Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR)

Lee Kong Chian (LKC)

Faculty of Engineering and Science (FES)

Ts. Ir. Wong Chee Fui

Specialist I, UTAR

Fellow IEM; Professional Engineer (P.Eng) ;

Professional Technologist (P.Tech); MTAM,
MMIM, Int.PE, APEC Engineer, ASEAN Engineer,
ACPE
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER OUTLINE
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Figure 1. Standard Tensile Specimens

Iman Faridmehr et al. Correlation between Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain Curve. American Journal
of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 1, 53-59. doi:10.12691/ajcea-2-1-6
© The Author(s) 2014. Published by Science and Education Publishing.
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST

FIG.1.0: Tensile-test machine with automatic data-processing system.

(Courtesy of MTS System Corporation)
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST

FIG.1.0: Tensile-test machine with automatic data-processing system.

(Courtesy of MTS System Corporation)
TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST

Performing the tension or compression test

- Seat the specimen into a testing machine shown

below
- The machine will stretch specimen at slow constant
rate until breaking point
- At frequent intervals during test, data is recorded of
the applied load P.
 Laboratory Testing of Material

Test specimen

Specimen fails
and break

Tensile test machine

Applied tension Increasing tension
 Stress-Strain Behaviour
 Determine experimentally: tensile test and compressive
test

During the test, tensile force P is

recorded
So normal stress is calculated by:
Changing gauge length L’0 is recorded
So normal strain is calculated
Steel specimen by:
FIG.1.1: Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a prismatic bar intension: (a) bar
before loading, and (b) bar after loading.
(The deformations of the bar are highly exaggerated.)
 Stress-Strain Behaviour

Steel material: ductile characteristic  exhibit large strain

before failing
For a safe design, working stress < yield stress
 Elastic Behavior
(1) σP = Proportional Limit
(2) σY = Yield Limit / Yield Point
(Point (1) and (2) – Not
Proportional)

Plastic Behaviour
=> Yeilding
(Increase of strain value without
Increase in load / stress)
(3) Ultimate Stress σU
(Maximum Stress)
(4) Failure Stress σF = Fracture
(Failure)

σ Engineering Stress = P / A
ϵ Engineering Strain = ∆L / L
(Strain Gauge / Extensometer)
Stress-Strain Behaviour
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Yield strength, σy
By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the tensile loading
continues, yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation. The yield stress, σy,
can be obtained by dividing the load at yielding (Py) by the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen (Ao) as shown in Equation

The yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the metals
such as iron and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum, and especially
low carbon steels, see Figure 3 a). The yield point elongation phenomenon shows the
upper yield point followed by a sudden reduction in the stress or load till
reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point elongation, the specimen
continues to extend without a significant change in the stress level. The yield strength
therefore has to be calculated from the load at 0.2% strain divided by the original
cross-sectional area as follows

Note: the yield strength values can also be obtained at 0.5 and 1.0% strain.
The determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain can be carried out
by drawing a straight line parallel to the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linear
section, having an intersection on the x-axis at a strain equal to 0.002 as illustrated in
Figure 3 b). An interception between the 0.2% offset line and the stress-strain curve
represents the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain.

Figure 3:a) Comparative stress-strain relationships of low carbon steel and aluminum
alloy and b) the determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset.
Figure 6. Definition of Yield Point

Iman Faridmehr et al. Correlation between Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain Curve. American Journal
of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 1, 53-59. doi:10.12691/ajcea-2-1-6
© The Author(s) 2014. Published by Science and Education Publishing.
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Figure 2: Stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Figure 5: Cup and cone fracture
Fracture Strength, σf
After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases
accordingly until fracture. The fracture strength (σfracture) can be calculated from the
load at fracture divided by the original cross-sectional area, Ao, as expressed in
Equation 7.

