Textile Testing

Process control and yarn
quality in spinning
Process control and yarn
quality in spinning
G. Thilagavathi
and
T. Karthik
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi
Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.,
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First published 2015, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

© Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 2015
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Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-80308-35-7

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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgement xi
1. Quality management 1
1.1 What is quality? 1
1.2 Quality as input–output system 1
1.3 Quality feedback cycle 2
1.4 Seven tools of quality 3
1.5 Quality management in spinning industry 10
1.6 Organization of quality control 12
1.7 References 18
2. Application of statistics in textiles 20

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Measures of central tendency 22
2.3 Measures of variation 25
2.4 Distributions 27
2.5 Comparison of two results 32
2.6 Quality control within the spinning mill 36
2.7 References 40
3. Cotton fibre selection and bale management system 42

3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Cotton 44
3.3 HVI 46
3.4 Spinning Consistency Index (SCI) 50
vi Process control and yarn quality in spinning
3.5 Cotton fibre engineering 52

3.6 References 67
4. Control of wastes in spinning 69

4.1 Yarn realization 69
4.2 Control of blow room waste 81
4.3 Control of card waste 96
4.4 Control of comber waste 106
4.5 Contamination removal techniques 120
4.6 References 138
5. Control of neps and fibre rupture 141

5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Guideline values for neps in bale as per Uster 143
5.3 Evaluation of machine efficiency 144
5.4 Control of nep generation and fibre rupture in blow room 146
5.5 Control of neps and fibre rupture in card 152
5.6 Control of neps and short fibre content in comber 161
5.7 Influence of modern developments on nep removal 165
5.8 References 174
6. Control of count, strength and its variation 175

6.2 Control of count 175
6.3 Control of count variation 178
6.4 Between-bobbin count variation 188
6.5 Control of variability of lea strength 190
6.6 Control of yarn elongation 192
6.7 References 195
7. Yarn evenness and imperfection 196

7.2 Categories of yarn faults 197
vii
Contents
7.3 Unevenness (Um%) 199

7.4 Mass CV (Coefficient of Variation Cvm%) 200
7.5 Yarn imperfections 216
7.6 References 224
8. Short-term irregularity 226

8.1 Autolevelling 226
8.2 Autolevellers in carding 230
8.3 Autolevellers in draw frame 231
8.4 Advantages of high performance leveling 241
8.5 Control of yarn evenness (U%) 241
8.6 References 251
9. Interpretation and analysis of diagram, spectrogram 253

and V-L curve
9.2 Measuring principle of mass evenness 253
9.3 Normal diagram 254
9.4 Spectrogram 257
9.5 Variance-length curve 295
9.6 Deviation rate 301
9.7 Histogram of mass variations 304
9.8 References 305
10. Control of yarn hairiness in spun yarns 307

10.2 Parameters influencing the generation of yarn hairiness 309
10.3 Influence of ring frame parameters on yarn hairiness 311
10.4 Influence of preparatory process on yarn hairiness 318
10.5 Effect of Post Spinning Operations on hairiness 319
10.6 Control of hairiness of ring spun yarns 320
10.7 Influence of hairiness on subsequent processing 322
10.8 References 322
viii Process control and yarn quality in spinning
11. Yarn faults 325

11.2 Distinction between frequent and seldom-occurring 328
yarn faults
11.3 Causes for seldom-occurring yarn faults 329
11.4 Standard settings in classimat 330
11.5 Analysis of classimat faults 331
11.6 Common yarn faults in ring yarn 334
11.7 References 341
12. Productivity of a spinning mill 343

12.2 Productivity indices 344
12.3 Control of end-breakage rate in ring spinning 346
12.4 Control of end breaks in ring spinning 350
12.5 Effect of climatic conditions on spinning process 354
12.6 References 355
13. Yarn quality requirements for high-speed machines 356

13.1 Yarn quality requirements for hosiery yarns 356
13.2 Yarn quality requirements for export 361
13.3 Yarn quality characteristics of sewing threads 361
13.4 Yarn quality requirements for shuttleless weaving 362
13.5 Measures to produce better yarns 365
13.6 References 366
Annexure: Basic conversion charts 367

Preface
Changes are taking place very fast all over the world in all fields, such as
technological developments, the living styles, social environment, and the
perception of people. In this changing scenario, rising expectations of the
customer and open market economics are forcing businesses to compete with
each other. Therefore, basic quality of the product at competitive market
price is a key factor. The same holds good for textile industry also which
is one of the oldest and has a number of players all over the world. Today
textile industry is facing higher competition in the globalized market than
ever before. When it comes to textile, spinning is the key process, which has
been given vital importance because many of the fabric properties, working of
weaving machines and weaving preparatory machines are dependent on yarn
quality. The overall level of quality is increasing constantly. Due to steadily
growing production capacities, the quality consistency must be improved.
Keeping this in mind, process control and yarn quality in spinning
outlines the concepts of raw material selection, control of various process
parameters to optimise the process conditions, and analysis and interpretation
of various types of test reports to find out the source of fault. The book is
divided into thirteen chapters, each discusses some specific area in process
and quality control. This book takes a close look at the advancing technology
in manufacturing and process and product quality control. It provides a basic
overview of the subject and also presents applications of this technology for
practicing engineers. It also includes real-time case studies involving typical
problems that arise in spinning processes and strategies used to contain
them. This book finds worthy to broad range of readers, including students,
researchers, industrialists and academicians, as well as professionals in the
spinning industry.
Chapter 1 presents the various definitions and dimensions of quality and
their significance on process and quality control. Chapter 2 discusses the
significance of statistical quality control in textile industry. Chapter 3 converses
about the significance of raw material selection and bale management in a
x Process control and yarn quality in spinning
spinning industry for the production of consistent yarn quality. Chapter 4

presents the various control points and remedial measures in each process for
the control of waste to improve the yarn realization in spinning. The effect of
contamination on final yarn quality and various techniques of contamination
removal during spinning processes have also been discussed in detail. Chapter
5 provides insight into the types of neps and their measurement and control in
blow room, carding and comber processes. Chapter 6 deals with the control of
yarn count and strength and its variation to produce the uniform and consistent
yarn quality. The influence of material and process parameters in each stage
of process on count variation and sampling of materials for testing the count
variation have also been discussed. Chapter 7 discusses the basic category of
yarn faults with their basic characteristics and their usefulness on evaluation of
yarn quality. Chapter 8 provides the concept of autolevelling and the influence
of various process and machine parameters in each processing stages on yarn
evenness. Chapter 9 provides an insight about the various quality control
graphical representations from the evenness testers such as normal diagram,
spectrogram and V-L curves. Chapter 10 presents the influence of material and
process parameters on yarn hairiness and its influence on fabric appearance.
Chapter 11 provides causes and remedial measures of various types of yarn
faults created by the raw material, preparatory process and ring frame. Chapter
12 deals with the various productivity indices and factors influencing the
productivity of the ring spinning. The yarn quality requirements for hosiery,
shuttless weaving and for export are discussed in Chapter 13.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the Management and the Principal of PSG College
of Technology for providing us the excellent facilities and environment for
writing the book. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to spinning
machinery manufacturers Lakshmi Machine Works, Rieter India Pvt Ltd and
Trutzschler for giving us permission to utilize their machinery photographs in
the book. Finally, we are thankful to those who have inspired and helped me
directly or indirectly in writing this book.
Dr. G. Thilagavathi
T. Karthik
1
Quality management
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the various definitions and dimensions
of quality and their significance on process and quality control. The seven tools
of quality control and their application have been discussed. The problems faced,
need for quality management systems and organisational structure of spinning
industries are also discussed in this chapter.
Key words: quality, quality control, quality management, process management
1.1 What is quality?

The concept of quality seems to have emerged since around World War II,
and the concept of quality has been with us since the dawn of civilization and
the quest for quality is inherent in human nature. The simplest way to answer
“what is quality?” is to look it up in a dictionary. According to Webster’s II
New Revised University Dictionary, “Quality is essential character: nature, an
ingredient or distinguishing attribute: property, character train, superiority of
kind, degree of grade or excellence”.
Quality is the ratio between performance (P) and Expectation (E) i.e. Q
= P/E. Quality can also mean to meet the customer expectations all the time.
It is satisfying the explicit and implicit needs of customer (Kothari 1999).
Garvin proposed that a definition of quality can be product based, user based,
manufacturing based or value based. A product-based definition of quality
views quality as a precise and measurable variable. Differences in quality
reflect differences in the quantity of some ingredient or attribute possessed
by a product. A manufacturing-based definition of quality means meeting
specifications, conformance to requirements, etc. Any deviation from meeting
requirements means poor quality. A value-based definition of quality takes
into consideration cost or price of a product or service.
1.2 Quality as input–output system

The quality can be seen as input–output model as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The distinction between standards and standardization is given below.
Standards – It denotes a uniform set of measures, agreements, conditions or
specifications between parties, i.e. between buyer and seller or manufacturer–
2 Process control and yarn quality in spinning
user or government and industry. It can be guidelines or characteristics for the

activities.
Standardization – It is the process of formulating, issuing and
implementing standards.
System Process
parameters parameters
Input parameters Textile production Output parameters

(Raw material system (Product
specification & specification)
quality) Feed back
(QC department,
marketing &
consumer)
Figure 1.1 Quality as input-output model
1.3 Quality feedback cycle

The feedback system that ensures the quality of the product is as shown in
Fig. 1.2.
End - use
Design Material
specification
Production Technology, machine,

process parameters
Product
Performance, aesthetic,
functional, cost
Usage
Figure 1.2 Quality feedback cycle

Quality management 3
1.4 Seven tools of quality

Quality pros have many names for these seven basic tools of quality, first
emphasized by Kaoru Ishikawa, a professor of engineering at Tokyo University
and the father of “quality circles.” The seven tools of quality are:
1. Cause-and-effect diagram (also called Ishikawa or fishbone chart):
This identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem and
sorts ideas into useful categories.
2. Check sheet: A structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing
data; a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.
3. Control charts: Graphs used to study how a process changes over
time.
4. Histogram: The most commonly used graph for showing frequency
distributions, or how often each different value in a set of data occurs.
5. Pareto chart: Shows on a bar graph which factors are more significant.
6. Scatter diagram: Graphs pairs of numerical data, one variable on
each axis, to look for a relationship.
7. Stratification: A technique that separates data gathered from a
variety of sources so that patterns can be seen (some lists replace
“stratification” with “flowchart” or “run chart”).
1.4.1 Fishbone Diagram / Cause-and-Effect Diagram /

Ishikawa Diagram
The Fishbone Diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or
problem. It can be used to structure a brainstorming session. It immediately
sorts ideas into useful categories. Figure 1.3 shows the simple Cause-and-
Effect Diagram.
Eccentric gear Improper meshing

Periodic
variation
Missing of teeth Eccentric rollers

in gear
Causes Effect
Figure 1.3 Cause-and-Effect Diagram for periodic variation in yarn

When to use a Fishbone Diagram

• When identifying possible causes for a problem.
• Especially when a team’s thinking tends to fall into ruts.
1.4.2 Check sheet

A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data.
This is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.
Figure 1.4 shows an example of a check sheet.
Type of defects Number of defects

10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Total
5
Warp breaking 23
Weft breaking 26
Shuttle trap 14
Shuttle change 40
Slack weft 20
Faulty transfer 13
No pim transfer 27
Miscellaneous 38
Figure 1.4 Check sheet of fabric faults
Each mark in the check sheet indicates a defect. The type of defects,
number of defects and their distribution can be seen at a glance, which makes
of defects, and their distribution can be seen at a glance, which makes analysis
of data very quick and easy.
When to use a check sheet
• When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person
or at the same location.
• When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems,
defects, defect location, defect causes, etc.
• When collecting data from a production process.
1.4.3 Control chart

The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time.
Data are plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for the
average, an upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower
control limit. These lines are determined from historical data. By comparing
current data to these lines, we can draw conclusions about whether the process
variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected
by special causes of variation).
For example, in spinning industry, just before shipping, pull a number of
sample packages, inspect them, and note the number of defective cones and
calculate percent defective. The results may look as shown in Table 1.1 and
Fig. 1.5.
Table 1.1 Inspection of cone packages
No. of samples inspected No. of samples defective % defective

392 14 3.6
346 10 2.7
132 2 1.5
141 6 4.2
344 2 0.6
170 7 4.1
164 0 0
8
7
6
UCL
5
% Defective
4
3
X
2
1
0
LCL
1
2
Figure 1.5 Control chart for defective cone packages
When to use a control chart

• When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting problems
as they occur.
• When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.
• When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).

• When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes (non-
routine events) or common causes (built into the process).
• When determining whether your quality improvement project should
aim to prevent specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the
process.
1.4.4 Histogram
A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set of data
occurs. A histogram is the most commonly used graph to show frequency
distributions. It looks very much like a bar chart, but there are important
differences between them. Figure 1.6 shows the histogram of category of yarn
faults in a classimat.
50
45
40
No. of faults
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Long thick
Long thin
Neps
Foreign cuts
Short thick
Figure 1.6 Histogram of yarn faults in classimat
When to use a histogram

• When the data are numerical.
• When you want to see the shape of the data’s distribution, especially when
determining whether the output of a process is distributed approximately
normally.
• When analyzing whether a process can meet the customer’s requirements.
• When analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks like.
• When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time period
to another.
• When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are

different.
• When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly and
easily to others.
1.4.5 Pareto chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or
cost (time or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the
shortest to the right. In this way the chart visually depicts which situations are
more significant. The Pareto diagram of yarn faults in classimat is shown in
Fig. 1.7.
50
45
40
No. of faults
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Neps
Short thick
Long thick
Long Thin
Foreign cuts
Figure 1.7 Pareto Chart of yarn faults in classimat
When to use a pareto chart

• When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a
process.
• When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the
most significant.
• When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components.
• When communicating with others about your data.
1.4.6 Scatter diagram

The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each
axis, to look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated,
the points will fall along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter
the points will hug the line. For example, yarn strength may depend on twist
per inch; moisture absorbency in a fabric may depend on fabric thickness and
so on. By plotting one variable against another, it may or may not become
obvious how they are related; in other words, a pattern may or may not emerge.
Various possible patterns of a scatter diagram are shown in Figure 1.8.
(a) Very good positice correlation
(b) Positice correlation but not as strong as above
(c) No correlation
(d) Negative correlation
(e) Strong negative correlation
Figure 1.8 Scatter Diagram
When to use a scatter Diagram

• When you have paired numerical data.
• When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value
of your independent variable.
• When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such
as…
– When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.
– After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to
determine objectively whether a particular cause and effect are related.
– When determining whether two effects that appears to be related both

occur with the same cause.
– When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control chart.
1.4.7 Stratification
Stratification is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools.
When data from a variety of sources or categories have been lumped together,
the meaning of the data can be impossible to see. This technique separates the
data so that patterns can be seen. Figure 1.9 shows an example of a flow chart
of manufacturing of shirt in garment unit.
Marker lay
Spreading
Machine cutting Die cutting small parts
Sorting & bundling
Sewing department
Collar Cuff Under

Sleeves Back Front Yolke
department department front
Assembly of parts
Join shoulder seam
Join collar to shirt
Set sleeve
Cuff attachment
Button attachment
Finishing
Packing
Figure 1.9 Flow chart of manufacturing process for shirt

When to use stratification

• Before collecting data.
• When data come from several sources or conditions, such as shifts, days
of the week, suppliers or population groups.
• When data analysis requires separating different sources or conditions.
1.5 Quality management in spinning industry

With the globalization the market competition has been increased manifold.
Thus today’s competition in the field of textile is no more restricted at
domestic level but spreads to international level where a manufacturer has
to compete with his international counter-part in respect of cost, delivery
schedule, flexibility in terms of payment and of course quality.
It is needless to say that, in this highly competitive market, customers all
over the world have become so demanding and expecting higher quality level
increasingly, that meeting the quality requirement is no longer a competitive
advantage but a sheer necessity to survive in the market. Spinning industry is
no exception to this.
It is a common misbelief that prevails in the textile industry in general and
spinning industry in particular is that achieving and maintenance of quality is
the job of a Quality Control Manager. But in reality to achieve quality, top
management commitment and involvement of all is a must. Achievement of
quality is only possible through coordinated approach of all the functions/
departments of an organization. In view of this, International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) at Geneva introduced Quality Management
System Standard – ISO 9000 in 1987 and last revised the standard in 2008.
This standard provides necessary guidelines to an organization in meeting
customer and applicable regulatory requirements and continual improvement
in the quality system.
The standard requires that the organization shall establish, document,
implement and maintain quality management system in line with the clauses
laid down in this standard. The organization needs to prepare and follow a
comprehensive plan pertaining to inspection and testing, maintenance and
internal quality audit to ensure compliance with customer and applicable
regulatory requirement (if any). Establishment and adherence with the
system makes the organization more proactive, system oriented. It enables
the organizations to continuously challenge the status quo with foresight,
insight and action. Implementation of quality management system forms a
solid platform for total quality management.
1.5.1 Problems faced by the textile industry in India

Spinning mills today face various challenges. The most important challenges
are represented in Figure 1.10. On top of all these challenges, spinning mills
need to remain competitive in quality. Now more than ever, yarn quality is
the parameter most influencing the market value of the product – as well
as the reputation of the spinning mill. It’s also recognized that most quality
problems, that knitters, weavers and finishers are facing, are traced back to
the yarn.
Shortage of operating
personnel
Shortage of skilled
textile technologists Increased energy
costs
Problems Faced by the

Textile Industry in India
Globalized
?? Volatile raw
competition
material prices
Higher demand for
consistent quality
Figure 1.10 Challenges of Indian textile industry
1.5.2 Need for quality management in spinning

• The need to spin a quality yarn from an essentially non-standard raw
material
• Numerous processes and numerous process variables.
• Ever increasing quality demands because of the high speed post spinning
processes.
• To reduce the cost of manufacturing and more importantly, the probability
of rejections
• An ever increasing competition – both domestic and global
• Low profit margins in the spinning industry – around 5% in many mills.
So low quality is a risk
• To develop a brand image.
1.5.3 Reasons for poor quality in spinning industry

