG in the air is between 2.1% and 9.5% volume of
gas in the air. This is much narrower than other commonly used gaseous fuels.
 Auto Ignition - LPG autoignition occurs between 410 and 580°C, so it will not combust on its
own at room temperature.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 30
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, the Technical and Financial Feasibility Study the Production of Vinyl Acetate from
Ethylene and Acetic Acid concluded that the construction of the plant is feasible. The final total
portrays a positive value, meaning the total income is greater than the overall expense.

The study shows that utility bills contribute the most to the plant expenses. The company needs to
discuss solutions that will be able to decrease this value, such as investing in renewable energy. This
includes solar panels and hydroelectrical energy. Hopefully, in the near future, wave energy would be
finalised, as this would be a great convenience for the plant due to its location.

The dilemma of renting and constructing your own industrial building requires a lot of thought. In the
beginning stages of a company, it is faster and more convenient to rent, however financially, it may be
a big mistake. The money put towards rent could be used to pay of a loan taken from the bank, which
was used to construct your own building.

During the project, there is a high possibility that things might not go as planned. We may fall out of
budget or encounter environmental and community issues. As a team we need to decide whether this
commitment is worth it, and if the long-term benefits surpass the current costs. It is also necessary to
look into alternative choices for materials and construction companies, to find out which is the most
cost effective.

The future for the production of vinyl acetate looks promising. The technical characteristics of the
process was investigated thoroughly, making this decision safe and reliable.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 31
 REFERENCES

 Brenntag n.d, Vinyl acetate uses

Available: www.brenntag.com/en-us/products/vinyl-acetate/ [Accessed 24 April 2021]

 Bridges. J , 2019, How to conduct a feasibility study Available:

https://www.projectmanager.com/training/how-to-conduct-a-feasibility-study [Accessed 6
May 2021]

 Britannica n.d, Ethylene www.britannica.com/science/ethylene [Accessed 24 April 2021]

 Chen, M. S., et al, The nature of the active site for vinyl acetate synthesis over Pd-Au,
Catalysis Today, Vol. 17. Pp. 37-45, (2006) [Accessed 9 May 2021]

 Co detect n.d, Carbon monoxide Available: www.co-detect.com/pages/sources-of-carbon-

monoxide/ [Accessed 25 April 2021]

 Gustin JL, n.d, Understanding vinyl acetate polymerization accidents. Available:

https://www.icheme.org/xiv-paper-30 [Accessed 6th May 2021]

 Han, Y. F, A kinetic study of vinyl acetate synthesis over Pd-based catalysts: kinetics of vinyl
acetate synthesis over Pd-Au/SiO2 and Pd/SiO2 catalysts, Journal of catalysis, Vol. 232, pp.
467-475, (2005). [Accessed 9 May 2021]

 Luyben , W. , Tyreus , B , An industrial design/control study for vinyl acetate monomer plant
, Comput. Chem. Eng., 22, 867,( 1998) [Accessed 3 May 2021]

 McKetta, J, Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and design, Vol. 62, (Marcel Dekker,
INC., USA, 1998), pp. 265-300. [Accessed 10 May 2021]

 National Gas Company Oman, n.d, Characteristics of LPG Available:

https://nationalgasco.net/characteristics-of-lpg/ [Accessed 12 May 2021]

 The Engineering toolbox n.d, Carbon dioxide thermo physical properties

Available: www.engineeringtoolbox.com/CO2-carbon-dioxide-properties-d_2017.html
[Accessed 2 May 2021]

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 32
 APPENDIX A

The following excel tables show all the expected costs and revenue for the production of vinyl acetate.
NOTE: This is a preview of the excel spreadsheet. Double click to view the entire document or right
click-worksheet object-open.

COST OF RAW MATERIALS ON THE MARKET

MATERIAL AMOUNT PRICE (DOLLAR) PRICE (RANDS) Dollar to Rand conversion

(TONS)

Acetic Acid 1 $617.00 R8,668.85 $1.00 R14.05

Ethylene 1 $1,025.00 R14,401.25
TOTAL R23,070.10

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 33
 APPENDIX B

The excel worksheet below shows the flowrates, thermal and physical properties of all process
streams for the production of vinyl acetate.
NOTE: To view the excel spreadsheet, right click-worksheet-open

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 34
 TURNITIN REPORT

(Double click to view file)

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 35
 Chemical Engineering Design 2A- 2021
Assessment Sheet: Technical and Economic Feasibility Study
Student name: Student Numbers
CT Pillay 21910221
K Ntshangase 22010747
S Nkwanyana 21919586
Final mark:

Required Sections and Criteria Mark

Title Page [1.5]
The following have been included:
 Title of project
 Full name of authors and student numbers
 A statement along the lines of 'Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for Chemical Process Design 2A in the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology

Preface [1.5]
The following details have been included:
 where the work was carried out (e.g. S31evel 01, Steve Bike Campus, DUT)
 under whose supervision it was done, and over what period it was
conducted

Declaration [1.5]
 A signed declaration by the students that the report represents their own
work;
 Place and date of submission.