Figure 4: Necking of a tensile specimen occurring prior to fracture

3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
Figure 7. Engineering Stress Measures vs. True Stress Measures

Iman Faridmehr et al. Correlation between Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain Curve. American Journal
of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 1, 53-59. doi:10.12691/ajcea-2-1-6
© The Author(s) 2014. Published by Science and Education Publishing.
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Stress Strain Curve

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Defined as any material that can be subjected to
large strains before it ruptures, e.g., mild steel
• Such materials are used because it is capable of
absorbing shock or energy, and if before
becoming overloaded, will exhibit large
deformation before failing
• Ductility of material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at time of
fracture

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture
strain expressed as a percent
Lf − L0
Percent elongation = (100%)
L0

• Percent reduction in area is defined within

necking region as

A0 − Af
Percent reduction in area = (100%)
A0

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Most metals do not exhibit constant yielding
behavior beyond the elastic range, e.g. aluminum
• It does not have well-defined yield point, thus it is
standard practice to define its yield strength using
a graphical procedure called the offset method

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
Offset method to determine yield strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is chosen.
2. From this point on the  axis, a line
parallel to initial straight-line portion of
stress-strain diagram is drawn.
3. The point where this line intersects the
curve defines the yield strength.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Brittle Materials
• Material that exhibit little or no yielding before
failure are referred to as brittle materials, e.g.,
gray cast iron
• Brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress, since appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Brittle Materials
• Instead, the average fracture stress from a set of
observed tests is generally reported

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
• Most engineering materials exhibit a Elastic Region =>
linear relationship between stress and Regain shape and size
on load removal
strain with the elastic region
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676
Hooke’s Law of
using springs, known as Hooke’s law Elasticity : For small
σ = E deformation , stress is
proportional to strain
• E represents the constant of
proportionality, also called the modulus E the modulus of elasticity,
Young’s modulus is equal
of elasticity or Young’s modulus to the longitudinal stress
• E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa divided by the strain.

or GPa.
One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of
magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area
of one square metre.
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
• As shown above, most grades
of steel have same modulus of
elasticity, Est = 200 GPa
• Modulus of elasticity is a
mechanical property that
indicates the stiffness of a
material
• Materials that are still have
large E values, while spongy
materials (vulcanized rubber)
have low values

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
IMPORTANT
• Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a
material has linear-elastic behavior.
• Also, if stress in material is greater than the
proportional limit, the stress-strain diagram ceases
to be a straight line and the equation is not valid

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• If a specimen of ductile material (steel) is loaded
into the plastic region and then unloaded, elastic
strain is recovered as material returns to its
equilibrium state
• However, plastic strain remains, thus material is
subjected to a permanent set

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• Specimen loaded beyond yield point A to A’
• Inter-atomic forces have to be overcome to
elongate specimen elastically, these same
forces pull atoms back together when load is
removed
• Since E is the same,
slope of line O’A’ is the
same as line OA

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• Load reapplied, atoms will be displaced until
yielding occurs at or near A’, and stress-strain
diagram continues along same path as before
• New stress-strain
diagram has higher
yield point (A’), a result
of strain-hardening
• Specimen has a
greater elastic region
and less ductility

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• As specimen is unloaded and loaded, heat or
energy may be lost
• Colored area between the curves represents lost
energy and is called mechanical hysteresis
• It’s an important
consideration when
selecting materials to
serve as dampers for
vibrating structures and
equipment

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1
Tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress-strain
diagram below.
Calculate the
modulus of
elasticity and the
yield strength
based on a 0.2%.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Modulus of elasticity
Calculate the slope of initial straight-line portion of the
graph. Use magnified curve and scale shown in light blue,
line extends from O to A, with coordinates (0.0016 mm,
345 MPa)

345 MPa
E=
0.0016 mm/mm
= 215 GPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Yield strength
At 0.2% strain, extrapolate line (dashed) parallel to OA
till it intersects stress-strain curve at A’

