Four-Dimensional Space-Time 123, cluding the fourth coordinate of the Minkowski world) only tensor quantities possess the definite transformation properties, and tensors of different rank transform according to different rules. Hence, all physical quantities to which we ascribe a real meaning have to be tensors: either scalars, i.e. zero-rank tensors, or 4-vec- tors, i.e. first-rank tensors, or, finally, tensors of a higher-than-one rank. We shall see later that an electromagnetic field forms # second-rank tensor (see Chapter 6). The transition from customary three-dimensional quantities to four-dimensional ones (which is, no doubt, necessary in the case of the Lorentz transformation) is not always straightforward and is realized differently in different cases. It is often possible to represent, with some modification, a customary three-dimensional vector as a spatial part of a 4-vector. As to the fourth component, its expression seems to be rather sur- prising at first, but in the final analysis proves to be natural. There is nothing amazing in this since in a non-relativistic limit we nearly always come back from relativistic relationships to classical ones. Chapters 5-7 provide numerous examples of constructing four- dimensional vectors and tensors. § 4.4. A pseudo-Euclidean plane. Characteristic features of the pseudo-Euclidean space can be illustrated by means of the pseudo- Euclidean plane. One of the two, r coordinate axes must neces- 4 K. sarily represent the time axis, or the axis of time-proportional quantities, since in the STR ’ purely spatial geometry remains Euclidean, and only space-time 7 z = is described by pseudo-Eucli- Inky dean geometry. I our choice of (@) () reference frames it is most con- iz i Fig. 4.1. (2) The world line of an ob- venient to consider the plane jet at fest at the point x = x0. (5) (x, 1). 2 : ¢ ‘Recall that the four-dimen- "™* “informly along the 2 anise sional ~ space-time — continuum ‘whcee points represent events is sometimes called the Minkowski world. Every event in our real physical world occurs at a definite world point of the Minkowski world. Considering a particle, one can regard its staying at a given point at a given moment of time as an event. No matter whether this particle moves or not, the sequence of events happening with the particle in the Minkowski world yields a certain curve called the world_line of the particle. Let us draw the x, t axes of The frame K at right angles to each other and analyse the simplest cases. Let a particle be located at the point x = x» in the frame K; its world line in the124 Spectal Theory of Relativity plane (x, t) of the Minkowski world will be a straight line par- allel to the + axis (Fig. 4.1a). Let another particle move uni- formly along the x axis in the frame K at the velocity v. Its world line in this frame will be a straight line inclined at the angle 6 to the t axis (Fig. 4.16). A bit later we shall see that @ = arctan (v/c). Now we shall examine an ar- bitrary motion of a particle in this reference frame. The motion of this particle is represented by the world line x = x(t) in the plane (x, 1), as it is depicted in Fig. 4.2. The inclination of the world line to the + axis at each given point is determined by the de- rivative dx/dt at that point. In- deed (see Fig. 4.2), of light rays Fig. 4.2. The system of real coordina- tes x, t= ct. The particle's position at a given moment is specified by the point in this plane The particle's mo- tion is depicted in this plane by the so- called world line of a point The world hnes of motionless points are straight hnes parallel to the t axis The world line of light rays is the coordinate an- gle bisector. In the case of the varia- ble velocity the angle formed by the tangent line to the world lit ind the t axis is defined from the relation 0= = arctan (u/c), where v is the instan- taneous velocity of a particle. AE, oy 1 Oe dtc dt tan@= « (4.16) Thus, the inclination angle is determined from the following equation: =arctan 2 —=arctanB, (4.17) where B = o/c and v is the in- stantaneous velocity of the point or the object. Inasmuch as f <1 always, the angle 6 can- not exceed 45° for any moving object. The world line of light rays will be represented by the bisecting line of the coordinate angle. We saw in § 2.9 that the 1’, x’ axes are obtained from the t, ¥ axes as a result of the Lorentz transformation, provided these axes are drawn together in a scissors-like manner to the world line of light rays. The relativity of simultaneity is graphically seen in Fig. 4.3@ where the 1’, x’ axes are drawn together with the 1, 1 axes. In the frame K’ all events lying on the x’ axis, or on the straight lines 1’ = const, are simultaneous. In terms of geometry, all these lines parallel to the x’ axis represent the simultaneity lines in the frame K’,