• Lack of top management commitment
• Lack of long term vision
• Lack of team sprit
• Poor quality of man power
• Lack of systems and procedures
• Poor work methods
• Lack of clarity about customer quality requirements
• Incorrect raw material and too frequent changes of raw material
• Inadequate process control
• Lack of transparency regarding raw material/process
• Lack of modernization / poor upkeep of machines and the departments
• Incorrect choice of machinery and accessories
• Frequent Run-ins and Run-outs
• Poor infrastructure.
1.6 Organization of quality control

The basic problem in the cotton textile mill is the manufacture of a standard
product from an essentially non-standard and highly variable raw material.
The quality of yarn should conform to certain accepted norms depending
on the end use. It is equally important that this is achieved at the minimum
cost possible. It is the function of quality control to ensure that these twin
objectives of control of quality and minimizing cost are realized.
Quality control should be exercised at all key stages of processing so that
variation in the final product can, if necessary, is traced back to the variation in
raw material or from the process from which it originated. It is also essential
to keep the products under continuous observation to obtain immediate
warning of any new source of variation, which might have been caused by the
development of a defect in a machine.
The emphasis should be to prevent defects before they occur by
exercising appropriate technical controls at different stages, good machinery
maintenance, and application of statistical techniques for the analysis and
consideration and interpretation of data. Norms or standards for quality should
be fixed by the mill not only for the raw material and the yarn but also for the
product at various stages of processing.
The quality of yarn produced should conform to the quality norms
specified by the customer. It is equally important that this should be achieved
without making any compromise in productivity, which otherwise affects the
yarn costing. Quality Control is concerned with sampling, specifications and
testing as well as the organisation, documentation and release procedures

which ensure that the necessary and relevant tests are carried out, and that
materials are not released for use, nor products released for sale or supply,
until their quality has been judged satisfactory.
Quality Control is not confined to laboratory operations, but must be
involved in all decisions, which may concern the quality of the product. The
independence of Quality Control from Production is considered fundamental
to the satisfactory operation of Quality Control. Generally, Quality Control or
Quality Assurance department is isolated from production and maintenance;
it is assumed that quality is responsibility of Quality Control department. The
Quality Control Department as a whole will also have other duties, such as
to establish, validate and implement all quality control procedures, keep the
reference samples of materials and products, ensure the correct labelling of
containers of materials and products, ensure the monitoring of the stability
of the products, participate in the investigation of complaints related to the
quality of the product, etc. All these operations should be carried out in
accordance with written procedures and, where necessary, recorded.
All these operations should be carried out in accordance with written
procedures and, where necessary, recorded.
1.6.1 Organizational structure

The lines of communication and authority within the company need to be
defined, in particular any co-ordination between different activities and the
specific quality responsibilities. The standard has to be put in place from
the top down and it is considered necessary to have the person who is in
overall charge of the quality programmed at a suitable level in the company
management. The general organizational structure of spinning industry is
shown in Fig. 1.11.
( 1) General Manager (R&D)
General Manager (R&D) should be a highly qualified and knowledgeable
person. He co-ordinates all QA activities along with product development
and market complaint department. Apart from these regular assignments, he
keeps a close eye on cotton purchase, production planning and maintenance
activities. Along with top management, he prepares quality norms and strives
for the same along with his team to achieve the same.
(2) Manager (QA)
Manager (QA) is working directly under general manager (R&D). His
responsibilities are:
Chairman/managing director
General manager
Factory manager Human resources manager General manager finance
Godown Shift Quality control Store Time Accounts Purchase Sale Costing
keeper supervisors manager keeper keeper manager manager manager manager
Workers Filters Assisant Cashier Canteen Assisant Assisant Assisant
Figure 1.11 Organizational structure of spinning industry
(i) Cotton and raw material testing (Bale management)

Cotton samples received will be tested against mill norms and a decision
regarding purchase of the lot or rejection will be taken by QA manager. Lots
which fulfil the quality norms will be purchased, and 100% testing of the bales
from the lot will be carried out Bale Management should be strictly followed.
(ii) In-process testing and process optimization
In-process material at every process stage must be checked and wherever
deviations are observed, the process must be optimized by conducting trials.
(iii) Finished product testing
Before the final product is being dispatched to the customer, the same should
be checked against the norms specified by customer. Non-conforming product
must be packed separately and given separate lot/batch number.
(iv) Calibration of testing equipment
To arrive at reliable results, the testing instruments must be calibrated
(internally or by service engineer as the case may be) as per the prescribed
method and schedule.
(3) Deputy manager (Quality Assurance)
Deputy manager (QA) is working as a trouble-shooter. But, he should not wait
for the trouble to arise in the department. Therefore, he has to plan the activities
in such a way that there should not arise any problem in the department. His
main areas of interest are:
(i) Process control studies
Process control studies such as hank checking, waste study, breakage study,
A%, stretch%, etc., come under process control studies. A plan should be
prepared for these studies so that at a given interval of time all the machines
are covered for all studies.
(ii) Machinery auditing

Generally, maintenance gang will be doing auditing of the machine at the
time of cleaning or during maintenance of particular machine. But while the
machine is working, some of the things can be checked, which have influence
on quality, for example stop motion, lap licking, web cut, abnormal noise
from machine, etc. A list of such points, machine wise is to be prepared and
an auditing schedule is followed. Second part of auditing is while the machine
is stopped for cleaning. At that time along with maintenance person, machine
should be audited for all settings, condition of gears, etc., by quality control
person. Sometimes, it may happen that two machines working with same
count/mixing may be working with different settings, drafts, etc.
(iii) Follow-up of cleaning and preventive maintenance
Some times because of production planning, some of the machines get delayed
for cleaning or preventive maintenance. External person must keep an eye on
this and see that the machine is not skipped from cleaning or maintenance
allowing a delay of one or two days.
(iv) Follow-up of replacement schedules
A detailed schedule of all replaceable items for all machines should be prepared
by maintenance manager. The same should be circulated to production and
QA manager. Production manager will make necessary arrangements so that
during that period, the machine is made available for replacing the items. QA
will organise the studies to access the performance of machine before and
after replacement in terms of quality improvement. A watch from QA is also
required to see that the replacement schedule is followed strictly as per the
given plan.
(4) Manager (product development)

Product development can be classified into two categories:
(i) Development in existing product
(ii) New product development
Till now the concept of product development was not given sufficient
importance. But in today’s competitive market, unless you are different from
others, you cannot survive. Therefore, product development department must
work hard to give recognition to the product in market.
(i) Development in existing product
Suppose a mill is spinning slub yarn. Number of trials can be conducted
by varying slub length, slub frequency, slub diameter, etc., and further
improvement can be achieved.
(ii) New product development

By studying the market requirements, new product development must be
carried out for e.g. today there is a demand for stretch denim, a product with
Lycra spun slub yarn is developed which has a great demand in market. A
close eye in market changes is required for new product developments.
(5) Good R&D Laboratory Practice

(i) Documentation
Following details should be readily available to the quality control department:
• Specifications
• Sampling procedures
• Testing procedures and records (including analytical worksheets and/
or laboratory notebooks)
• Analytical reports and/or certificates
• Data from environmental monitoring, where required
• Validation records of test methods, where applicable
• Procedures for and records of the calibration of instruments and
maintenance of equipment
(ii) Sampling
The sample taking should be done in accordance with approved written
procedures that describe:
• Method of sampling
• Equipment to be used
• Amount of the sample to be taken
• Identification of containers sampled
• Storage conditions
(iii) Testing
Analytical methods should be validated. All testing operations should be
carried out according to the approved methods. The tests performed should be
recorded and the records should include:
• Name of the material or product
• Batch number
• References to the relevant specifications and testing procedures
• Dates of testing
• Initials of the persons who performed the testing
• Initials of the persons who verified the testing and the calculations
• Status decision and the dated signature of the designated responsible
person
1.6.2 Ways to achieve optimum quality and cost

conditions
Quality management system should serve to optimize quality conditions,
and also ensure optimum cost conditions. For the spinning mill, at least the
following three areas of application of a quality management system are to be
taken into consideration:
• Bale management
• Yarn engineering
• Process management
Bale management
Due to the absence of suitable and quickly-operating fibre testing methods,
one knew too little in the past about the raw material characteristics, their
variations and its influence on the yarn quality. As a result, and for safety
reasons, a higher quality raw material than necessary was often used in order
to prevent any quality complaints. Although, these preventive measures
seemed to be the best compromise, they cost money. The new generation of
fibre testing instruments makes possible, a much more comprehensive and
quicker means of testing the raw material than previously.
Bale management is based on the categorizing of cotton bales according
to their fibre quality characteristics. Bale management covers:
• measurement of more important fibre properties per bale or per series
of bales
• separation of these bales into classes.
• Arranging of those bales in a lay down which have similar fibre
properties and a defined variation of the more important fibre
characteristics.
This results in a process-oriented bale mix, and accordingly constant
running conditions. It also results in yarn quality with minimum between and
within bobbin variation.
Yarn engineering
It is obvious that the fibre characteristics of every single bale have an influence
on the yarn quality. Thus, there is a possibility of predicting the yarn strength
based on the raw material data, or of selecting the raw material to achieve the
required yarn strength. The “yarn engineering” is the engineered production
of yarn with required characteristics based on the fibre characteristics. The
yarn engineering refers to the following:
• Obtaining optimum conditions in terms of product quality with
respect to the yarn and the end product
• Optimum selection of the raw material for the required quality

• Increase of the added value by means of a better use of the raw
material
• Pre-determination of the yarn properties based on raw material and
process data
• Ensuring the quality level throughout the complete process
• Keeping constant quality in order to ensure long-term marketing
conditions
• Reduction of manufacturing costs by increasing efficiencies
Process management
With process management, each individual machine in the spinning mill is
set to run under optimum conditions, and also separate processing stages are
exactly tuned to the other processing stages, in order to see that a reasonable
and process-oriented compromise, with respect to quality and costs, can be
managed. For achieving this, the following are necessary:
• Testing of the fibre properties before and after each important
processing stage.
• Correct settings, in order to achieve optimum conditions at all
machines, taking into consideration the yarn as the end product
• Determination of the most suitable machine or equipment
• Arranging optimum conditions for machine maintenance in order that
there is no reduction in quality as a result of long-term running of the
machine
• Introduction of early warning systems
1.7 References
1. Bhaduri, S.N. (1962), Quality control: Productivity tool in textiles, Productivity:
National Productivity Council Journal, 3, 481–488.
2. Bogdan, J.F. (1956), Characterization of spinning quality, Textile Res. J, 26, 20–26.
3. Bona, M. (1994), Textile Quality, Textila, Italy.
4. Crosby, Philip B. (1979), Quality is free, McGraw Hill.
5. Cross, A. (1958), Quality: Measurement and interpretation, Text. Mercury, 139,
53–57.
6. Current practices in measuring quality (1989), Research Bulletin No. 234, The
Conference Board, New York, USA.
7. David A. Garvin (1988) Managing Quality: The Strategic & Competitive Edge, The
Free Press, New York.
8. David M. Gardener (1970), An experimental investigation of the price/quality
relationship, Journal of Retailing, 46, 25–41.
9. Duties and Responsibilities of Quality Control Staff in a Spinning Mill (1996), SITRA
Focus, 4(3).
10. Frey, M. and Klien W. (1995), Quality consciousness and new management structures,
Zellweger Uster Publication.
11. Genichi Taguchi and Don Clausing (1990), Robust Quality, Harvard Business Review,
68, 65–72.
12. Hisham A. Azzam, and Sayed T. Mohamed (2005), Adapting and tuning quality
management in spinning industry, Autex Research Journal, 5, 246–258.
13. Juran, J.M., and Frank M. Gryna (1988), Quality Control Handbook, McGraw-Hill
Book Co.
14. Pradip V, Mehta and Satish K. Bhardwaj (1990), Managing quality in the apparel
industry, New Age International Limited.
15. Shanmuganandam D. (2000), Spinning Mills: Challenges, Threats and Opportunities,
Asian Textile Journal, 9, 58–63.
16. Sidney Schoeffler, Robert D. Buzzell and Donald F. Henry (1974), Impact of strategic
planning on profit performance, Harvard Business Review, 1–12.
17. Thakare, A.M. (2005), Retaining Customers Through Quality Assurance in Textile
Mills, Asian Textile Journal, 14, 85–87.
18. Uster News Bulletin NO. 39, (1993) “Quality management in spinning mill”.
19. Walker T.W. (1960), Spinning mill quality control, Textile Weekly, 60, 79–83.
20. Walker, T.W. (1960), Spinning mill quality control, Text. Weekly, 60, 79–85.
2
Application of statistics in textiles
Abstract: This chapter discusses the significance of statistical quality control in

textile industry. The basics of statistics such as central tendency, distributions
and comparison results which are necessary for scientific analysis of textile
products are discussed with suitable examples. The application and interpretation
of various quality control charts are also discussed in this chapter.
Key words: statistics, central tendency, distributions, control charts
2.1 Introduction
The inherent variability in the textile raw material introduces a certain
minimum amount of variation in the output material. Consequently, yarns
spun from same fibre, processing conditions from the same ring frame
vary in count and strength, and fabrics woven from the same loom vary in
appearance and faults. If such variation is not present and every individual
member of the output (say, sliver cans, ring bobbins, etc.) is exactly identical,
then it is sufficient if only one sample of each individual is tested. Due to
the presence of variation, it becomes necessary to test more than one sample
to determine the various quality characteristics. The manufacture of textile
materials is largely a system of mass production. A spinning mill produces
thousands of ring bobbins every day and a weaving mill weaves hundreds
of meters of fabric. It is impossible to test each and every item of the output
material and it is time consuming and tests are destructive in nature. Hence
‘samples’ are tested for the various quality parameters. The whole bulk of the
material theoretically available for testing is called as the ‘population’ and the
‘sample’ is a relatively small number of individual members which is selected
to represent that population.
This process of testing a representative sample and attributing these
sample characteristics to the entire population introduces a certain error in the
methodology of quality control. Besides, the instruments used for assessing
the various quality parameters also have a certain tolerance range representing
the accuracy/precision of the instrument which is another source of error.
Adequate consideration of the sampling error and the instrument tolerances
Application of statistics in textiles 21
for interpreting the test results necessitates the use of appropriate statistical
measures.
Statistics is a branch of mathematics in which groups of measurements
or observations are studied. The subject is divided into two general categories
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. In descriptive statistics one
deals with methods used to collect, organize and analyze numerical facts. Its
primary concern is to describe information gathered through observation in an
understandable and usable manner. Similarities and patterns among people,
things and events in the world around us are emphasized. Inferential statistics
takes data collected from relatively small groups of a population and uses
inductive reasoning to make generalizations, inferences and predictions about
a wider population. Throughout the study of statistics certain basic terms
occur frequently. Some of the more commonly used terms are defined below:
A population is a complete set of items that is being studied. It includes
all members of the set. The set may refer to people, objects or measurements
that have a common characteristic. Examples of a population are bales of
cotton purchased for spinning a yarn. A relatively small group of items
selected from a population is a sample. If every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected for the sample, it is called a random sample
(Fig. 2.1).
Population
Entire bulk theoretically
available for testing
Sample
Restricted no. of individuals
selected to represent the
population
Figure 2.1 Population Vs Sample
Variables are characteristics or attribute that enables to distinguish

one individual from another. They take on different values when different
individuals are observed. Some variables are height, weight, age and price.
Variables are the opposite of constants whose values never change.
2.2 Measures of central tendency

A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe
a set of data by identifying the central position within that set of data. As
such, measures of central tendency are sometimes called measures of central
location. These values can be used to take many decisions regarding the entire
set of individual values. The measure of central tendency allows comparing
two or more sets of data. The following are some of the important measures
of central tendency which find common applications in the textile industry.
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Weighted Arithmetic Mean
3. Median
4. Geometric Mean
5. Mode
6. Harmonic Mean
2.2.1 Arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean (or mean or average) is the most commonly used and
readily understood measure of central tendency. The arithmetic mean is
defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each of every
observation divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, it can
be represented as
ΣX
X =
N
Where ‘ SX ‘ indicates the sum of the values of all observations and N
is the total number of observations. For example, let us consider the situation
wherein the neps recorded in an evenness tester when testing a sample of 10
bobbins are as follows.
151, 126, 147, 117, 133, 156, 141, 130, 139, 130
The arithmetic mean is computed as follows.
X = 156 + 121 + 150 + 114 + 130 + 156 + 144 + 130 + 139 + 130
10
1370
= = 137
10
Therefore, the mean no. of neps is 137.
The arithmetic mean has the great advantages of being easily computed
and readily understood. It has, however, a major disadvantage in that its
value can be easily distorted by the presence of extreme values in a given
set of data.
2.2.2 Weighted arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean, as discussed earlier, gives equal importance to each
observation. In some cases, all observations do not have the same importance.
When this is so, we compute weighted arithmetic mean. The weighted
arithmetic mean can be defined as
ΣWX
X W =
ΣW
Where ‘ X W ’ represents the weighted arithmetic mean and ‘w’ are the
weights assigned to the variable x.
A typical application where the weighted mean is encountered is in the
entry of the micronaire value during evenness testing. Let us consider that
the yarn tested is spun from a mixing prepared by a combination of three
cottons A, B and C in the proportion 60%, 30% and 10%, respectively. Let
us say the average micronaire for the individual cottons are 3.5, 4.0 and 2.8,
respectively. In such a situation, the entry in the evenness tester is to be made
after calculating the weighted arithmetic mean as follows.
X W = (60 × 3.5) + ( 30 × 4.0 ) + (10 × 2.8 ) = 500 = 5
100 100
In the above example, the proportions of the cottons in the mixing were
used as the weights for calculation. Weighted mean is specifically useful in
problems dealing with ratios, proportions and indices.
2.2.3 Median
Median is the value which divides the distribution into two equal parts.
Fifty percent of the observations in the distribution are above the value of
median and the other fifty percent of the observations are below the value of
median. The median is the value of the middle observation when the series is
arranged in order of size or magnitude. If the number of observations is odd,
then the median is equal to one of the original observations. If the number of
observations is even, then the median is the arithmetic mean of the two middle
observations.
For instance, consider that the U% values of a test series of 5 tests are as
follows: 9.54, 10.12, 9.83, 9.98, and 10.25. The median of this set of values
would be 9.98 since this is the middle value when the values are arranged in
numerical ascendance or descendence.
Although the median is not as popular as that of the mean, it does have the
advantage of being both easy to determine and easy to explain. The median is
affected by the number of observations rather than the values of observations;
hence it will not be easily distorted by abnormal values. A major disadvantage

of the median, apart from being a less familiar measure than the mean, is that
it is not capable of algebraic treatment.
2.2.4 Mode
The mode is the typical or most commonly observed value in a set of data. It
is defined as the value which occurs most often or with the greatest frequency.
For example, in the series of numbers 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, the mode is
8 because it occurs the maximum number of times. The difference between
mean, median and mode at different situations are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Symmetric
Right skewed Left skewed
Mean Mode
Median Median
Mean median mode Mode Mean
Figure 2.2 Relationship between mean, median and mode
2.2.5 Geometric mean