σYS = 469 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Ultimate stress
Defined at peak of graph, point B,
σu = 745.2 MPa

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 203

3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Fracture stress
When specimen strained to maximum of f = 0.23
mm/mm, fractures occur at C.
Thus,
σf = 621 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates
and contracts laterally
• Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand laterally
when subjected to an axial compressive force

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• Strains of the bar are:
δ δ’
long = lat =
L r
• Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic
range, ration of the two strains is a constant value,
since both are proportional.

lat
Poisson’s ratio, ν = − 
long

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2 . STRAIN
STRAIN
When a material receives a tensile force P, it elongates in the axial direction while
contracting in the transverse direction. Elongation in the axial direction is called
longitudinal strain and contraction in the transverse direction, transverse strain. The
absolute value of the ratio between the longitudinal strain and transverse strain is called
Poisson's ratio, which is expressed as follows:

Possion’s Ration , V (nu) = – normal strain in transverse direction

normal strain in loaded value
 Compressive Force
Compressive Force
F
F ϵ 1 , Longitudinal Strain = ∆L ϵ 2 ,Transverse Strain = ∆D
L D
D

∆D
∆L

Possion’s Ratio , V (nu) = – normal strain in transverse direction

normal strain in loaded value
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic material
• Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation cause
lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice versa
• Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions
• Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4
Bar is made of A-36 steel and behaves elastically.
Determine change in its length and change in dimensions
of its cross section after load is applied.

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 219

3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4 (SOLN)
Normal stress in the bar is
P 80,000 6 N = 16.0 (106) Pa
σz = = 16.0(10 ) Pa
(0.1m) (0.05m)
A
From tables, Est = 200 GPa, strain in z-direction is
σz
z = 16.0 −6
= 80(10 )9mm/mm
(10 6) Pa = 80 (10-6) mm/mm = 0.0008

Est (200) (10 ) Pa

Axial elongation of the bar is,

δz = zLz = [80(10−6)](1.5 m) = 1.2 x 10-4 m

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4 (SOLN)
Poisson’s Ratio, Vst = 0.32 (From the Mechanical Property Table)

Poisson’s Ratio, Vst = – εx (or εy) (Transverse Strain)

εz (Longitudinal Strain)

Using νst = 0.32, contraction strains in both x and y

directions are
x = y = −νstz = −0.32[80(10−6)] = −25.6 μm/m
Thus changes in dimensions of cross-section are
δx = xLx = −[25.6(10−6)](0.1 m) = −25.6 μm
δy = yLy = −[25.6(10−6)](0.05 m) = −1.28 μm
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 222
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

When an axial force N is applied gradually to the bar, it

will strain the material such that the external work
done by N will be converted into strain energy.
From Hooke’s law,   E

where and 
L

N  NL
 E  
A L AE

•2
2
20053Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Example 1

The A-36 steel rod is subjected to the loading shown.If the cross-
sectional area of the rod is 50 mm2, determine the displacement of its
end D. Neglect the size of the couplings at B, C, and D.

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3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 1
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Example 1

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Example 1

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Example 2
The assembly shown in Fig. 4–6 a consists of an
aluminum tube AB having a cross-sectional area of 400
mm2 . A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm is attached
to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If a tensile
load of 80 kN is applied to the rod, determine the
displacement of the end C of the rod. Take E st = 200
GPa, E al = 70 GPa.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Aluminum Tube AA
X-Section Area = 400mm2

Steel Rod
Diameter = 10mm
Radius = D/2 = 0.005 m

(1) Find the Internal Load acting on the tube and rod.

229
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Aluminum
3. Tube AAProperties of Materials
Mechanical 2
X-Section Area = 400mm

Steel Rod
Diameter = 10mm
Radius = D/2 = 0.005 m

Take E st = 200 GPa, E al = 70 GPa.

(2) Calculate the Displacement of End C with Respect to End B.