Acknowledgements [1.5]
Contributions to the project by others have been acknowledged:
 the work of one's supervisor/mentor
 the support of any organisation or institution which have provided
assistance or funding
 the active help of anyone directly involved with the project (colleagues,
assistants) .

Executive Summary [5]

 The problem has been defined.
 Brief details of the approach/procedure/methods have been described.

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 36
  The important results that were found have been stated.
 Appropriate conclusions and recommendations have been stated.

Table of Contents [5]

 Includes: main headings, sub headings, page numbers,
 List of tables,
 List of figures
 Table of Abbreviations / Nomenclature and
 Definitions of Terms / Glossary

Introduction [10]- (sub-minimum 5)

 Background information has been given.
 The problem has been defined.
 Reasons why the problem was worthy of being studied has been
explained.
 Detailed objectives are described.
 The methodology used to compile this study is presented

Technical Component [134]- (sub-minimum 67)

Extensive and relevant presentation of the technical aspects related to the task.
Shows good understanding and integration of literature into the complete
document.
1. Vinyl Acetate in South Africa: [12] (sub-minimum 6)
Present an overview of the SA market, Sources of raw material, and Regulation
Policy that influence this project, Summary of major equipment for vinyl
acetate production and Processing Options.
2. Ethylene and Acetic Acid as a Raw Material: [12] (sub-minimum 6)
The composition of raw materials, product and general properties
3. Production of Vinyl Acetate: [40] (sub-minimum 20)
 Current status of vinyl acetate:
 Some Advantages of vinyl acetate,
 Production of vinyl acetate
 Other products and by-product from vinyl acetate: composition and
properties
 Establish flowrates, thermal and physical properties of all process streams.
 Identification and discussion on the Governing Variables in the Production
of Vinyl Acetate Process: Temperature, Raw Material composition,
Handling raw material, Pressure, Heating Rate etc
4. Financial Feasibility[40] (sub-minimum 20)
 Identification of Factors Affecting the Financial Model: Cost of Feedstock,
Production Process of vinyl acetate, Post treatment of Products, etc
 Estimation of capital and operating costs
 Income Projections,
 Financial Feasibility Analysis
 All calculations are formulated in Excel
5. Environmental Considerations: [30] (sub-minimum 10)

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 37
  Identification of Legal / Regulatory Environment legislation applicable
 Estimation of Air Emissions, Combustion emissions, Particulate Emissions,
VOC Emissions, liquid and solid waste
 Some comparative emission factors for heating and LPG

Conclusion and Recommendations [10]- (sub-minimum 5)

 All-important information learned from this work has been listed.
 The recommendations developed from the proposed design in terms of
requirements, resources and constraints have been listed.
 Implications of installing the pipeline are identified and described in
accordance with process requirements and environmental, economic, and
safety factors.

References [5]
 only one reference system used: Harvard Referencing System
 punctuation and elements standardised exactly (e.g. . order of elements,
punctuation, capitalization and publishing details)
Turnitin
Originality report from turnitin
Appendices [10]
The appendix includes:
a. Excel spreadsheet must be prepared using formula auditing
b. Format and layout of spreadsheet is appropriate and easy to use.
c. Algorithms for the calculations are correct
d. Spreadsheet is functional
e. Electronic copy of the report and excel worksheets must send via email.

Organisation and Presentation [15]

Clear, logical, easy to follow, starts & ends well, no unclear or weak points. Smooth
transitions between sections. The report says what it sets out to say. It addresses
the design scope.
 Presented computer-generated work neatly and professionally
 Punctuated, spelt and constructed sentences appropriately
 The needs of the readership have been addressed
 Computer graphics have been appropriately generated
 Diagrams have been accurately, neatly and legibly annotated
 Calculations in computer-generated spreadsheets have been presented
 Graphic material has been appropriately integrated
 Professional and technical vocabulary has been appropriately used
 Content has been critically and logically selected and arranged
 Page space has been effectively and efficiently used

TOTAL 200

Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of Vinyl Acetate Production: CEDA101 – DUT – 2021 38