The geometric mean, like the arithmetic mean, is a calculated average.
The geometric mean, GM, of a series of numbers, X1, X2, X3, XN is defined as
GM = N X1X 2 X3 ... ... ... X n or the Nth root of the product of ‘N’
observations.
When the number of observations is three or more, the task of computation
becomes quite tedious. Therefore a transformation into logarithms is useful to
simplify calculations. Taking logarithms on both sides, the formula becomes
1
log GM = (log X1 + log X 2 + ... + log X n )
N
X
Therefore, GM = Antilog
N
The geometric mean is very useful in averaging ratios and percentages.
It also helps in determining the rates of increase and decrease. The geometric
mean has the disadvantage that it cannot be computed if any observation has
either a value zero or negative.
2.2.6 Harmonic mean

The harmonic mean is a measure of central tendency for data expressed as rates
such as meters per sec, tones per day, kilometers per liter, etc. The harmonic
mean is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocal of
the individual observations. If X1, X2, X3,... XN are N observations, and then
harmonic mean can be represented by the following formula.
N 1
HM = =
1 1 1 1
+ + ... . Σ 
X1 X 2 XN X
For instance, the harmonic mean of 20 and 40 is calculated as follows:

N
HM =
1
Σ 
X
2 2 80
= = = = 26.67
1 1 3 3
+
20 40 40
i.e. harmonic mean of 20 and 40 is 26.67.
2.3 Measures of variation

A measure of variation describes the spread or scattering of the individual
values around the central value. Common measures of variation used in the
textile industry are the ‘Standard deviation’ and ‘Coefficient of variation’.
2.3.1 Standard deviation

The standard deviation is the most widely used and important measure of
deviation. The standard deviation, also known as root mean square deviation,
is generally denoted by the lower case Greek letter σ. The standard deviation
is calculated using the following formula.
s(X − X) 2
s =
N −1
The square of the standard deviation is called variance. Therefore variance
= σ2. The standard deviation and variance becomes larger as the variability or
spread within the data becomes greater. The calculations for the estimation of
standard deviation for a set of 10 nep readings are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Estimation of standard deviation
N X X X1 − X (Xi − X) 2
1 151 136.5 +14.5 210.25
2 126 136.5 −10.5 110.25
3 147 136.5 +10.5 110.25
4 117 136.5 −19.5 380.25
5 133 136.5 −3.5 12.25
6 156 136.5 +19.5 380.25
7 141 136.5 +4.5 20.25
8 130 136.5 −6.5 42.25
9 139 136.5 +2.5 6.25
10 125 136.5 −11.5 132.25
S (X – X)2 = 1404.50
2
Σ(X − X) = 1404.50
Σ(X − X) 2 1404.5
Standard Deviation s = = = 12.49
N −1 9
In the formula, the sum of the squared deviations are usually divided by
‘N − 1’ for all tests of samples and by N for the test of a population. However,
for larger sample sizes, ‘N − 1’ can be replaced by N since the standard
deviation values are not significantly affected by such a change.
2.3.2 Coefficient of variation

A frequently used relative measure of variation is the coefficient of variation,
denoted by CV. This measure is simply the ratio of the standard deviation to
mean expressed as a percentage.
S.D.
Coefficient of Variation, C.V. = × 100
X
When the coefficient of variation is less in the data it is said to be less
variable or more consistent. The CV% expression is particularly useful in
evaluating the precision of tests having different mean and standard deviation
values. Consider the following data in Table 2.2 which relate to the mean
number of thick places and standard deviation of three samples.
Table 2.2 Mean and standard deviation of sample
Sample Mean Standard Deviation

1 136.5 12.5
2 134.3 10.5
3 134.3 12.5
With the above data, it is easier to determine which sample is more

consistent among the samples ‘2’ and ‘3’. Since the mean for these two
samples is the same, it can be easily concluded that the sample which shows
the lower standard deviation i.e., sample 2 is more consistent or less variable.
Similarly, between samples 1 and 3, it is easier to conclude that sample 1 is
more consistent than sample 3 since it has recorded the same standard deviation
for a higher mean value. However, if both the means and standard deviations
are different for the two samples, say samples 1 and 2, then a simple firsthand
look at the data does not provide sufficient information on the consistency of
one sample relative to the other. The coefficient of variation helps us out in
this aspect.
12.5
CV1 = × 100 = 9.16
136.5
12.5
CV2 = × 100 = 7.82
136.5
12.5
CV3 = × 100
134.3
A quick glance at the three CV values clearly shows that sample 2 is more
consistent of the lot followed by sample 1 and then sample 3.
2.4 Distributions
Distributions are graphical representations showing the frequency of
occurrence of a particular value at different statistical levels. Distributions
can also be called as ‘frequency curves’ which are essentially histograms or
frequency polygons taking the appearance of a smooth curve as the number
of values become infinitely higher and the class intervals become infinitely
smaller. In the textile industry, two types of distributions are of greater practical
relevance. These are the Normal Distribution and the Poisson Distribution.
2.4.1 The normal distribution

The normal distribution is of fundamental importance in the textile industry
since most of the quality parameters of textile materials produce this type of
curve which is also the reason why such a distribution is called as ‘normal’
(Fig. 2.3).
0.4
0.3
0.2
34.1% 34.1%
0.1
2.1% 2.1%
0.1% 13.6% 13.6% 0.1%
0.0
–3s –2s –1s µ 1s 2s
Figure 2.3 Normal distribution curve
This type of distribution curve is symmetrical about a central value. For

this type of distribution, the three fundamental statistical measures – mean
(the average of all individual values), median (the central value(s) when the
individual values are arranged in an ascending or descending order) and the
mode (the value with the highest frequency) – coincide.
The curve for the normal distribution is defined by the equation
− x(x − µ)
1
y = e 2s
s 2π
Where, y = Vertical height of a point on the normal distribution
x = Distance along the horizontal axis
σ = Standard deviation of the data distribution
μ = Mean of the data distribution
e = Exponential constant (2.71828)
Where ‘y’ is the frequency (i.e., height of the curve at the point x), X is
the mean and s is the standard deviation. The equation for the curve clearly
indicates that the normal distribution curve is completely defined by its mean
and standard deviation.
If we use σ as a unit on the horizontal scale, the area under the curve
between any given limits can be calculated in terms of the proportion of the
total area. Since the area under the curve represents frequencies or numbers
of observations, we can calculate the proportion of the observations which lie
between chosen limits. For instance, 68% of the total area lies between the
limits of mean ±1 standard deviation, and therefore 68% of the observations
lie between these limits and consequently 32% outside these limits. Similarly,
it will be noted that about 95% of the values lie between −2σ and +2σ and
99.7% of the values between the limits of −3σ and +3σ.
2.4.2 The poisson distribution

The Poisson distribution is used when randomly occurring events are being
studied. Examples of such randomly occurring events in the textile industry
include end breakages in spinning and seldom occurring faults. Trials have
shown that even when the imperfection results follow a Poisson distribution
(Fig. 2.4) if the values are less than 30 per 1000 m of yarn.
The Poisson distribution curve is asymmetrical in shape and is defined by
the equation.
e –µ .µr
f(r) =
r!
Where ‘ µ ‘ is the mean value of the Poisson distribution (with respect to
the population) and ‘r’ is the number of events.
Normal distribution
Poisson distribution
Figure 2.4 Normal and Poisson Distribution Curves
The standard deviation of the Poisson distribution is

s = µ
i.e., the mean and variance are equal for a Poisson distribution with the
increasing mean value and increasing no. of events, the Poisson distribution
tends to approach a Normal distribution.
2.4.3 The confidence range

The means, standard deviations and other statistical parameters are mere
estimates of the population values and a certain degree of error will always be
associated with such values. These estimates can therefore be best expressed
by a range within which the population value is expected to lie. This range is
called as the ‘Confidence Range’ and the 95% limits of this range are provided
as the ‘Q95±’ in the statistical block of the evenness tester. This range would
obviously depend on the size of the sample since the estimate based on a large
sample size would always be more precise when compared to an estimate
based on a smaller size.
When the ‘Q95±’ values are available, we are saying that 95 times out
of 100, we would be right in assuming that the population mean would fall
within the Q95 limits.
2.4.4 Confidence range for a normal distribution

The confidence range for a sample test on a property following a normal
distribution is given by the following expression.
t Xs
Q95% = ±
n
where X is the mean value
s is the standard deviation
n is the number of tests and
t is a statistical factor
The factor t is dependent on the chosen statistical significance ‘s’ and the
‘degree of freedom’ f = n − 1. The values for t and f can be obtained from
any book containing statistical tables. For some common sample sizes, the t
values for 95% level of confidence are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 t-value of 95% confidence limit
Sample size 5 10 20 30 40 50 100
t 2.78 2.26 2.09 2.04 2.02 2.00 1.98

In the case of imperfection results, trials have shown that results with
mean values above 30 generally follow a normal distribution. Let us consider
an evenness test where 5 test values of thin places (−40%) are 175, 190, 120,
135 and 185.
For these values, Mean = 161
Standard deviation = 31.5
n = 5
From statistical tables,

t (for s = 95%, f = 4) = 2.78
2.78 × 3.15
Q95% = ± = ±39
5
i.e., the Confidence range for the mean value of 161 would be 122 to 200.
2.4.5 Confidence range for a poisson distribution

In practical situations, if the sample size is sufficiently large, the confidence
range formula used in the earlier section can be directly applied since the
distribution would be expected to be normal. A sample size larger than 30 is
generally considered to be large enough for this purpose.
Many practical samples are of size higher than 30. With low sample sizes
(i.e., less than 30), the distribution is generally asymmetric and approximate
to the Poisson Distribution. When the distribution is either unknown or known
to be not normal, then we need to use the central limit theorem to arrive at the
confidence limits for the population mean.
The central limit theorem is defined as follows.
If X1, X2, X3 ...Xn are n random variables which are independent and
having same distribution with mean µ and standard deviation s, then if
n → a, the limiting distribution of the standardized mean
X −µ
Z= is the standard normal distribution.
s/ n
Table 2.4 Yarn Evenness results of samples
Series
1 2 3 4 5
Bobbin
1 7 4 7 6 7
2 9 5 9 7 9
3 6 6 7 5 8
4 9 6 6 9 6
5 8 5 8 7 5
6 7 4 7 5 6
7 8 7 5 6 4
8 9 5 4 8 7
9 8 8 4 7 8
10 9 4 7 8 10
Mean 8.0 5.4 6.4 6.8 7

In other words, mean values of distributions which are not normal can be
combined to form a new mean value which would follow a normal distribution.
Therefore, in such cases, we need to carry out many measurement series,
consider the resulting mean values as normally distributed single values and
calculate the confidence range.
The application of central limit theorem is explained with an example.
5 series of evenness tests on a 40s CH yarn in a spinning mill recorded
the values as per the following Table 2.4 for the thin places. The confidence
range for the data is calculated as follows.
X1 + X 2 + X3 + X 4 + X5
Overall Mean Value X =
5
8 + 5.4 + 6.4 + 6.8 + 7
= 6.72
5
Standard Deviation (of the means) = 0.94
t.s
Confidence Range X ± X95% = X +
n
(2.78 × 0.94)
6.72 ± = 6.72 ± 1.17
5
2.5 Comparison of two results

It is often required in a spinning mill to determine whether the values obtained
from two separate tests are significantly different. We look for this ‘significant
difference’ because two apparently different values obtained by testing of
samples could sometimes represent the same estimate for the population due
to the ‘sample error’ or the ‘standard error in estimate’ or the presence of a
‘confidence range’.
For instance, if the mean U% obtained by testing 10 cops of a ring frame
doff is 11.25 and the standard deviation is 1.09 then the 95% confidence
interval (Q95) is given by
2.26 × 1.09
11.25 ± = 11.25 ± 0.78
10
Now if another test shows a mean U% of 12.0, it looks to be apparently
different from the earlier mean of 11.25. However, the confidence range
indicates that 95 times out of 100, the population mean or any other sample
mean would lie between 10.47 (i.e., 11.25 − 0.78) and 12.03 (i.e. 11.25 + 0.78)
which means the second test mean is not significantly different from the first
test mean.
2.5.1 Comparison of two means for large samples

To determine whether there is significant difference between two mean values,
at value is first calculated using the following formula.
| X1 × X 2 |
tcal =
S12 S22
+
n1 n 2
Where X1 = Mean of first test series

X 2 = Mean of second test series
S1 = Standard deviation of first series
S2 = Standard deviation of second series
n1 = No. of readings of first series
n2 = No. of readings of second series
In the formula, the denominator i.e.,
s12 s 22
+ represents the standard error of the difference of the two
n1 n 2
means. If the number of readings in both the test series is the same, the
equation simplifies to
n
tcal = | X1 × X 2 | X
S12 × S22
This calculated t value is now to be compared with the 5% values for the t
from statistical tables. The degrees of freedom to be used is (n1 − 1) + (n2 − 1)
i.e., n1 + n2 − 2 [if, n1 = n2 = n, then degrees of freedom would be 2(n − 1)].
If tcal > tsf from tables, there is significant difference between the two
means tcal < tsf from tables, there is no significant difference between the two
means. The procedure is illustrated with an example below.
Let us consider that the evenness test results from two test series are as
follows
1st Test 2nd Test
n1 = 30 n2 = 30
X1 = 16.5% (CV%) X2 = 17.2% (CV%)
S1 = 0.78 S2 = 0.85
30
tcal = |16.5 + 17.2 | X = 3.32
(0.78 ) + (0.85) 2
2
tsf = (s = 95%f = (30 – 1) + (30 – 1) = 58) = 2.00

Since tcal is greater than tsf, there is significant difference between the two
means and the C V% of the 2nd test is significantly higher than the CV% of
the first test.
2.5.2 Comparison of two means for small samples

When the sample size is small (less than 30), the methodology adopted is the
same except that the following formula is used for calculating the t value.
| X1 − X 2 |
t =
1 1
s +
n1 n 2
Where ‘s’ is the pooled standard deviation given by
(n1 − 1)S12 + (n 2 − 1)S22

S =
n1 + n 2 − 2
2.5.3 Comparison of variation of two samples

The previous sections described how the means of two samples may be
compared. We are also often interested to know whether one material is more
variable than the other in which case we conduct significance tests on the
measures of variation, say the standard deviation.
Figure 2.5 indicates three distributions with the same mean value
but differing variation levels, distribution A being the most variable and
distribution C the least variable.
Figure 2.5 Distributions with different variability

2.5.4 Difference between the standard deviation of two

large samples (n > 30)
When the standard deviations are compared for large samples, the t-test as
discussed before can be used. However, in this case, the t value is calculated
using the following formula
| S1 − S2 |
t =
S12 S2
+ 2
2n1 2n 2
with the terms S1, n1, S2, n2 having their usual meanings
2.5.5 Difference between the standard deviation of two

small samples (n < 30)
The standard deviation of small samples is compared using an ‘F-test’. The
value F represents the Variance Ratio and is given by the following equation.
Higher variance value
F =
Smaller variance value
S12
= , where S12 > S22
S22
This calculated F-value is now to be compared with the statistical F-tables
corresponding to the degrees of freedom f1 and f2 where f1 = n1 − 1 and f2 =
n2 − 1 and the required level of confidence.
If Fcal < Ftable, there is no statistical difference between the standard
deviations. If Fcal > Ftable, there is statistical difference between the standard
deviations.
Let us consider an example with two tests of neps
1st test 2nd test
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
Mean = 385(X1) Mean = 374(X2)
Standard Deviation = 42(S1) Standard Deviation = 46(S2)
S22
In this case, Fcal = 2 since 462 > 422
S1
= 462/ 422 = 1.2
From the statistical Ftables,
Ftable (for f1 = 10 − 1, f2 = 10 − 1) = 3.18 for 95% level of confidence
Since Fcal < Ftable, the variability in neps from the two tests are not
statistically significant.
2.6 Quality control within the spinning mill

The quality of yarn obtained in a spinning mill is influenced by a variety
of factors starting from the raw material, the process parameters, machinery
condition and a multitude of other such factors. Any abnormal deviation
or inadequacy in any of these factors will significantly affect the final yarn
quality. It is therefore important to trace the quality values for a product
over a longer period and control them. The measured results can be entered
periodically onto a chart prepared based on certain statistical considerations.
If the chart contains warning and action limits, then the chart could serve as
a useful tool for initiating correction action whenever the values exceed these
preset limits.
2.6.1 Quality control through control charts

The basis of all control charts is the observation that, in any production process,
some variation is unavoidable. The sources of variation can be divided into
two groups, namely, random variation and variation due to assignable causes.
(a) Random variation is variation in quality produced by a multitude of
causes, each one of them slight and intermittent in action. There is
very little one can do about this kind of variation, except (drastically
and expensively) to modify the process.
(b) Assignable variation, on the other hand, consists of the relatively
large variations over which we have some control. Examples are
differences among machines and/or operatives, variations in quality
of raw materials, and so on. The effect of such causes tends to be
permanent or at least long-term and it is these kinds of variation that
control charts are designed to detect.
Once some knowledge about the process behavior in stable conditions is
available, the extent of the variation expected from random causes alone can
be calculated and allowed for. If the process is then inspected regularly, the
variation it exhibits at these inspections can be compared with the allowable
random variation. If the observed variation conforms to the expected random
variation, the process is said to be out of control; it would then be concluded
that at least one assignable cause was operating, and efforts would be made to
discover what it was and hence to remove it.
2.6.2 The General Principle of Control Charts

