Atomic structure: Everything in the world is made up of atoms. The structure of the atom is what gives an element its chemical and physical property. Atoms are made up of three smaller particles: 1. Electrons 2. Protons. 3. Neutrons. Radioactivity: Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei asa result of nuclear instability. The most common forms of radiation emitted have been traditionally classified as alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Radioactivity: It is a process of spontaneous emission of @ or # and y radiations from the nuclei of atoms during their decay. It is a nuclear phenomenon. Background Radiation: Background radiations are the radioactive radiations to which we are all exposed even in the absence of visible radioactive source.The structure of an atom: Anatom consists of a nucleus at its centre, surrounded by electrons which are revolving in some specific stationary shells (or orbits). Electrons in different shells have different energy values. The maximum number of electrons in a shell of number n is given as 2n2: The electron has a negative charge equal to - 1.6 x 101° C (or -e). Its mass is 9.1 x 10°! kg. The structure of nucleus: The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, which are also called the nucleons. The proton has a positive charge equal to + 1.6 x 101° C (or + e) —Its mass is 1.67 x 10” kg. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of that element — It is denoted by the letter Z. The neutron is an electrically neutral particle — Its mass is nearly equal to that of a proton. The total number of nucleons in the nucleus is called the mass number of that element - It is denoted by the letter A. Therefore, The number of neutrons = A -Z. Symbol of an atom: The nuclear symbol consists of three parts: the symbol of the element, the atomic number of the element and the mass number of the specific isotope. As shown in the diagram. Number of electrons = Z Number of protons = Z So Number of neutrons = A~Z Tsotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes of that element. Example: The three neon isotopes are represented by 1» Ne 7°, 1) Ne *!and yo NeIOS Isobars: Atoms of different elements with the same atomic mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars. Example: The two elements 6C' and 7N"* form set of isobars. Tsotones: Isotones are the atoms of different elements with nuclei having the same number of neutrons, but a different number of protons. Example: The two elements 1,Si** and sP*? form set of Isotones. Here, the neutron number N = A-Z = 17 for both the nuclei. Radioactivity: The substances which disintegrate (or decay) by the spontaneous emission of radiations are called the radioactive substances. Example: uranium, radium, thorium, actinium etc. The isotopes of nearly all the elements of atomic number higher than 82 are radioactive and are called natural radioactive substances. Any physical changes or chemical changes do not alter the rate of decay of radioactive substances. Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon and cannot be predicted Properties of alpha particles: + Analpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. + The mass of an alpha particle is roughly four times the mass of a proton. = The speed of alpha particles is of the order of 10’ m s* + Analpha particle strongly ionises the gas through which it passes. + An alpha particle rapidly loses its energy as it moves through a medium and therefore its penetration power is quite small.Alpha particles are positively charged, so they are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. Alpha particles affect a photographic plate Alpha particles cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material. Alpha particles have large kinetic energy and momentum with them. Alpha particles destroy the living cells and they cause biological damage. Alpha particles get scattered while passing through the thin mica (or gold) foils. Properties of beta particles: Beta particles are the fast-moving electrons emitted from the nucleus of an atom. The rest mass of a beta particle is 9.1 x 10! kg and its charge is — 1.6 x 101° C (or—e). Beta particles are given out from the nucleus whereas the cathode rays are given out from the orbital electrons. The speed of beta particles is of the order of 10°m s" Beta particles ionise the gas through which they pass. ‘The penetrating power of beta particles is more than that of alpha particles. Beta particles are negatively charged, so they are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. Beta particles affect a photographic plate. Beta particles cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material. Beta particles produce X-rays when they are stopped by the metals of high atomic number and high melting point such as tungsten. Beta particles cause greater biological damage as they can easily pass through the skin of our body. Properties of gamma particles: Gamma radiations are the electromagnetic waves like X-rays and light. The speed of gamma radiations is the same as the speed of light (in vacuum or air). The ionising power or gamma radiations is very low. The penetrating power of gamma radiations is the highest. Gamma radiations are not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. Gamma radiations affect a photographic plate.+ Gamuna radiations cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material. + Gamua radiations are diffracted by crystals. + Gamuna radiations cause immense biological damage as they can easily pass through the skin of our body. + Gamma radiations are very useful for the treatment of cancer. + X-rays are emitted when there is a transition of elements in the inner orbits of an atom whereas gamma radiations are given out from the nucleus. Uses of radioactivity — radioisotopes: Medical use + Many diseases such as cancer, leukaemia etc., are cured by radiation therapy. + Salts of weak radioactive isotopes such as radio-sodium chloride used for diagnosis are called tracers. + Gamma rays emitted by radioisotopes are used to sterilise bandages etc. Scientific use + Alpha particles are used as projectiles for nuclear reactions. + Radioactive tracers are used in agricultural science to study the growth of plants. + Carbon dating - Carbon dating isa technique developed to determine the approximate age of the ancient biological material. Industrial use + Radioisotopes are used as fuel for atomic energy reactors. = The ionising effect is used in making certain luminescent signs. Sources of radiations: + Radioactive fallout from nuclear plants and other sources + Disposal of nuclear waste. Biological effect of radiations: Short term recoverable effect: Diarrhoea, sore throat, loss of hair, nausea, etc. Long term irrecoverable effect: Leukemia and cancer, Genetic effects Safety rules for handling the radioactive materials: + People working with radioactive materials should put on special lead-lined aprons and lead gloves.+ They should handle the radioactive materials with long lead tongs. + They should not go beyond the safety limit for each type of radiation. + The radioactive materials must be kept in thick lead containers with a very narrow opening so as to stop radiations coming out from other directions. Safety rules in the establishment of nuclear power plants: + The nuclear reactor of the power plant must he shielded with lead and steel walls. + The nuclear reactor must be housed in an airtight building of strong concrete structure. + There must be a back-up of cooling system for the reactor core. + There should be safe disposal of nuclear waste. Sources of Background radiations: Internal source — Radioactive substances such as potassium (K-40), carbon (C-14) and radium present inside our body. External source — Cosmic rays, naturally occurring radioactive elements like radon- 222 and solar radiations.