230
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Aluminum
3. Tube AAProperties of Materials
Mechanical 2
X-Section Area = 400mm

Steel Rod
Diameter = 10mm
Radius = D/2 = 0.005 m

Take E st = 200 GPa, E al = 70 GPa.

(3) Calculate the Displacement of End B with Respect to End A.

231
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials

Aluminum Tube AA
X-Section Area = 400mm2

Steel Rod
Diameter = 10mm
Radius = D/2 = 0.005 m

232
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Try to solve this question

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3.
3 .Mechanical
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 2

A Rigid Bar = 91.7 kg

Weight = 91.7kg x 9.81

= 900 kN

Force Equation
FSS + FA + FSS = 900 N
900 N
FA + 2 FSS = 900 N (Ans)

FSS FA FSS

Equally spaced

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE
Given : 2
(1) Cable = 150mm (0.150m) 900 kN
(2) Ess = 210 Gpa
(3) EA = 70 Gpa
(4) dia. (steel) = 2 mm (r = 0.001)
(5) dia. (aluminium) = 4 mm (r = 0.002) FSS FA FSS

Compatibility Equation :
δA = δSS
(FA) L = (FSS) L
AA EA ASS Ess
(FA) (0.15m) = (FSS) (0.15m)
π (0.002)2 (70 Gpa) π (0.001)2 (210 Gpa)
FA = 1.333 FSS (Ans)
Forces
FA + 2 FSS = 900 N
1.333 FSS + 2 FSS = 900 N
FSS = 270 N (Ans)
FA = 360 N (Ans)
3 . Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE
Given : 2
(1) Cable = 150mm (0.150m) 900 kN
(2) Ess = 210 Gpa
(3) EA = 70 Gpa
(4) dia. (steel) = 2 mm (r = 0.001)
(5) dia. (aluminium) = 4 mm (r = 0.002) FSS FA FSS

Stress
Compatibility Equation : σA = FA
δA = δSS
(FA) L = (FSS) L AA
= 360__
AA EA ASS Ess
π (0.002)2
(FA) (0.15m) = (FSS) (0.15m)
σA = 28.6 MPa
π (0.002)2 (70 Gpa) π (0.001)2 (210 Gpa)
FA = 1.333 FSS (Ans)
σSS = FSS
Forces ASS
FA + 2 FSS = 900 kN = 270__
1.333 FSS + 2 FSS = 900 kN π (0.001)2
FSS = 270 kN (Ans)
FA = 360 kN (Ans)
σSS = 85.9 MPa
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
Try to solve this question (Answer)
Force equation: FA + 2FSS = 900
Compatibility equation:
• A = SS => FA = 1.33SS
Forces:
• FA = 360N
• FSS = 270N
Stress:
• A = 28.6 MPa
•  SS = 85.9 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Tension test is the most important test for
determining material strengths. Results of normal
stress and normal strain can then be plotted.
• Many engineering materials behave in a linear-
elastic manner, where stress is proportional to strain,
defined by Hooke’s law, σ = E. E is the modulus of
elasticity, and is measured from slope of a stress-
strain diagram
• When material stressed beyond yield point,
permanent deformation will occur.
Hooke's law

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Strain hardening causes further yielding of material
with increasing stress
• At ultimate stress, localized region on specimen
begin to constrict, and starts “necking”. Fracture
occurs.
• Ductile materials exhibit both plastic and elastic
behavior. Ductility specified by permanent
elongation to failure or by the permanent reduction
in cross-sectional area
• Brittle materials exhibit little or no yielding before
failure

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Yield point for material can be increased by strain
hardening, by applying load great enough to cause
increase in stress causing yielding, then releasing the
load. The larger stress produced becomes the new
yield point for the material

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• The area up to the yield point of stress-strain
diagram is referred to as the modulus of resilience
• The entire area under the stress-strain diagram is
referred to as the modulus of toughness
• Poisson’s ratio (ν), a dimensionless property that
measures the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
[0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5]

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