At any instant of time, a process is either ‘in control’ or it is ‘out of control’. In
a well-organized factory, it should normally be in control, and what is required
is a means for detecting when there has been a significant departure from the
usual state of affairs.
It is convenient for this purpose, to have a means for recording the
results of the inspections, and this can be made possible by having an XY
graph wherein the x-axis represents the time period or the sample no. and
the y-axis represents the quality value with the control limits drawn in. Such
a representation is called as the ‘Control chart’ of which a typical example is
shown in Fig. 2.5.
The distribution on the left of the chart is provided merely for purposes of
understanding and is not generally included as a part of the control chart. The
results of regular inspection are plotted on this chart. So long as the plotted
points lie within the control limits, the process is assumed to be in control.
A point falling outside either control limit is an indication that the process
has gone out of control and that an investigation to find the assignable cause
responsible is indicated.
UL
LL
Time
(sample no)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Figure 2.6 Typical Control Chart
Since most of the parameters in textiles tend to follow a normal

distribution, the 2σ and 3σ limits are usually used as the warning and action
limits, i.e.
Upper Warning Limit = X + 2s

Upper Action limit = X + 3s
Lower Warning Limit = X – 2s
Lower Action Limit = X – 3s
The limits are shown in Fig. 2.7.
Upper action limit (UAL)

µf +3.09s f
Upper warning limit (UAL)
µf +1.9s f
µf
Lower warning limit (LWL)

µf –1.96s f
Lower action limit (LAL)
µf –3.09s f
Time
Figure 2.7 Control limits in control chart
The interpretation of control charts

The basic indication that a process has gone out of control is given when
a sample point plots outside the action limits. Experience in using control
charts, however, leads to the evolution of other indications of lack of control,
and some of these are illustrated in Figs. 2.8(a–f).
(a) Figure 2.8(a) illustrates the basic rule, that a single point outside an
action limit is strong evidence that the process is out of control.
(b) A similar lack of control is demonstrated if two consecutive points
fall between the same action and warning limits, as in Fig. 2.8(b). The
reason for this is that, if the process is control, the probability that a
point will plot between a warning and an action limit is about 0.0214.
Thus the probability that two successive points will fall between
the same limit lines is (0.0214)2 or about 0.0005, if the samples are
independent. This is a very small probability, and we should therefore
conclude that the process is out of control. To take account of this line
of reasoning, the following rule is often adopted.
Time Time
(a) (b)
Time Time
(c) (d)
Time Time
(e) (d)
Figure 2.8 Interpretation of control charts
• If a point falls between action and warning limits, inspect another
sample immediately.
• If the second sample falls outside the warning limit, take action.
• If the second sample falls inside the warning limit, assume the
process is in control.
(c) A sequence of points sometimes occurs in which all the points lie
between the central line and one of the warning limits, as in Fig. 2.8(c).
Such a sequence is called a run. It can be shown that, in probability
terms, a run containing nine points is equivalent to a single point
outside the action limits and thus indicates a lack of control.
(d) Another indication of possible trouble is a trend upwards (or
downwards) of the kind illustrated in Fig. 2.8(d). When this occurs,
it is prudent to check the process for assignable causes before a point
eventually falls outside any of the limit lines Fig. 2.8(e) and Fig.
2.8(f). Any non-random pattern such as those shown in Fig. 2.8(e)
and Fig. 2.8(f) may indicate that the process is not subject only to
random sources of variation, and it should be investigated.
2.7 References
1. Barilla, A., and Viertel, L. (1957), Quality control in cotton spinning and weaving –
Some practical results, J. Text. Inst. 48, 520.
2. Bcrtrcnd, L.H. (1963), Quality Control Theory and Application. Prentice Hall Inc.,
New Jersey, USA.
3. Bradbury, E., and Hacking, H. (1949), Experimental technique for mill investigation
of sizing and weaving, J. Text. Inst. 40, 532.
4. Brearley, A., and Cox, D.R. (1961), An outline of statistical methods for use in the
textile industry, Wool Industries Research Association.
5. Duding, B.P., and Jennett, W.J. (1942), Quality control charts, B.S. 600R, British
Standards Institution, London.
6. G.A.V. Leaf (1984), Practical Statistics for the Textile Industry, Part I and II, The
Textile Institute, Manchester.
7. Grant, E.L. (1952), Statistical Quality Control, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., NY,
USA.
8. Gregory, G. (1957), Statistical quality control, A review of continuous sampling plans,
J. Text. Inst. 48, 467.
9. Handa, T. (1970), Quality Control in Textile Industries. Asian Productivity
Organisation.
10. Murphy, T., Norris, K.P., and Tippett, L.H.C. (1960), Statistical methods for textile
technologists, Textile Institute.
11. Newbery, R.G. (1958), The implementation of quality control charts in spinning mills,
J. Text. Inst., 49, 229.
12. Schwartz, W.A. (1939), Statistical Methods from the Viewpoint of Quality Control,
The Graduate School, Dept. Agri., Washington, DC, USA.
13. Stout, H.P. (1954), Conformity limits in specifications, J. Text. Inst. 45, 6.
14. Tippet, L.H.C. (1930), Statistical methods in textile research – Part 1, J. Text. Inst. 21,
105.
15. Tippet, L.H.C. (1935), Statistical methods in textile research – Part 2, J. Text. Inst. 26,
13.
16. Tippet, L.H.C. (1952), The methods of statistics, Williams and Norgate, London.
17. Yule, G.U., and Kendall, M.G. (1949), An introduction to the theory of statistics,
Griffin, London.
18. Zulfiqar, H. (1988), Statistical Application on the Spinning Process. Research Report,
Dept. Math. & Statistics, Univ. of Agri., Faisalabad.
3
Cotton fibre selection and bale management system
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the significance of raw material selection
in a spinning industry for the production of consistent yarn quality. The significance
and application of HVI and spinning consistency index on cotton fibre selection are
also discussed. The various bale management techniques such as bale inventory
analysis system, engineered fibre selection and linear programming techniques
have been discussed in detail.
Key words: cotton, HVI, SCI, bale management, inventory, linear programming
3.1 Introduction
Raw material is the most important factor influencing yarn quality. To a great
extent, it can determine whether a product is good and is also responsible for
the cost factor. Mistakes made at selecting raw material and later at preparing
blends cannot be made up for in further processing, even if all available means
are used. Each stage of processing in a spinning mill will proceed properly
only if the raw material is uniform and is contained in the acceptable range
of tolerance. Subjective and reasonable savings made at purchasing a raw
material are still the most effective method of cost reduction available to
spinning mills. Proper choice and use of a raw material are the factors that
determine whether a spinning mill can operate efficiently, successfully and
competently. It must be understood and taken into account that raw materials
constitute 50–60% of costs of produced yarns. The significance of raw material
on yarn quality and cost are shown in Fig. 3.1.
The main technological challenge in any textile process is to convert the
high variability in the characteristics of input fibres to a uniform end product.
This critical task is mainly achieved in the blending process, provided three
basic requirements are met: accurate information about fibre properties,
capable blending machinery, and consistent input fibre profiles. Over the
years, developments in fibre selection and blending techniques have been
largely hindered by insufficient fibre information resulting from a lack of
capable and efficient testing methods. Accordingly, art and experience have
been the primary tools. One of the common approaches was massive blending,
in which vast quantities of bales were mixed by grade or growth area to reduce
Cotton fibre selection and bale management system 43
variability. These mixed cottons were then rebaled and fed to the opening line
in random order to further enhance the mixing effect.
Figure 3.1 Significance of raw material on yarn quality
Traditionally, three fibre parameters have been used to determine the

quality value of cotton fibre. These are grade, fibre length and fibre fineness.
The development of fibre testing instruments such as the High Volume
Instrument (HVI) and the Advanced Fibre Information System (AFIS) has
revolutionized the concept of fibre testing. With the HVI, it is pragmatically
possible to determine most of the quality characteristics of a cotton bale within
2 minutes. Using these instruments, thousands of cotton bales can be tested
for several fibre properties at rates exceeding 150 bales/hour. Data generated
by these instruments can easily be manipulated with microcomputers and
powerful software programs. These revolutionary developments have led to
substantial rethinking of cotton fibre selection, driven by the rising costs of
both labour and raw material and the more demanding quality requirements of
end products.
Based on the HVI results, composite indexes such as the fibre quality
index (FQI) and spinning consistency index (SCI) can be used to determine
the technological value of cotton; this can play a pivotal role in an engineered
fibre selection program. These systems, in conjunction with microcomputers,
have made it possible to develop scientific techniques in this critical area.
Bale Management System Software has earned the reputation of providing
mills and merchants with the ability to rapidly process massive quantities of
HVI data. This feature enables cotton to be selected so that all-important
HVI measurements can be taken into account through the active control of
averages, and statistical distributions of selected inventories of cotton bales.
Such control is economically important because cotton cost and related mill
qualities, as well as processing efficiencies and associated costs, can be
positively affected when cotton is acquired and used with the benefit of HVI
data.
3.2 Cotton
Cotton, being a product of nature, is a highly variable raw material, which
nevertheless is used to meet a very significant portion of the world’s demand
for textile products. Certainly, cotton is unsurpassed in meeting the demands
of the apparel and home furnishing industries for comfortable, colourful,
useful, interesting, and desirable fabrics. The conversion of bales of cotton into
high-quality yarns and fabrics has always traditionally been as much an art as a
science. Management of cotton’s many attributes has always been a challenge
and there are many traditional approaches that can be utilized to source
cotton successfully. These include: by description, type, or government class
as described in Cotton Council International’s (CCI) Cotton Buyers Guide.
The move by the textile industry to the use of modern high-speed opening,
spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing and finishing machinery, which to earn a
profit must run at high efficiencies with very little labour oversight and few
seconds, has resulted in a paradigm change. This new paradigm requires,
among other things, that cotton sourced for a given mill’s machinery setup
and end-product quality must be introduced into the mill in a very uniform
manner over long periods of time.
When managing the purchasing and consumption of cotton many factors
such as variety, weather, insect problems, irrigation and harvesting practices,
and ginning procedures should be considered as they often have a significant
effect on the market and technical value of cotton. These inherent and often
unpredictable variances complicate the buying of cotton that must, by
necessity, combine the art of buying at the lowest price while ensuring the
production of high quality end-products.
3.2.1 Importance of cotton quality

For the spinner the following cotton fibre properties are considered important:
• Length, length uniformity, short fibre content
• Micronaire (linear density/fibre maturity)
• Strength
• Trash (including the type of trash)
• Moisture
• Fibre entanglements known as neps (fibre and seed coat fragments)
• Stickiness
• Colour and grade
• Contamination
These fibre properties, however, vary in importance according to the
spinning system used and the product to be made. Table 3.1 lists the most
important fibre properties required by each system to process high quality
yarns.
Table 3.1 Important considerations of fibre properties for different spinning processes
Order of Ring Rotor spinning Air-jet Friction

importance spinning spinning spinning
1 Length Strength Fineness Friction
and length
uniformity
2 Strength Fineness Cleanliness Strength

3 Fineness Length Strength Fineness
and length
uniformity
4 – Cleanliness Length Length and length

and length uniformity
uniformity
5 – – Friction Cleanliness
The effect of cotton fibre properties on the ring and rotor yarn strengths
are given in Figs. 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
Figure 3.2 Effect of cotton fibre properties on ring-spun yarn strength

Figure 3.3 Effect of cotton fibre properties on rotor-spun yarn strength
For the fabric manufacturer, the quality of the fibre is largely characterised
by the quality of yarn they buy or are provided with, where good quality fibre
translates to good quality yarn. However, the following fibre properties also
have significance when appraising the finished fabric quality. These include:
• Micronaire (maturity)
• Trash
• Contamination
• Short Fibre Content (SFC)
• Neps
• Colour and grade
However there are fibre properties not yet routinely measured, which
could contribute to a more accurate prediction of the spinning and dyeing
properties of cotton fibres. These properties might include such things as fibre
elongation, fibre cross-sectional shape, surface and inter-fibre friction, the
makeup of a cotton fibre’s surface wax, the crystalline structure of cotton’s
cellulose, and the level of microbial activity or infection. Consequences of
poor fibre quality are presented in Table 3.2.
3.3 HVI
The value of HVI data and bale management software program is that, if the
program is properly used, users are able to minimize the risk of purchasing
unsuitable cotton as well as minimizing the risk of selecting mixes which are
not statistically the same which otherwise would lead to unexpected costly
deficiencies in the production processes. The application of HVI in cotton
fibre selection and bale management is shown in Fig. 3.4.
Table 3.2 Consequences of poor fibre quality

Fibre property Description Ideal range Consequences Consequences of
of poor fibre poor fibre quality –
quality – spinning
cotton price
Length Fibre length UHML in Significant priceFibre length
varies with variety; excess of discounts below determines the
Length and length 1.125 inch 33/32nds settings of spinning
distribution are or 36/32nds; machines; Longer
also affected by For premium fibres can be spun
stress during fibre fibre 1.250 or at higher processing
development, 40/32nds speeds and allow
and mechanical for lower twist levels
processes at and and increased yarn
after harvest strength
Short fibre Short fibre < 8% No premiums or The presence of
content content (SFC) is discounts apply short fibre in cotton
the proportion by causes increases in
weight of fibre processing waste,
shorter than 0.5 fly generation and
inch or 12.7 mm uneven and weaker
yarns
Uniformity Length uniformity > 80% Small price Variations in
or uniformity discounts at length can lead
index (UI) is the values less than to an increase in
ratio between 78; No premiums waste, deterioration
the mean length apply in processing
and the UHML performance and
expressed as a yarn quality
percentage
Micronaire Micronaire is Micronaire Significant price Linear density
a combination values between discounts below determines the
of fibre linear 3.8 and 4.5 3.5 and above number of fibres
density and fibre are desirable; 5.0. needed in a yarn
maturity. The test Maturity ratio cross-section, and
measures the >0.85 and hence the yarn
resistance offered linear density count that can be
by a weighed < 220 mtex; spun; Cotton with a
plug of fibres in Premium range low Micronaire may
a chamber of is considered have immature fibre;
fixed volume to a to be 3.8 to 4.2 High Micronaire is
metered airflow. with a linear considered coarse
density < 180 (high linear density)
mtex and provides fewer
fibres in cross section
Strength The strength of > 29 grams/ Discounts The ability of
cotton fibres is tex, small appear for cotton to withstand
usually defined premiums for values below 27 tensile force is
as the breaking values above g/tex fundamentally
force required for 29 /tex. For important in
a bundle of fibres premium fibre spinning. Yarn and
of a given weight > 34 grams/tex. fabric strength
and fineness correlates with fibre
strength
Contd...
Contd...

cotton price
Grade Grade describes > MID 31, small Significant Aside from cases
the colour and premiums for discounts for of severe staining
‘preparation’ of good grades poor grades the colour of cotton
cotton. Under this and the level of
system colour has ‘preparation’ have
traditionally been no direct bearing
related to physical on processing
cotton standards ability. Significant
although it is now differences in colour
measured with a can lead to dyeing
colorimeter problems.
Trash / dust Trash refers Low trash High levels of Whilst large trash
to plant parts levels of < 5% trash and the particles are easily
incorporated occurrence of removed in the
during harvests, grass and bark spinning mill too
which are then incur large price much trash results
broken down into discounts. in increased waste.
smaller pieces High dust levels
during ginning affect open end
spinning efficiency
and product quality.
Bark and grass are
difficult to separate
from cotton fibre in
the mill because of
their fibrous nature.
Stickiness Contamination of Low / none High levels of Sugar contamination
cotton from the contamination leads to the build-up
exudates of the incur significant of sticky residues on
silverleaf whitefly price discounts textile machinery,
and the cotton and can lead to which affects yarn
aphid. rejection by the evenness and
buyer. results in process
stoppages.
Seed-coat In dry crop Low / none Moderate price Seed-coat fragments
fragments conditions seed- discounts do not absorb dye
coat fragments and appear as
may contribute to ‘flecks’ on finished
the formation of a fabrics.
(seed-coat) nep.
Neps Neps are fibre < 250 neps/ Moderate price Neps typically
entanglements gram. For discounts. absorb less dye and
that have a hard premium fibre reflect light differently
central knot. < 200 and appear as light
Harvesting and coloured ‘flecks’ on
ginning affect the finished fabrics.
amount of nep.
Contd...
Contd...

cotton price
Contamination Contamination of Low / none A reputation for Contamination
cotton by foreign contamination can lead to the
materials such has a downgrading of yarn,
as woven plastic, negative impact fabric or garments
plastic film, jute / on sales and to second quality
hessian, leaves, future exports. or even the total
feathers, paper rejection of an entire
leather, sand, batch.
dust, rust, metal,
grease and oil,
rubber and tar.
Fibre quality measurements applies
Gins Classing Textile mills

laboratories
On-line process
Procurement
control Ware housing
Ware housing
On-line classing Marketing
colour and leaf
Mix selection
Off-line classing
micronaire, Off-line process
strength and control
length
Figure 3.4 Application of HVI
Obviously, for a mill to attempt to fully control the variance in their cotton
inventories, HVI data for every bale is a prerequisite. Achieving this level of
HVI testing is not difficult. As a consequence of fully controlling the variance
of their cotton inventories, mills have completely abandoned statistical
sampling techniques because such techniques cannot adequately predict the
bale-to-bale variation that directly affects product quality, mill efficiency,
and cost. When every bale testing is not used unexpected mill production
problems are likely. Cotton is usually the single largest cost component in the
spinning of yarn. HVI data makes it possible to better control of the natural
variability found in cotton and improve profits.
3.4 Spinning Consistency Index (SCI)

The spinning consistency index (SCI) is a calculation for predicting the overall
quality and spinnability of the cotton fibre. The regression equation uses most
of the individual HVI measurements, and is based on the data taken from US
Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) annual crop reports.
The main use of SCI in selecting bales is to gain the advantage that all major
cotton properties have been selected in a controlled way, and a consistency in
fibre properties exist between fibres obtained from the selected bales throughout
a season. Without the SCI, the spinner faces an insurmountable task.
However, the SCI could be used to solve the complexity of cotton bale
selection. Within the SCI there are various fibre properties which allow us
to take the advantage of inherent correlation prevailing among the fibre
properties. Thus, the use of the SCI will drastically reduce the real number
of cotton varieties available for selection. Practically, the SCI could be used
as the first priority for the selection of bales, followed by micronaire as the
second priority, in order to exert additional control in the fibre selection. As
the SCI contains six interrelated properties, good distribution control of all the
cotton properties could be achieved by controlling the SCI and micronaire.
The regression equation used to calculate the SCI is as follows:
For HVI calibrated cotton,
SCI = SCI = −414.67 + 2.9 × Strength − 9.32 × Micronaire + 49.17 ×
UHML + 4.74 × Uniformity Index + 0.65 × Rd + 0.36 × (+b)
For ICC calibrated cotton,
SCI = −414.67 + 2.9 × Strength − 9.32 × Micronaire + 49.17 × UHML +
8.61 × Uniformity Ratio + 0.65 × Rd + 0.36 × (+b)
Where:
UHML is upper half mean length in inches,
UI is the uniformity index,
Rd is the reflectance degree, and
(+b) is the yellowness of cotton fibre.
3.4.1 Advantages of SCI in fibre selection

1. SCI and Yarn strength and quality parameter co-relates well as shown in
Fig. 3.5
Figure 3.5 Relationship between SCI and yarn tenacity
2. Reduce and simplify the number of warehouse categories

3. Control all measured HVI™ properties
4. Maintain day-to-day consistency of fiber properties
5. SCI based bale management ensures mixing consistency, thereby
consistent yarn strength and spinning end breaks as shown in Fig. 3.6
Figure 3.6 Relationship between SCI and end breakage

6. Control within and between lay-down (mix) variations (Fig. 3.7)
Figure 3.7 Relationship between SCI and CV% of yarn tenacity
3.5 Cotton fibre engineering

In view of today’s technology, the process of cotton fiber selection should
undergo an inevitable transition from the traditional pure art to a sound
scientific technique. In order to achieve this transition, fiber selection should
be integrated into a cotton fiber engineering program that attempts to optimize
cotton fiber use with respect to cost and quality of end product. A cotton fiber
engineering program should be based on fiber information that meets quality
requirements imposed by the rapidly developing technology and continuous
change in customer demand. A proposed scheme for such a program is
illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
In this scheme, four main interactive elements are demonstrated: cotton
purchasing strategy, cotton testing, bale management, and cotton fiber
selection. The cotton purchasing strategy should be based on an evaluation
of the technological value of cotton. In other words, cotton fibres should
primarily meet technological requirements. Depending on the marketing
system, cotton that may have a premium market value may not be the best
for the particular process or end product. Cotton suitable for ring spinning
may not necessarily be right for rotor or air-jet spinning. For a given spinning
method, other factors such as yam count, twist, and end-product specifications
also determine what kind of cotton to use. Purchasing strategies should also
optimize cotton blend components under inventory and quality constraints.
Scientific procedures that use parametric linear programming can provide
powerful tools for achieving this task.
The cotton department Technological value Vs

market value
Cotton purchasing
Optimization of cotton blend
components under inventory
Cotton testing
and quality characteristics
Warehouse bale management
Cotton fibre selection
Bale picking Fibre/yarn

schemes modeling
Bale lay-downs
Figure 3.8 Cotton fibre engineering program
Cotton bales have traditionally been purchased based on nominal

specifications. In a fiber engineering program, cotton testing may serve as
a verification of nominal values of fiber characteristics. More importantly,
testing fiber characteristics will produce an accurate evaluation of the
variability of the bale population. Generated data can then be used for bale
management and for implementing suitable fiber selection techniques. The
third element in a cotton fiber engineering program is bale management, in
other words, the storage and retrieval of cotton bales. Two main methods of
bale acquisition may be used: storage and retrieval by group and category or
by bale identification number. Selecting one of these methods will depend
on the warehouse structure and the bale population size. The fiber selection
technique for a cotton fiber engineering program should involve two main
procedures: implementation of suitable bale picking schemes and fiber/
yam modelling. A bale picking scheme provides the mill with uniform fiber
characteristics on a mix-to-mix basis without violating inventory constraints.
Fiber/yarn modelling controls the desired output characteristics.
Bale management is a process to mix fiber homogeneously to get
consistent production and quality of yarn and inventory control and selection
of fibres according to its properties. According to the fiber characteristics, bale
management refers to a choice of cotton bales in order to achieve acceptable
and a constant yarn quality and economical processing conditions. The

objectives of bale management systems are (i) to get uniform yarn quality (ii)
to minimize shade variation of the finished fabric and (iii) to reduce or control
fabric barre.
The following programs available for Bale selection are
1. BIAS (Bale Inventory Analysis System)
2. EFS (Engineered Fiber Selection)
3. Linear Programming Technique
3.5.1 Bale Inventory Analysis System (BIAS)

Bale Inventory Analysis System (BIAS) is developed by M/S Zellweger
Uster. According to this system, mix is formed in a way that bales taken from
stock are having minimum variation in quality parameters from bale to bale
and from day to day.
Steps:
1. 100% testing of bales: All the bales received are tested in HVI. Tested
results are exported to BIAS either directly or by floppy disk.
2. Categorization of bales: All bales tested are numbered and divided
into categories. If categorized according to SCI (Spinning Consistency
Index) and Mic (Micronaire).
3. Mix formation: For example, mix for 20 bales
For SCI – Make 6 categories < 80, 80–90, 90–100, 100–110,
110–120, >120.
For MIC – Make 6 categories < 3.0, 3.0–3.3, 3.4–3.6, 3.7–3.9,
4.0–4.2, >4.2
These categories are decided by analyzing at least 1000 bales for
particular season. Since total categories are 6 × 6 = 36, so all the
bales tested are stocked into 36 categories. In other words, total of
SCI category in any direction will be the same. Now bales issued are
subtracted from stock.
4. Print out of mix plan: Enter bale number of each bale issued. Average
of all quality parameters will be printed. Thus, BIAS helps to reduce
variation in quality parameters on a day-to-day basis for particular
mixing. Fibre information from HVI and yarn information from
Tenso Rapid have been used to improve performance and profitability
of the yarn manufacturing process.
3.5.2 Engineered Fiber Selection (EFS)

The transition from a process that has been primarily based on intuitive and
subjective judgment to a total engineering system of fibre selection could not
have been possible without the introduction of powerful bale management
and selection software programs. The Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS)
system, developed by Cotton Incorporated, is the leading program in this
regard.
Scientific fiber to yarn/fabric engineering can be undertaken using Bale
Management System Software in a series of steps as follows:
1. Determination of cotton specifications
2. Opening line configuration and availability
3. In-house inventory management
4. Mix profile(s)
5. Bale selection
6. Mix evaluation and performance verification
3.5.2.1 Determination of cotton specifications

Cotton specifications are a function of end-product performance expectations
and the machinery complement, including process flow design and related
maintenance, settings, production rates, and the management philosophy of a
given mill. It has been demonstrated over the years that mills that buy cotton
solely based on price and without regard for mill and product needs are not
likely to be able to compete effectively in their markets long term.
Specifications of the end product should be determined and allocated into
needed cotton attributes and intermediate product and machinery performance
requirements. Various quality control reports and charts can be assembled to
support this aspect of cotton management. The control charts provided by
the Bale Management System Software can be used to assist the manager in
determining which process/product variables are correlated to cotton HVI-
measured properties.
3.5.2.2 Opening line configuration and availability

In most cases, it is not cost-effective to spin multiple yarn counts on multiple
spinning systems and preparations from the same cotton mix. If a large
quantity of cotton is being spun under such circumstances, it can usually be
demonstrated that the quality of the laydown is geared to the most critical of
the various yarns being spun and not to the highest volume yarn.
Blending machinery performance is a critical factor in achieving a
uniform end product. In today’s technology, fiber preparation lines have been
substantially condensed. In a preparation process, fiber tufts are automatically
detached from the bales, blended using two to three fiber mixers, opened
and cleaned using two to three cleaning units, and finally fed to the carding
process for final blending, opening, and cleaning. Throughout these sequential
processes, the bulk of blended fibres is gradually and rapidly reduced to the
size of the carded sliver.
Blending and opening unit types and various arrangements within a given
system are among factors affecting the performance of blending machinery. In
a typical fiber mixing system, the main challenge is to produce a blend from
successively fed bale proportions, which have to exist simultaneously in the
end to achieve uniformity.
The inherent blending efficiency of opening lines has a direct influence on
the consistent quality of yarn. Blending efficiency is different from cleaning
efficiency. Cleaning efficiency has been demonstrated to be best when the
cotton is cleaned with the least amount of work possible in order to reduce
the chance that the fiber will be nepped up and shortened. Higher opening
line blending efficiencies enable mills to successfully process a wider range
(%CV) of critical fiber properties such as micronaire. The better the opening
line blending efficiency, the broader the range of cotton properties that can
be purchased to make a given product. Thus, a high blending efficiency is a
competitive advantage.
The Bale Management System Software program assists mill management
in determining the best %CV for various HVI-measured properties through the
use of control charts, which plot averages and %CV’s to facilitate correlating
these trends to mill quality and efficiency. For example, correlation of spinning
ends down, yarn imperfections, warper stops, etc.
3.5.2.3 In-house inventory management

Mill inventory management is divided into three basic approaches:
1. Mill-owned central warehouses
2. Mill warehouses at each plant
3. Just-in-time shipments from merchant warehouses
Mill-owned warehouses may be central or plant located. The bale
management schemes used by many mills may be divided into one of three
basic concepts. In the first, cotton is received at individual plants from multiple
merchants and processed at the receiving plant regardless of its quality. In
the second, cotton bales are received at a central location, also from multiple
merchants, and distributed in uniform lots or mixes to individual plants. In
the third, a merchant in a just-in-time relationship with the mill ships cotton
laydowns (mixes) to each plant site directly.
The Bale Management System Software program may include an

EDI translation program to pass the documents between cotton merchants
and mills. The use of the extensive information (weights, bale numbers,
HVI properties, price, etc.) contained in these documents can be used to
fill in most of the needed fields in Bale Management System Software
program used to manage a cotton department thus eliminating tedious and
error prone hand keying of data. A powerful advantage of receiving EDI
documents is the verification of the HVI properties of shipments before
they are sent from the vendor. If there are any great differences between
the current inventory HVI property averages and the coming shipments,
the mill managers can prepare in advance for any changes that may be
needed in mix selection.
Inventory size has been found to be related mainly to two factors, the first
being the number of bales required to cover any delayed delivery of cotton
from the mill’s suppliers. The second has been determined to be that the
minimum size of an inventory should be large enough to ensure that no single
replenishment can change significantly the averages and distribution (%CV’s)
of the important HVI-controlled cotton properties of the on-site inventory.
This degree of control can only be achieved when HVI data are available for
every bale.
Just-in-time shipments generally refer to an agreement between a mill
and its cotton suppliers to ship mixes, selected by the Bale Management
System Software program, to its various plants rather than normal truckloads
of cotton randomly drawn from the inventory purchased from the supplier.
The main advantages of just-in-time shipments are twofold. First, inventory
held on site by the mill is minimized, and second, mixes drawn from large
inventories typically held by suppliers that use the Bale Management System
Software tend to be quite uniform from mix-to-mix over time. Both of these
factors have the potential to reduce costs. Disadvantages may include such
things as higher shipping costs and distance to the supplier’s warehouse,
which may result in the necessity to hold excessively large numbers of bales
on site. It is important to understand that special services such as Just-In-
Time services may generate mill savings while adding to supplier costs.
Therefore, they may command a premium while still providing overall cost
advantages.
3.5.2.4 Mix profile(s)
Cotton fibre mixing model (Fig. 3.9) gives the impact of software program
solution on the cotton fibre mixing quality and cost. For the programming
visual basic language is used and for storing the database SQL Server is
used.
Software
programme
Formulate Cotton fibre
for optimum mixing
mixing
mixing of
cotton fibres
su y
re erif
lts
Ne tion
so
V
lu
w
Impact
on cotton
fibre mixing
quality
and cost
Figure 3.9 Cotton fibre mixing model
The program is written on the basis of principles of linear programming.

The constraints of the mixing used in the program are cotton fibre minimum
length in mm, strength in grams per tex, micronaire value in a range,
maximum trash percentage, and price per kilogram of the cotton. Also some
of the practical constraints are considered while formulating the mixing like
maximum and minimum bales to be taken for mixing from a lot. This solution
is verified by the spinning experts and then laid down. The software program
is most useful when it is used at the time of cotton fibre procurement. As
software program give the mixing of satisfying mixing quality parameters
and at lowest cost, you can save maximum amount of mixing cost if you are
buying the cotton fibre required for the mixing.
The following are the typical strategy of fiber selection:
• Establishing the mix profile
• Population profile analysis
• Bale picking system
• Mix evaluation and verification
Establishing the cotton mix profile
The starting point of implementing a fiber selection strategy is to establish
cotton mix profile, or to determine the desired fiber characteristics of the
cotton mix. Specifically, a mill implementing a fiber selection strategy should
first establish the average values of different fiber attributes of bale laydown
and maximum allowable variability within a bale laydown. Thus, “a cotton
mix of optimum profile is a bale laydown, which exhibits average values and
variability levels of fiber attributes that upon processing will result in best yarn
characteristics and best processing performance at the lowest cost possible.”
However, particular cottons of low market prices may not necessarily result in
significant reduction in manufacturing coast (i.e. clean ability).
In a fiber to yarn engineering program, cotton mix profile should be
selected using following basic steps:
• Gathering information about fiber-to-yarn conversion system
• Gathering reliable data base of fiber properties, yarn properties, and
processing parameters
• Brainstorming of the effects of fiber attributes on yarn quality and
processing performance
• Developing reliable fiber to yarn relationships
• Developing systematic methods for determining the optimum cost of
the cotton mix
The second step of establishing the cotton mix profile is gathering reliable
data of fiber attributes, yarn characteristics, and processing parameters.
The third step is brainstorming of the effects of fiber attributes on yarn
quality and processing parameters. Experience and daily practice provide a
great deal of insight into the desired cotton mix profile. There are no specific
tools to perform brainstorming, but a layout of the different yarn parameters
and that are expected to influence these parameters proves to be useful in this
regard.
Population profile analysis
Once a cotton mix profile is established, the next step of implementing a fiber
selection strategy is population profile analysis. The objective of this analysis
is to ensure that cotton bales available in the warehouse exhibit fiber attributes
that satisfy the cotton mix profile. Cotton bales should be purchased with
values of fiber attributes falling within the range dictated by desired cotton
mix profile.
In a fiber selection process, the bale population profile is typically
identified by three main parameters:
1. The size of the population
2. The mean values of fiber attributes
3. The variability of the fiber attributes
These three parameters are described by the frequency distribution of
the population. As the population size approaches infinity, its distribution
approaches the normal distribution in an ideal fiber selection strategy, the
cotton mix profile should statistically match the population profile. Therefore,
we should select cotton bales from the warehouse that are truly representative
of the bale population.
In practical terms, these criteria indicate that:

(i) the average of fiber attribute in the cotton mix should be equal to its
corresponding average value in the bale population
(ii) the variability within single cotton mix should be equal to the
corresponding population variability
(iii) the between mix variability will depend on the mix size or the number
of bales in the lay-down in comparison with the population size and
the population variability
Each yarn quality should be considered as a candidate for its own mix.
Practically, this depends on the quantity of yarn being spun and the number
of available opening lines. In any event, the mix profile for a given mill’s
opening line should be selected to maintain appropriate control of those
HVI-measured properties which are deemed by the mill to be important to
machinery performance, efficiency, and product quality.
The Bale Management System Software System provides users with
histograms, color charts, and also, control charts, which can be used to establish
the best mix profile. The control of the distribution (%CV) of selected HVI-
measured fiber properties is the key to maintaining uniform, even-running
mixes over long periods. The distribution %CV’s should be no higher than 10
and in many instances no higher than 5. The actual value is dependent on mill
and end-product parameters and available inventory.
3.5.2.5 Bale selection
The fiber selection approach should meet two main objectives: it should achieve
a uniform profile of the characteristics of input fibres and corresponding end
products, and it should maintain the average values of output characteristics
at their desired levels. From an economical viewpoint, a proper fiber selection
strategy should result in better bale management, improved cotton bale
acquisition, improved mill efficiency, and optimum cotton use.
A fiber selection program should involve these basic steps: (1) Examine
the population distributions of fiber properties of cotton bales. (2) Implement
reliable bale picking schemes based on the distributions of fiber properties of
the bale population and bale management methodology. (3) Control average
output characteristics by developing reliable fiber-yam relationships.
Bale selection considerations include the determination of the required
run time of the mix. More importantly, the bale selection process should
include the creation of mini-mixes within the mix to ensure that the cotton fed
into the opening and cleaning line is always representative of the mix’s overall
properties and distributions. Waste cotton and/or other non-HVI measured
bales should be distributed uniformly within the mix and not grouped all at
one location.
By-group and category fiber selection

Selecting fibres by group and categories requires knowledge of the fiber
characteristics of each individual bale in the warehouse population. In a
typical bale warehouse, the cotton bale population may be represented by one
group or may be divided into several groups according to growth area, grade,
cotton type, certain fiber characteristics, spinning systems, end products, etc.
A single-group system is rarely found today because of the increasing trend
of buying different cotton types for economical reasons and for satisfying
different product specifications.
In a by-group selection system, bales belonging to each group are mainly
identified by their corresponding group, as shown in Fig. 3.10. Cotton bales
are then picked from each group to form a mix representing average fiber
characteristics of various groups. The way in which bales are selected from
each group may be by random picking or by category picking. In random
picking, each bale in a group population has virtually an equal chance of being
selected in the fiber mix or bale lay-down. In category picking, each group
population of a fiber characteristic is divided into a number of categories, and
bales are picked by both group and category values. Figure 3.11 illustrates the
principle of the by group and category fiber selection technique.
A B C
Ware house (Bales in each group) A A A A B B B B C C C C
A A A A B B B B C C C C
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2
A3 B3 C3
A4 B4 C4
Figure 3.10 The general principle of fibre selection by-group

Group B
Group C
Group A B2
C2
A2
B1 B3 C1 C3
A1 A3
A1B2C3
Figure 3.11 Fibre selection by-group and category
For best utilization of existing inventory and to avoid step changes in

HVI averages, or distribution %CV’s, bales are best selected each time a mix
is required. In other words, it is better for process control and product quality
to let each mix correctly reflect the averages and distribution %CV’s of the
existing inventory than it is to try to always run exactly the same mix. This
is true because inventory variances make it virtually impossible to select a
mix that can be run over long periods without substantial changes in property
averages and/or distributions. The three types of bale selection methods are
given below.
Stock Issue
100 10
6
60
50 5
30 3
10 1
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4
Figure 3.12 Standard distribution of bale selection
(a) Standard Distribution (Fig. 3.12) – Also referred to as Proportional

Distribution. The Proportional Weight Category approach (PWC)
should satisfy two main conditions:
• Consistent mix or bale lay-down

• Stable bale inventory
The underlying concept of the PWC bale picking is that cotton
bales belonging to a certain category are represented in the mix in
numbers proportional to the relative frequency of their category in the
population. Within a given bale category, bales are picked randomly.
Issued bales will have the same distribution as that of stock. The
average quality of all parameters is same from the first issue to the
final issue. Enables uniform consumption of bales in stock.
(b) Normal Distribution (Fig. 3.13) – The issue should contain the
required average for the selected quality parameters, and it should
follow the theory of normal distribution. Adequate bale stock is
essential. Ensures uniform bale quality issue irrespective of bales in
stock.
Stock
Issue
100
95
10
40 6 6
30
10 2 2
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2
Figure 3.13 Normal distribution of bale selection
(c) Moving point distribution (Table 3.3) – If the user prefers to have a
very narrow working range for the selected quality parameter, the
system should generate the issue and according to the availability the
shift in the parameter should happen gradually till all the bales are
exhausted in the lot. For example, if the user would like to have the
Micronaire working range of 4.2–4.6. After exhausting the bales in
4.6 Micronaire, the system should automatically shift to 4.1 to 4.5.
After exhausting 4.5, the system should go for 4.0 to 4.4.
Table 3.3 Moving point average method of bale selection
Micronaire/
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Total
Mix no.
1 22 16 12 8 58
2 24 16 12 10 62
3 26 14 10 10 60
4 18 20 15 7 60
5 20 16 14 10 60
6 20 16 14 10 60
7 15 10 15 20 60
8 14 11 14 21 60
9 16 10 20 14 60
3.5.2.6 Mix and process performance evaluation

A great deal of useful information may be obtained using the Bale Management
System Software program to provide mill management the average and
distribution %CV of each mix plotted as control charts. The variations reflected
on these charts can quickly be correlated with mill production, efficiency and
quality considerations. In some mills, mixes are selected far enough in advance
to allow management the opportunity to request that the mix be reselected
when certain averages and/or distributions appear to be out of line. By closely
monitoring mill process and product performance using various observations
and reports, cotton buyers typically can refine their purchasing practices to
lower costs while improving mill operations and lowering inventory levels. In
many instances, labour cost can be reduced as well throughout the company.
3.5.3 Linear Programming Technique (LPT)

LP is a mathematical model in which we represent existing situation in terms
of linear equations and try to find solutions which will satisfy these equations
and at the same time maximize or minimize one of such equations
y = Ax1 + Bx2 + Cx3
x1, x2, x3 are variables
Interpretation
x1, x2, x3 are quantity sold for three different products
A, B, C are profit per unit
Y is the total profit of the company on the sale of three products
Usage in textile industry
• Determining the optimum blend for mixing
• Determining the optimum product mix in production planning
• Reduction of inventory of dyes and chemicals

• Determining the optimum raw material purchases
• Identifying the bottleneck areas in production
Usage of LP/need for LP

• Minimize total cost and maximize quality
• Formulation of LP model in cotton mixing
Let
C1, C2, C3 and Cn be the costs of n cottons
P1, P2, P3 and Pn be the percentage of each cotton to be mixed
L1, L2 , L3 and Ln be the length of the cotton fibre
S1, S2, S3 and Sn be the strength of the fibre
M1, M2, M3 and Mn be the maturity co-efficient
F1, F2, F3 and Fn be the fineness of fibre
Objective function
Min Z = (C1 × P1) + ( C2 × P2) + (C3 × P3) + ………… + (Cn × Pn)
Subject to constraints
L1P1 + L2P2 + L3P3 + ………………. + LnPn ≥ Lr
S1P1 + S2P2 + S3P3 + ………………. + SnPn ≥ Sr
M1P1 + M2P2 + M3P3 + ……………… + MnPn ≥ Mr
F1P1 + F2P2 + F3P3 + … + FnPn ≤ Fr
P1 + P2 + P3 + ……………………… + Pn = 1
Where P1, P2, P3 ……….. Pn ≥ 0
Example
To manufacture 10 tex cotton yarn, the required properties of the raw materials
are the following:
Length: 31.5–34 mm
Strength: 20–23 gptex
Maturity coefficient: 80–83%
Micronaire: 3.6–3.9
Properties of cotton available and their costs are given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Properties of cotton fibres
Cotton varieties
1 2 3 Norms
Properties
Length (mm) 33 31 30 32
Strength (gptex) 24 20.5 19 21.5
Maturity Coefficient 83 80.2 79.8 82

Micronaire 3.5 3.85 3.9 3.7
Cost/lb 2.05 1.70 1.66 –
Objective function
Min Z = 2.05P1 + 1.70P2 + 1.66P3
Constraints
33P1 + 31P2 + 30P3 ≥ 32
24P1 + 20.5P2 + 19P3 ≥ 21.5
0.83P1 + 0.802P2 + 0.798P3 ≥ 0.82
3.5P1 + 3.85P2 + 3.9P3 ≤ 3.7
P1+ P2 + P3 = 1
Minimum Constraints P1, P2, P3 ≥ 0
P1, P2, P3 values are obtained by solving this LP model using simplex method.
Results Objective function value: Min Z = 1.925
Cotton Percentage to be mixed

1 64.3
2 35.7
3 0
3.5.4 Benefits of bale management system software

The following are the benefits most often reported by Bale Management
System Software users:
1. Use of HVI data eliminates cotton bale sample cutting and classing at
the mill
2. Reduction of inventory carried by the mill
3. Just-In-Time delivery of cotton improves quality
4 Yarn quality is improved including yarn count variation, strength and

Uster statistics
5. Fewer fabric defects
6. Elimination of cotton mix selection as a cause of barre
7. Reduction of comber noils without loss of quality
8. Improved efficiencies lead to lower labor costs
9. Improved warehouse management
10. Short fiber control improved
11. Adjustment of mix averages and distribution %CV’s based on values
of incoming but not yet received cotton
12. Better contract management, reporting, and improved communications/
understanding between textile mills and their cotton suppliers
3.6 References
1. Balasubramanian N. (1995). Fibre properties by HVI and conventional testing at
different stages of spinning, Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research, 20, pp.
63–72.
2. Bona M. (1994). Testing quality, physical methods of product and process control,
textilia-Eurotex, pp. 182–399.
3. Davidonis G.H. et al. (1999). The cotton fiber property variability continuum from
motes through seeds. Textile Research Journal, 69(10), pp. 754–759.
4. El Mogahzy Y. (2004). An integrated approach to analyzing the nature of
multicomponent fiber blending – Part I: Analytical aspects. Textile Research Journal,
74(8), pp. 701–712.
5. El Mogahzy Y.E. and Gowayed Y. (1995). Theory and practice of cotton fiber selection
– Part 2: Sources of cotton mix variability and critical factors affecting it. Textile
Research Journal, 65(2), pp. 75–84.
6. El Mogahzy Y.E., Broughton R. and Lynch W.K. (1990). Statistical approach to
determining the technological value of cotton using High Volume Instrument fiber
properties. Textile Research Journal, 60(9), pp. 495–500.
7. El Mogahzy, Y. E. (1992). Optimizing Cotton Blend Cost with Respect to Quality
Using HVI Fiber Properties and Linear Programming, Part I: Fundamentals and
Advanced Techniques of Linear Programming, Textile Research Journal, 62(1), pp.
1–8.
8. El Mogahzy, Y. E. (1992). Optimizing Cotton Blend Costs with Respect to Quality
Using HVI Fiber Properties and Linear Programming, Part II: Combined Effects of
Fiber Properties and Variability Constraints, Textile Research Journal, 62(2), pp. 108–
114.
9. El Mogahzy, Y. E., Broughton, R., and Lynch, W. (1990). A Statistical Approach for
Determining the Technological Value of Cotton Using HVI Fiber Properties, Textile
10. El Mogazhy (1995). Manufacture of Staple Yarns, Handbook of Industrial Textiles,

pp. 69–83.
11. El Mogazhy, Y. E., and Gowayed, Y. (1995). Theory and practice of cotton fibre
selection, Part I: Fibre selection techniques and bale picking algorithms, Textile
12. El Mogazhy, Y. E., and Gowayed, Y. (1995). Theory and practice of cotton fibre
selection, Part II: Sources of cotton mix variability and critical factors affecting it,
Textile Research Journal, 65(2), pp. 75–84.
13. Fryer, L.F (1996). Effects of cotton fiber blending and processing on HVI
Measurements –Part- 1, Textile Research Journal, 66(6), pp. 349–357.
14. Garde, A.R., and Deshpande, S.P. (1969). Linear programming for reducing mixing
costs, Proceedings of ABS Joint Technological Conference, pp. 17–22.
15. Garde, A.R. and Deshpande, S.P. (1970). How linear programming is used to decide
optimum mixings, Proceedings of ATIRA Technological Conference, pp. 1–8.
16. Kang B. et al. (2000). A simplified optimization in cotton bale selection and lay-down.
Fibers and Polymers, 1(1), pp. 55–58.
17. Leifeld, F. (1993). The Secret of Perfect Blending from Bale to Sliver, presented to the
Beltwide Cotton Conference, New Orleans, LA, pp. 10–14.
18. Bhattacharya, S. et al (1995). Testing and bale management, the Indian Textile Journal,
pp. 114–117.
19. Y. E. El Mogahzy and Yasser Gowayed (1995). Theory and Practice of Cotton Fiber
Selection: Part I: Fiber Selection Techniques and Bale Picking Algorithms Textile
4
Control of wastes in spinning
Abstract: This chapter deals with the various control points and remedial
measures in each process for the control of waste to improve the yarn realization
in spinning. The various factors influencing the yarn realization and control of
hard waste and their norms are also discussed. The influence of process and
machine parameters on control of waste in blow room, carding and comber and
the influence of modern developments on waste control have been discussed.
The effect of contamination on final yarn quality and various techniques of
contamination removal during spinning processes have also been discussed in
detail.
Key words: yarn realization, hard waste, invisible loss, cleanability, noil
4.1 Yarn realization

The growing global competition forces the cotton spinning mills to produce
yarns in constant quality at internationally competitive prices. When
comparing the cost structures in different locations it can be clearly seen –
under consideration of all the regional dissimilarities – that the raw material
price now as before represents the dominating factor in yarn manufacturing
costs. This means that the key to survival in the international market is to best
possibly utilize the raw material, despite all influences of labour costs and
capital costs.
A high yarn realization is a factor of great importance in the production
economics of a spinning mill. One per cent reduction in yarn realization
would cause almost the same economic impact on the mill’s profit as 1%
increase in the raw material cost would make. This is because resale value
of waste is much less than the actual price of cotton till it reaches yarn stage.
To illustrate, in the prevailing cotton cost and yarn selling price, even a 1%
improvement in yarn realization would lead to a saving of Rs 20 lakhs per
year for a 30000 spindle mill manufacturing 40s yarn. Hence control of yarn
realization is important to a mill as the control of cotton and mixing costs.
Yarn Realization is the percentage of yarn output produced from the
given cotton input. Yarn Realization largely depends on the level of trash in
cotton.
4.1.1 Method of yarn realization calculation

The estimation of yarn realization has to be done accurately by maintaining
proper recording of bale weights, wastes and yarn produced. Because the
estimation of quantities such as moisture content in cotton and yarn, tare
weights, allowances for twist contraction and idle spindles and invisible loss
are subjected to a number of assumptions as well as possible sources of error.
Generally most of the mills use the following formula:
Yarn production
Yarn realisation (%) = × 100
Cotton consumption
Where, Cotton consumption = Cotton issued (kg) + Opening process
stock − Closing process stock
The percentage of yarn realization from any mixing depends upon the
magnitude of two types of wastes:
1. Process waste – Wastes taken out in blow room, cards and combers,
which together form about 80% of the total waste. These wastes are
extracted for the purpose of cleaning, so there should be a direct
measurement and control of process wastes.
2. Product waste – Wastes which are incurred at each stage of processing.
The product wastes can be controlled through proper supervision.
The types of waste incurred in the spinning mills can be categorized as:
1. Usable wastes:
• Lap bits and card web
• Sliver waste in drawing and fly frames
• Waste at comber preparatory and combers
• Roving ends
• Pneumafil and roller waste (ring frames)
2. Non-usable wastes (process and product waste):
• Blow room droppings
• Card waste (licker-in, flat strips and other wastes)
• Gutter / filter waste
• Micro dust
• Comber noils
• Yarn waste (hard waste)
• Sweep waste (includes fan wastes of draw frame and speed frame
and OHTC waste)
• Invisible loss
For the calculation of yarn realization only non-usable wastes are taken
into consideration. Formula for estimating the yarn realization given by
SITRA is shown on the next page:
Control of wastes in spinning 71
Yarn Realization YR (%) = (100 – (Wbr + Wk + Wh + Ws + Wg) – I)….

for carded counts
= 100 – (Wbr + Wk + Wc + Wh + Ws + Wg)
– I)…. for combed counts
Where,
Wbr = Blow room waste%
Wk = Card waste%
Wc = Comber noil%
Wh = Yarn waste%
Ws = Sweep waste%
Wg = Gutter / Filter waste%
I = Invisible loss%
If a mill does not reuse the usable wastes in the same mixing, the
corresponding usable wastes (%) must be deducted in the above estimation.
4.1.2 Norms for yarn realization and waste in different

departments
The percentage yarn realization depends primarily on the process waste taken
out at the blow room, cards and combers. Of these, the waste taken out in the
blow room depends on the trash content of the mixing, the waste in cards,
on the type of cards and also on the trash in the lap and the waste in combers
on the nature of fibre length distribution of typical mixing used for different
combed counts. The norms for the various waste losses and yarn realization
for types of yarns are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, respectively.
Table 4.1 Norms for types of waste in spinning
Content Carded Combed MMF
Count 4–9 10–13 14–25 26–34 28–34 35–44 45–70 71–99 –
Trash% 11 10 7 5 5 4 3 2 –
B.R. dropping 12 11 7.7 5.4 5.4 4.4 3.2 2.2 0.1
Card waste 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.3 6.4 0.1
Comber
– – – – 9 10.9 12 13 –
waste
Sweeping 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.2 1 1 0.5
Clearer waste 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
Hard waste 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
Invisible loss 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Y.R.% 78.1 79.7 83.6 86.5 77.5 77.4 77.9 77.9 97.6
Table 4.2 Standards for yarn realization and waste%
Category Blow room Card Comber Ring Yarn

waste waste waste frame realization
Carded cotton count 5–6% 5–6% – 3% 85–88%
Combed cotton count 5–6% 5–6% 3–5% 3% 70–75%
Manmade fibers 1% 1% – 2% 95–97%
The actual waste collected should be compared with the norms and causes
for deviation should be thoroughly investigated. Weekly waste indices showing
the ratios of actual hard waste and sweep wastes to the respective norms should
be calculated for each section. Often, the causes of high hard waste, soft waste
and sweepings are due to negligence of workers, rough handling of materials
and poor working conditions. A high sweep waste arises due to operatives
throwing away the waste like bonda waste etc. on the floor. Periodically the
sweep waste should be checked for the presence of good fibres. The spinning
tenters should be provided with bags and it should be ensured that the bonda
waste is kept in the bags during piecing. Proper supervision, maintenance and
strict control would help to reduce the incidence of these wastes.
The process waste need to be weighed only once a month and percentage
for all categories of waste estimated taking the total cotton consumed as the
basis. Estimates of the invisible loss or gain in ring spinning, reeling and
winding stages should be made at periodic intervals. The norm for usable
waste in cotton processing is given in Table 4.3. By exercising good control
over end breaks in various machines, material handling and storage and work
practices of operatives a mill could maintain the usable waste below 5%. In
Synthetic processing all wastes are reusable except Blow room droppings and
carding flat strips. Maximum waste achieved in blow room dropping is 0.5%,
card flat strip is 1.5%, and Invisible loss is 0.5%. So, all the synthetic mills can
able to achieve 97–98% yarn realization.
Table 4.3 Norms for usable waste
Type of waste Norms (%)
Lap bits 0.5
Card web 0.2
Sliver waste in drawing and fly frames 0.5
Comber preparatory and comber waste 1.0
Roving ends 0.3
Pneumafil and roller waste (ring frames) 2.0

4.1.3 Effect of fibre parameters on yarn realization

The fibre parameters which can affect the yarn realization are:
1. Trash% in mixing
If the trash percentage is higher in mixing, more waste in blow room
and card be removed to get the required quality compared to the cotton
having less trash% in mixing, which in turn affects the yarn realization.
2. Short fibre content (SFC) in mixing
Higher SFC in mixing resulted in more waste in blow room. Improper
control of short fibres leads to fluff liberation in the departments
which in turn higher invisible loss and affects the yarn realization.
3. Moisture content in mixing
If there is more moisture content in cotton, the amount of invisible
loss will be higher.
4. Micronaire
In less Micronaire cotton, the amount of immaturity is higher, so that
due to fibre rupture in blow room and card the waste will be higher.
MCU5 – 3.8 to 4.2, DCH32 – 3.0 to 3.2.
5. Maturity Ratio
In more immaturity cotton, due to fibre rupture in blow room and card
the waste will be higher.
6. Stickiness of cotton / Honey dew content
Higher honey dew content in cotton leads to more white waste and
higher micro dust/fluff accumulation on the machine components and
leads to higher invisible loss or micro dust which in turn affects the
yarn realization.
4.1.4 Records for estimating yarn realization and waste

The various quantities for which systematic records have to be kept for the
purpose of obtaining the yarn realization and waste losses, and their inter-
relationships are shown in Fig. 4.1. It contains only one quantity which is not
directly measured, namely, the invisible loss. The quantity of the invisible loss
is obtained by subtraction.
By implication the invisible loss refers to the loss caused by the
evaporation of part of the moisture content in the cotton, and by the escape
into the atmosphere of some fibres and dust at various stages of processing.
In practice, however, the invisible loss is the total unaccounted loss and
consequently reflects immediately any mistake, or systematic error in record
keeping. A relatively small inaccuracy in the waste or production records
would cause a large proportionate change in the invisible loss.
Figure 4.1 Records recommended to account for yarn realization 74
Yarn realization
Cotton consumed Waste generated Yarn produced
Is obtained from Consists of Is recorded as
Cotton Stock in Process Product Invisible Doff Hank meter

Or
issued process waste waste loss weights readings
Opening Closing Blow

Cards Combers
room
Process control and yarn quality in spinning
Processed Noil
Bale cotton Gutter Flat strips, Clearer Unaccounted Tare weights, Wrapping count,
through blow losses:
waste strippings, waste calibration of twist contraction,
room B.R. + Moisture and
droppings droppings sweepings balances bonda waste,
cards B.R. fly errors
hard waste hank meter
+ Cards + in record correction, idle
comber keeping spindle
Almost all data are recorded daily; the only exceptions are the stock in
process and the gutter loss in blow room. The overall and mixing-wise values
of yarn realization should be calculated once every month and the overall
invisible loss also determined at that time. If the values of overall invisible
loss remain steady over the months, but the overall yarn realization fluctuates,
then it is clear that the changes in the yarn realization are real and are due to
some changes in the waste levels. If however, the invisible loss also fluctuates
substantially then it indicates some mistake in calculation or in recording data,
besides a possible change in the waste levels themselves.
4.1.5 Control of invisible loss

While calculating the yarn realization, the quantity of wastes which are not
weighable / quantifiable due to evaporation of part of the moisture content
in the cotton and the escaping of short fibres and dust at various stages of
processing of cotton such as micro dust, flies etc. are called as invisible loss.
Invisible loss = 100 – packed yarn production% – packed waste%
(including micro dust and sweeping waste).
In practice, however, the invisible loss is the total unaccounted loss and
consequently reflects immediately any mistake in record keeping. A relatively
small inaccuracy in the waste or production records would cause a large
proportionate change in the invisible loss.
4.1.5.1 Reasons for invisible loss

1. Short fibres and fluff escaping from departments
2. Weighment errors in cotton purchased and wastes sold
3. Excess giveaway of yarn and inaccuracies in the estimates of stock
held in process
4. Differences in moisture content between cotton and yarn
5. Pilferage
6. Inaccuracies in the estimates of stock held in process
7. Improper accounting of waste produced
4.1.5.2 Control measures for invisible loss

1. Ensure the moisture content in yarn is equal or little higher than the
moisture content in mixing. The loss due to this would be invariably
very insignificant and the mills should keep a check by weighing a
few bales at random after a lapse of 3–4 months and compare the
same with the weight at the time of purchase.
Normal moisture content in mixing – 6–7%
Normal moisture content in yarn:

Before yarn conditioning – 4.5–5.0%
After yarn conditioning – 6.0–6.5%
During the process of fibre to yarn conversion, the decrease of 1–2
percentage happens which would not only affect the yarn quality,
but also the invisible loss. The yarn conditioning process increases
the moisture content by 1.0–1.5% (by restoring the yarn’s natural
regain). The increase in moisture content in yarn after conditioning
would reduce the invisible loss and in some cases it would result in
‘invisible gain’.
2. Maintain the relative humidity at 65% in winding 70% in packing
departments
3. Condition the yarn at least for 12–16 hours in humidified atmosphere
before packing
4. Use yarn-conditioning plant, if necessary. The objective of yarn
conditioning system is to restore the natural properties of yarn like
moisture content and to improve the strength and elongation and to
produce a balance yarn (twist setting). So due to this the invisible loss
is compensated.
5. Accuracy of balances used in weighment plays a crucial role since
any under estimation in weight would be a financial loss to the mill
and over estimation would lead to market complaints. Hence balances
used in cotton godown, cone winding packing departments must
be calibrated as per schedule and cross-checked periodically with
standard weight.
6. Tare of different packs viz., bags, cartons and pallets must be checked
every week
7. Saleable wastes like blow room droppings, card waste, comber
waste, etc., should be weighed shift-wise and proper records should
be maintained. Reconciliation of weight of wastes should be done
during selling. Yarn issued to workers (for cleaning purpose) must be
weighed and recorded.
8. A high invisible loss can arise due to excess bundle weight in reeling,
either due to coarser count or longer length. The quality control
department should keep a periodic check of the net weight after
conditioning and length of yarn in cones and knots.
4.1.6 Control of hard waste in spinning mill

A high incidence of yarn waste, apart from leading to a loss of Rs 6–15 per
spindle per year for every 0.1% waste, is an indication of poor machinery
condition and maintenance, and inappropriate work practices of operatives.

The norms for hard waste for different machines are given in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Norms for hard waste in spinning and post-spinning machines (SITRA)
S. no. Department Good Average Poor
1 Conventional cone winding

• Mechanical slub catcher 0.10 0.15 0.20
• Electronic clearer 0.10 0.15 0.20
2 Reeling 0.10 0.15 0.20
3 Doubler winding
• Cop feed 0.15 0.25 0.30
• Cone feed 0.04 0.06 0.08
4 Ring doubling 0.05 0.08 0.10
5 Two-for-one twister 0.03 0.05 0.06
6 Auto coner
• Savio 0.40 0.60 0.75
• Muratec 0.50 0.75 1.00
• Padmatex 138 0.50 0.75 1.00
• Schlafhorst 238 0.30 0.45 0.60
7 Open end spinning 0.01 0.02 0.03
8 Ring spinning 0.02 0.03 0.04
The incidence of hard waste in any process is influenced by the following

three factors:
• End breaks and feed package replacement
• Work practices and
• Other causes such as quality of feed packages, housekeeping and
material handling.
4.1.6.1 Control of hard waste in ring frame

Causes of hard waste
Since the ring cops are the feed packages for single yarn winding, the quality
of ring cops must be maintained at good level. Whenever there is a count
change in ring frame, the cop quality should be checked. Proper quality of
cop ensures higher winding efficiency. The cop quality is checked as per the
parameters listed in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Quality parameters to be checked in a ring cop
S. no. Parameter Standard Impact
1 Bobbin diameter Ring diameter: 3 mm • Cop content

• Hairiness
2 Chase length Cop diameter × 1.2 Less chase:

• Slough off
• Bobbin rejection
• Bunch in cone
3 Bobbin hardness 60–70° shore for Less hardness:

cotton • More slough off
4 Winding and binding 2:1 to 3:1 Slough off

length
5 Bobbin empty (Top) 12 mm Lower setting at top:

• Slough off
• Low yarn content
6 Bobbin empty 10 mm Lower setting at bottom:

(bottom) • Bottom spoiled
7 Back winding 1.5 to 2 Hard waste
8 Under winding 3–5 layers • Hard waste

• Startup breakage
9 Tail end Min. possible Tension break at bottom
(a) Cop content: Depending on the spindle lift and ring diameter, the cop
content (in grams) should be as given in Table 4.6
Table 4.6 Relationship between lift, ring diameter and cop content (g)
Spindle lift Ring diameter

38 mm 40 mm 42 mm
170 mm 48–52
180 mm 62–65
190 mm 68–70
(b) Diameter of the cop: The ‘actual cop diameter’ must be checked
against ‘standard cop diameter’. The standard cop diameter depends
on the ring diameter as shown in Table 4.7.
Standard cop diameter = Ring diameter – 3 mm
Table 4.7 Relationship between ring diameter and cop diameter
Ring diameter Cop diameter

38 mm 35 mm
40 mm 37 mm
42 mm 39 mm
(c) Back winding: The number of back winding coils should be around
1.5–2.5 and the maximum length of back winding should not be more
than 80 cm.
(d) Under winding: The number of under winding coils should be around
2–3 and the maximum length of back winding should not be more
than 20 cm. As the under winding and back winding increases, more
time is wasted to open them up before feeding in the magazine and
also hard waste is increased.
(e) Top clearance: The clearance from bobbin tip to yarn body of a full
cop should be approx. 10 mm. If the top clearance is too less, it may
cause slough off at the start of the bobbin unwinding.
(f) Bottom clearance: The clearance from bobbin bottom to yarn body of
should be approx. 10mm. If the bottom clearance is too less, it may
cause bottom spoiled bobbin.
(g) Yarn length per chase: The length of yarn per chase should be around
3.5–5.5 m. If the length is too long, it may lead to slough off during
high speed unwinding.
(h) Bobbin hardness: The bobbin hardness should be around 50° to 55°.
Soft bobbins results slough off. Besides the above-mentioned points,
the cops should be also checked for long tail end, deshaped bobbin,
kirchi & lapetta, ring cut, overfilled and bottom spoiled bobbin to
ensure high production efficiency in winding.
In ring frames, poor work practices of workers and poor maintenance of
machinery affect the quality of cops which in turn increases the end breaks,
slough off, cop rejection etc., in the post spinning process ultimately leading
to high hard waste. Some of the wrong work practices which affect the quality
of the cop are double gaiting, over-end piecing, upward and downward
ratcheting, not engaging the pawl on the ratchet wheel while starting the frame
after doffing, using empties with remnants, not stopping the frame properly
for doffing thus leading to more backwind coils, etc.
Improper maintenance of builder motion, poor spindle and lappet gauging,
etc., produce poor quality cops. The average cop content is about 15% lower
than that expected for the lift and ring diameter used by the mills. Some of
the parameters which influence the cop content besides the maintenance of
machines are as follows: low utilization of tube length, frequent ratcheting, not
providing cop bottoms, improper ratchet wheel and lifter wheel combination,
more chase length etc. The quality of yarn should also be maintained at good
level. The incidence of high hard waste in ring frames is due to the following
causes:
1. High end breaks
2. Removing more yarn unnecessarily while attending defects in cops
3. Taking more length of yarn from cops while piecing
4. Removing the cops roughly without stopping the spindle and making
slough off
5. Poor doffing practice – doffing and donning separately
6. More frequent wrapping (for count checking)
Measures to reduce hard waste
1. Maintain low breakage rate in all post-spinning operations by
improving the parent yarn quality
2. Improve the quality of cops by reducing the defects like ring cuts,
slough off, over filled cops, double gaiting, etc.
3. Ensure high cop content for the given package size
4. Impart training to workers for correct work methods
5. Maintain the machinery in good condition
6. Maintain the number of backward coils / underwind coils in the cop
7. Adopt good material handling practices such as use of plastic crates
for transporting cops, trolleys, etc.
8. Improve housekeeping. Keep cop stocks in cone winding with proper
covers and full cones should be stocked in raised platform.
4.1.6.2 Control of hard waste in cone winding
The various measures required to reduce the hard waste level in winding
department are given below:
1. Keep the functioning of stop motions in cone/cheese winding in good
condition
2. Maintain the cop rejection in autoconers below 10% by improving the
cop quality. The various reasons of bobbin rejection are as follows:
• Bobbin quality – Long tail end, kirchi / lapetta, deshaped bobbin,
overfilled bobbin, bottom spoiled bobbin, ring cut bobbin, soft
bobbin, sick bobbin
• Bobbin feeding in magazine
• Top bunch transfer failure
• Fault in winding unit and yarn quality
• Double gaiting / over piecing in ring frame
• Insufficient suction in the gripper arm
3. Wind all the rejected bottoms from auto coners in conventional cone
winding machines with slow speed (after removing the defects, if
any) instead of cutting them using knife
4. Attend to red light immediately in auto coners
5. Feed only the minimum amount of yarn in the suction of autoconer
while creeling the cops
6. Avoid using damaged empties
7. Maintaining proper yarn tensioning
8. Minimum splicing length.
9. Maintain proper records
10. Reconcile the hard waste recorded in production departments with
that of godown figures periodically
4.2 Control of blow room waste

Raw cotton contains various kinds of trash, such as leaf, bark, and seed coat
particles. The content of each of those trash categories is highly depending
on the origin of the cotton and its harvesting method. Trash content from bale
to sliver should decrease through the opening. In one hand, the requirements
of sliver quality impose that the cotton must be intensively cleaned during
ginning, spinning mill and carding. On the other hand, the amount of those
contaminations provides useful information for finding more efficient cleaning
processes and predicts the quality of the finished products.
4.2.1 Need for opening

The term ‘opening’ in the technological sense, means while number of fibres
remaining constant volume of the flock is increased, i.e. the specific density
of the material is reduced. Opening is usually the first step in the spinning
process and includes removal of the fibres from the bale by plucking followed
by further opening using pinned cylinders and pinned lift aprons. Opening to
a fine degree is normally performed using a feed roll/feed plate combination
to restrain the cotton whilst it is opened into very small tufts by wire wound
cylinders, pinned beaters or blade beaters. At each stage of opening a cleaning
operation can be performed. Cotton has to be opened more than once because
trash is removed only from the surface of tufts and multiple opening actions
are needed to expose all the trash.
In the blow room cotton tuft size vary from 5 mg to not more than 150
mg. Throughout the processing steps in the spinning plant the density of the
fibre assembly changes as shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Density of fibres at different processing stages
Processing step Density

In the bale 0.30–0.70 g/cm3
In mixer or blender 0.10 g/cm3
In the sliver can 0.10 g/cm3
On the roving bobbin 0.25–0.35 g/cm3
Yarn on the bobbin 0.50 g/cm3
The intensity of opening of cotton in blowroom depends upon on raw

material, machines, machine speed and ambient conditions. All these factors
have to be considered before optimizing the opening and cleaning of the
cotton in the blowroom. The influence of number of machines in the blow
room line is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Influence of number of machines on opening intensity in blow room

The fourth or fifth cleaning step in the blow room line on the over-all
cleaning efficiency is marginal, but the contribution to fibre loss and quality
reduction is considerably higher. Hence shorter cleaning lines with only
two or three cleaning points are preferred in modern blow room lines. With
appropriate machinery design, one pre-cleaner and one or two fine cleaners
per line are sufficient.
4.2.2 Need for cleaning

The term ‘cleaning’ in the technological sense means that it is the process
of releasing the ‘imprisoned’ impurities from the bale cotton. The available
possibilities for cleaning of natural fibres can be classified into three groups’ viz.
wet cleaning, chemical cleaning and mechanical cleaning. Since mechanical
cleaning is the cheapest, easiest and fastest method, in mechanical processing
of cotton, this method is widely accepted and used in the blowroom. In the
mechanical cleaning the dirt particles on the surface of the flocks are removed
by the use of one or combination of the striking, scrapping, suction, combing
or ejecting.
4.2.3 Factors influencing cleaning in blow room

Normally trash is separated from the cotton by centrifugal force. The material
is moved at high speed in a circular motion. The trash tends to sling out from
the fibre surface during the passage in the pipeline. Grid bars are provided
in the machines to allow the trash to escape and separate from the fibre that
passes over the grid bars. The grid bars are adjustable to vary the angle and
open space allowing more, or less trash to be removed. With an increase in the
grid bar opening, there is an increase in the amount of good fibre that goes into
the waste with the trash. Good fibre in the waste is normally kept to a minimal
amount. However, if maximum cleaning is required there will be good fibre
in the waste.
New tuft surfaces must be created continuously to facilitate cleaning.
Larger, heavier particles are relatively easy to remove. Beating devices tend
to break large trash particles making them smaller and more difficult to
remove. Large trash should be removed at the beginning of the cleaning
process. For this reason, cotton removed from the bales should be in small
tufts for effective cleaning. Very small trash particles tend to be carried
with the cotton in the transport air and it is difficult to obtain separation.
Condensers and fibre separators help with the removal of dust sized particles.
The various trash liberating forces and their principle of operation is given
in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 Change of intensity of trash liberation and separation
Way to change intensity
Liberation by
(i) Centrifugal force Rotational speed of opening element, diameter of drum or
roller, velocity of air flow and radius of curvature of bend in duct
(ii) Impact Speed, setting between feed nip to line to action of opening
elements
(iii) Pneumatic Suction fan speed
force
(iv) Frictional force Sharpness of grid bars, angle of inclination, closeness of
interacting surfaces
Separation by
(i) Gravity Size of slot, setting between grid bars
(ii) Suction Size of screen perforations, aim discharge rate
(iii) Buoyancy Velocity of cross air, location of separation edge
(iv) Magnetic Magnetic power, location
As cleaning demands both liberation and separation good cleaning is only

possible if both are highly effective and appropriate to the nature of trash/
foreign matter we intend to extract. As an example the principle to be used and
intensified for liberating and extracting large and heavy trash particles would
be quite different than that to be used for dust or seed coat fragments.
4.2.4 Degree of cleaning in the blow room

The trash content of cotton varies greatly, from 1% to as high as 15%. It is
much more difficult to remove trash from cleaner cotton than it is from dirty
cotton. Table 4.10 shows how much trash is normally removed from cottons
with different trash levels.
Table 4.10 Relationship between cotton trash and trash removal in blow room
Original trash content Quantity of trash removed

< 1.2% <40%
1.3–2.0% 40–50%
2.1–4.0% 50–60%
4.1–7.0% 55–65%
≥7.1% 60–75%
As mentioned above some good fibre is lost with the trash. The appearance
of the waste indicates the selectivity of the cleaning machine. The cleaning
machines have to be carefully set to avoid excessive loss of good fibre but yet
obtain the necessary trash removal action. An analysis of the waste using the
Shirley Analyzer can give an objective measurement of the amount of good
fibre in the waste. This can be expressed as a percentage of the waste material
or as a percentage of the total material fed. Figure 4.3 shows the amounts of
trash and good fibre removed as waste with a range of cleaning settings.
Figure 4.3 Relationship between trash, waste and lint loss
Definition to be used
1. Degree of cleaning – The numerical evaluation of the cleaning
effect of a machine in spinning preparation is generally effected by
detailing the degree of cleaning, which indicates in percentage terms
the quantity of trash removal relative to the trash content present in
the feed material.
Trash in input material – Trash in output material
Degree of cleaning = × 100
Trash in input material
Cleaning efficiency – Refers to the percentage of trash contained in

2.
the waste removed by a cleaning machine. Low fibre content in the
waste gives a high cleaning efficiency
Total waste percentage – Fibre content percentage
Cleaning efficiency = × 100
Total waste percentage
According to Zellweger USTER, the classification of degree of cleaning

(DC) is given in Tables 4.11 and 4.12.
Table 4.11 Classification of DC (%) for the blow room
Class Interpretation
>40% Very good
30–40% Good
20–30% Average
10–20% Bad
<10% Very bad
Table 4.12 Classification of DC (%) for the card
Class Interpretation
>90% Very good
80–90% Good
70–80% Average
60–70% Bad
<60% Very bad
The degree of cleaning is influenced not only by the lint characteristics

in intermediate products, but also by the mechanical handling of the fibre,
because cotton has a lower degree of cleaning DC% if it is difficult to clean
(bad cleanability) and\or if the machine has a lower cleaning efficiency.
However the degree of cleaning DC% is improved when the cotton is easy to
clean (good cleanability) and\or when the cleaning efficiency of the machine
is improved. The following are the basic parameters to be considered in
blowroom process for degree of cleaning:
• No. of opening machines
• Type of beater
• Type of beating
• Beater speed
• Setting between feed roller and beater
• Production rate of individual machine
• Production rate of the entire line
• Thickness of the feed web
• Density of the feed web
• Fibre micronaire
• Size of the flocks in the feed
• Type of clothing of the beater
• Point density of clothing

• Type of grid and grid settings
• Air flow through the grid
• Position of the machine in the sequence
• Amount of trash in the material
• Type of trash in the material
• Temperature and relative humidity in the blow room department
4.2.5 Cleanability of fibres

Cleanability is defined as “Combined influence of fibre properties on the
response of cotton to cleaning”.
Cleaning efficiency
Cleanability C =
Trash % on feed coton
Table 4.13 shows the cleanability of cotton for different trash levels.
Table 4.13 Cleanability of cotton at different trash levels
Trash in feed Trash in delivery Cleaning efficiency Cleanability
4.5 1.7 62 13.5

3.2 1.52 52 16
2.75 1.50 45 16
2.0 1.24 38 19
1.7 1.0 35 20
1.0 0.7 30 30
It is evident that, the cleanability is not more dependent on the absolute

trash content in the cotton and is not necessarily influenced by the level of
trash in cotton. The fibre characteristics that influence cleanability are fibre
length, micronaire, strength and maturity.
(a) Fibre length – Seed coat fragments sticking on the longer fibre is
difficult to be removed unlike on short fibres. Opening and cleaning
of long fibres require careful handling. Seed coat which sticks firmly
on the long fibres will result further entanglement with neighbouring
fibres thereby causing fibre knots, tufts and balls.
(b) Micronaire – Cleanability will be affected in case of too much of
variation in the micronaire within the mixing. Opening action is likely
to rupture the low micronaire fibres than coarse fibres. Preferably the
micronaire difference within the mixing should be kept a 0.2 to avoid
more nep generation and improve cleanability.
(c) Strength – Fibres with adequate strength will withstand the opening
action and will influence the fibre rupture. Heavy trash particles such
as stalk, sand and dust etc will fall down readily on vigorous shaking,
beating or tumbling action. Fibres with more tuft but less trash offer
more resistance to cleanability.
(d) Fibre maturity – Presence of more number of immatured fibres cause
neps and thereby entangle with seed coat fragments. Immatured
fibres will also entangle with good fibres causing thick places and
neps. Cleanability is highly influenced by the presence of immatured
fibres.
4.2.5.1 Determination of the cleanability
Several methods are used to determine the cleanability C. The most simple
consist to determine the relationship between the percentage of trash
eliminated after one passage T1 of the sample in the control device Micro Dust
Trash Analyzer, MDTA3, and Ttotal of this same sample. C-factor depends on
successive passages of the control device ‘Uster-MDTA 3’, more the quantity
of trash T1 collected in the first passage is raised more the cleanability of
cotton is better. Leifeild developed a systematic, mathematical description of
the various factors effects upon cleaning efficiency, with the objective of being
able to predict the results of cleaning processes and proposed the following
empirical formula:
Dc (%) = 10 × C × Ttotal × Mcl
Where,
Dc (%) = Degree of cleaning
Mcl = Cleaning efficiency (represents the influence of the machine)
Ttotal = Trash content
C = Cleanability of the cotton. A high C factor means good cleanability, a
low C-factor characterizes cotton that is difficult to clean.
4.2.5.2 Influence of the trash content and the micronaire value on

the cleanability
The cleanability is independent from the trash content. Indeed, it is quite
possible that cotton, which has high trash content, possesses a good or a bad
cleanability. It is the same for cotton of low trash content. On the contrary,
Fig. 4.4 shows that there is a definite relationship between cleanability and
micronaire values. With increasing micronaire values, there is a rise in the
C-factor and in the cleanability of the cotton, this suggests that the finer cotton
fibres have low rigidity and high buckling coefficient, and are thus more
easily entangled into neps and attached to the trash during cleaning. Thus
their cleaning and spinning efficiencies will be affected.
Figure 4.4 Relationship between cleanability and micronaire values
4.2.5.3 Influence of seed-coat fragments (SCF) on the cleanability

The SCF are virtually impossible to extract from the bulk of raw cotton
because of the tuft of fibres attached generally incorporated into the yarn as
a neps. These tests confirm that the C-factor depends largely on the content
of small fragments SCF. Therefore, an increase of SCF in raw material is
also associated to the cotton cleaning difficulty. So, the smooth-leaf needs
only gentle cleaning at the mill, but the hairy-leaf cotton needs much more
aggressive cleaning to remove the hairy-leaf particles, which tend to attach to
the cotton fibres.
The effect of seed-coat fragments (SCF) particles has increased
significantly in the cotton industry because the demand for improving fabric
quality has increased. In general, the lint cleaning considerably decreases
the weight of fragments in lint, but only slightly affects their number. This
indicates that lint cleaners, in addition to removing fragments, may create new
seed-coat fragments by breaking up some of those present, so fibres contain
more SCF, which explains the decrease in cleanability at successive stages of
the spinning process.
It is important to understand that the presence of a large number of SCF in
a cotton, for instance due to excessive cleaning, will exert a negative effect on
the cleanability of the cotton, because these small fragments are more difficult
to remove. This implies that the majority of small imperfections found in yarn
are actually due to the presence of SCF in the lint.
4.2.6 Influence of various parameters on blowroom

waste
The following points in blow room have to be checked and ensured to improve
the yarn realization:
Speeds and settings
Speeds and settings of blowroom machines play a very important role in
deciding the amount of opening and hence cleaning that can be achieved by a
machine. Higher beater speeds and closer beater settings give better cleaning,
but if used beyond a critical point it can lead to fibre damage, nep formation
and stringiness of cotton.
The selection of beater is important such that wrong selection of beaters
and wire profile may lead to fibre rupture and in turn increases the waste%. The
beater speeds have to be optimized such that blow room cleaning efficiency
is around 50–60% depending upon the trash in mixing and the fibre rupture in
blow room should be less than 2%. Increase in fibre rupture leads to increase
in waste.
The condition of beaters plays a vital role. The blunt beater wires lead not
only to higher nep generation but also increases the white waste which in turn
increases the lint loss%. The beater wires have to be changed in 2000–2500
tones.
Air currents
Control of air currents contribute significantly towards effective opening and
cleaning. Well controlled air currents, prevent recombination of trash with
cleaned stock, improve selectivity of cotton against each trash and decide the
time for which the cotton strays in a machine and thus the control the degree
of opening and cleaning.
Position of machines in blowroom
Correct positioning of the machines in the blowroom is equally important
because, for a certain machine to give its best in terms of cleaning efficiency,
it must be fed with material that has been pre-opened to a certain degree.
Exhaust suction pressure in pipelines
The guideline for exhaust pressures to be maintained in different machines is
given below:
Vario clean = –300 to –400 pa
Unimix = –50 to –100 pa
Flexi clean = –100 to –150 pa
MBO = –100 to –150 pa
Very high exhaust pressure not only affects the uniform filling but also
affects the micro dust waste%. So the exhaust pipe line has to be cleaned
frequently and the required pressure has to be maintained to reduce the micro
dust in blow room.
Waste plate setting in unimix, MBO and flexi clean
The waste plate setting can be kept in range of 1–5 mm. Closer setting gives
the dark waste and wider setting gives the white waste. Depending upon the
trash% and lint loss% in waste the waste plate setting of five plates can be
optimized. Two types of waste plates 12 mm and 20 mm are available. For
cottons having less trash% (like Bola-S having 1.5% trash) and for synthetic
processing 20 mm plate can be used to reduce the lint loss%.
Grid setting
The grid setting in MBO, Unimix and Flexi clean can be kept between 1 and
5. Closer setting gives the dark waste and wider setting gives the white waste.
In Mono Cylinder the grid setting can be adjusted between 2.5 mm and 11.5
mm and at the angle of 0° to 30°. Wider spacing and higher angle setting gives
more waste and higher lint loss%. Hence the setting has to be optimized. In
varioclean the grid setting can be done between 1 to 10 corresponding to 10°
and 22°. Wider angle gives more white waste and vice versa.
Gap between conveyor and lattice in unimix
Normally the between conveyor and lattice will be kept as 8–10 mm. The
wider gap than this may leads o more white droppings in this area.
4.2.7 Waste adjustment in modern machines

4.2.7.1 Varioset in Rieter
Rieter has a unique concept called “VARIOSET”. With this machine,
selective trash removal is possible. Waste amount can be changed in a range
of 1:10. The “Cleaning Intensity” can be adjusted step-less, to changing the
rotational speed of the drum. The adjustment can be done while the machine
is running. Additionally, the angle of the grid bars is automatically changed
in combination with the speed. The “Waste rate” can be varied by changing
the grid bar angle with an electrically controlled cylinder. The settings of the
cleaning intensity and waste rate can be recalled and used again at a later date.
Cleaning intensity
Table 4.14 shows the range of cleaning intensity and beater speed in varioclean
machine.
Table 4.14 Range of cleaning intensity and beater speed in varioclean
Production Setting Drum speed

0.0 (low) 480 rpm
Up to 1200 kg/h Step-less adjustment to
1.0 (high) 960 rpm
Relative waste rate

The relationship between cleaning intensity, grid angle and waste% are shown
in Figs. 4.5 and 4.6.
Setting «1» (Low): Setting «10» (High):
Grid closed, lowest waste rate Grid open, highest waste rate
Dark waste composition Light-colored waste composition
Figure 4.5 Cleaning characteristic diagram
The typical amount of waste to be removed by varying the settings is

shown in the following chart. The influence of the cleaning intensity setting
increases as the waste rate is increased.
Relative cleaning intensity
High 1.0
Low 0.0
1 10 10
Small High
Relative waste rate
Figure 4.6 Relationship between cleaning intensity and waste rate

As a guideline, Table 4.15 gives values of the cleaning intensity and the
waste rate according to the trash content of the cotton to be cleaned.
Table 4.15 Guideline for cleaning intensity for different trash%
Trash in cotton Applications Cleaning Waste rate

intensity
0.5–2.0% Clean cotton fine combed yarns 0.5–0.9 0.5–0.8%
1.0–3.5% Ring spun carded yarns 0.6–0.9 0.8–1.5%
1.5–4.5% Rotor yarns 0.7–0.9 1.0–2.0%
Ne 10/1 to 24/1
3.0–6.0% and more Rotor yarns coarse counts 0.2–0.7 1.5–4.0%
4.2.7.2 Cleanogram from Trutzschler

The importance in spinning preparation is that interfering particles are
removed from the cotton in a particularly gentle and waste-saving manner.
Nevertheless, to merely attain a high degree of cleaning is not practical as long
as the waste quality is not optimized in correspondence to the raw material
as well. An adjustment to the lowest usable lint content in the waste is just
as impractical, if this results in a low degree of cleaning. This complexity
can best and most effectively be observed in the Cleanogram, which displays
waste quantity and degree of cleaning under the influence of raw material and
its cleanability, as well as total trash content (Fig. 4.7).
2 100
Trash removal (%)
Ideal
Cleaning degree (%)
Real
1.2
1 50
Working point
Fibre
Trash waste
1.2 0.4
0 0
0 1 1.6 2 3
Amount of waste (%)
Figure 4.7 Cleanogram

If a cotton containing 2% trash could be freed of all foreign matter by

extracting 2% waste, then the theoretical ideal line for the degree of cleaning
as shown in the Cleanogram as a straight line would be achieved. However, in
a practical example, cleaner waste of 1.6% results in a combination of 1.2%
trash and 0.4% lint content. The intersecting point of the waste quantity and
the separated impurities of 1.2% establishes the operating point, which should
be as near to the ideal line as possible, at a very high separation level to attain
a reasonable degree of cleaning.
Thus, modern cleaners, which were developed with the aid of such
methods, provide the spinner with tools that help him realize a high cleaning
efficiency as well as a high degree of cleaning. As an example for such a
machine serve the cleaners of the “Cleanomat” series. It is better to use CVT1
(single opening roller machine) if roller ginned cotton is used. CVT3 or CVT4
machines with 3 or 4 opening rollers can be used for saw ginned cotton. The
arrangement of opening rollers and cleaning positions in CVT series are
shown in Fig. 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Arrangement of beaters in Cleanomat
Figure 4.9 Waste removal concept in CVT

The cleaning points in CVT1, CVT3, CVT4, etc., consist of opening roller,
deflector blades, mote knives and suction hood. Trash particles released due
to centrifugal forces are separated at the mote knives and continuously taken
away by the suction. This gives better cleaning. The trash removal concept in
CVT cleaners are shown in Fig. 4.9.
The Trützschler’s waste sensor WASTECONTROL BR-WCT is attached
to a Cleaner CLEANOMAT and optically measures good fibres in the waste
and amount of suction for fibres. This system detects the waste quality and
automatically sets the deflector blades of the cleaner by servo-motors as
shown in Fig. 4.10.
Figure 4.10 Waste control sensor in CVT
The suction plays a major role in these machines. If suction is not

consistent, the performance will be affected badly. Very high suction will
result in more white fibre loss and less suction will result in low cleaning
efficiency. The minimum recommended pressure in the waste chamber (P2) is
700 Pascals. It can be up to 1000 Pascals. The material suction (P1) should be
around 500 Pascals. Whenever the suction pressure is changed, the deflector
blade settings should be checked. Deflector blade setting cannot be same for
all the three rollers or four rollers. The setting for deflector blades in the panel
looks like this 3, 12, and 30 for 1st, 2nd and 3rd deflector blades. The deflector
blade setting should be done in such a way that the setting should be opened
till the fibres start slipping on the deflector blade. Wider the deflector blade
setting results in higher waste. If the setting is too wide, white fibre loss will
be very high. For saw ginned cottons, the above concepts helps a lot because
of constant suction concentrated directly at the mote knives, ensures much
removal of dust from the cotton.
4.3 Control of card waste

Since raw material constitutes bulk of the yarn manufacturing cost, control
of waste at different stages of manufacture is of considerable importance
in the process control activity of a mill. Waste that is not reusable should
be monitored closely to achieve maximum yarn realization possible. Card
droppings are not generally reusable and waste control effort should be at
this region. However, waste reduction should not be at the cost of cleaning
efficiency and yarn quality. The emphasis must be to minimize loss of good
fibres while ensuring trash removal.
Optimization of process parameters such as card settings/speeds,
modifications /attachments to the cards and some features of recent generation
of cards result in saving lint losses in the waste. Cleaning that is done in a card
has a profound influence on yarn and fabric quality and also performance of
the material in spinning and subsequent processes. Seed coats, motes, fuzz,
immature fibre clusters and trash are normally removed in card.
4.3.1 Influence of air currents

Air currents play a critical role in effecting separation of trash from lint in
the licker-in region. The air currents are generated by rotation of licker-in but
due to design of licker-in, air pressure varies around the licker-in. The region
above the licker-in is relatively at a high pressure as air currents generated
by the licker-in are forced through the limited space between licker-in wire
surface and the bonnet. The mote box region is again at a lower pressure
compared to undercasing region.
4.3.2 Licker-in waste optimization

The journey of fibres through the carding process being with feeding a
uniform fibre mat prepared by the chute feed system and supplied to the
carding machine using feed roller. The weight of the fibre mat may typically
range from 400 to 1000 g/m (Ktex). This weight approximately corresponds
to a number of fibres in the mat cross section in the range from 2 to 6 millions
of fibres depending on fibre fineness. The task before the carding process is to
intensively open and draft this large mass down to about 3–5 g/m (the sliver
count); or to reduce the number of fibres down to approximately 40,000 fibres
in the card sliver cross section. This intense reduction is mainly achieved in
the zone between the feed roll and the taker-in (or licker-in).
The feeding rate is normally slow to allow exposition of small portion
of the fibre mat to the action of the high speed licker in (typically, 25 cm
diameter, 700–1200 rpm for cotton and 400–600 rpm for man-made fibres).
The taker-in being clothed with saw-tooth wire removes the fibre tufts from
the input fibre mat. The draft ratio (the ratio of surface speed between the
taker-in and the feed roll) is typically around 1000.
The centrifugal force caused by the high rotational speed of the licker-in
throws the heavy trash particles, and seed coats fragments out at the mote
knives with the assistance of air draft. The taker-in removes about half of all
trashes held in the cotton. The licker-in segments in a carding machine are
shown in Fig. 4.11.
Figure 4.11 Licker-in under segments in a carding machine
The licker-in region of a card has been primarily designed for carrying
out the following functions:
• To tear apart the compressed lap or fibre mat in to minute tufts without
inflicting any or possibly minimum damage to the fibres.
• To lead the opened tufts and liberated trash over dirt eliminating parts
for removal of trash and other foreign matters without incurring too
much loss of lint.
• To transfer fibres on to the cylinder
Lots of ingenuity has been shown by the machine manufacturing in the

design of licker-in region so as to perform these functions in an efficient
manner employing one or multiple licker-in with associated strategically
located combing bar and suction system.
4.3.2.1 Factors influencing the licker-in waste

1. Mote knife selection
The angle of mote knives may range from vertical disposition to about 30° to
the vertical, but the nearer a knife approaches a tangential position the greater
is the extraction of waste. If the setting is too close, loss of good cotton may
occur and it is too wide, the mote knives operate inefficiently. The sizes of
front mote knife available are 5 mm, 8 mm and 15 mm. Lesser the size, the
higher will be the amount of waste and lint loss. Depending upon the chute
trash and quality requirements the size of mote knifes can be selected.
2. Waste plate setting
Closer the setting lesser will be the waste and vice versa. Wider setting may
leads to more white waste. Closer setting of taker-in to taker-in grid increases
the fibre extraction with waste.
3. Feed plate to licker-in setting
Wider setting will leads to more waste and hence chances of more white
waste. The setting has to be optimized considering the staple length, strength
and fineness of cotton processed.
4. Under-casing waste
Cylinder under casing to cylinder setting influences air currents and production
of fly and too wider setting causes loss of fibres. Similarly, licker-in to cylinder
under casing setting if more, loss of fibre may occur.
4.3.3 Flat waste optimization

Flats are an important partner of cylinder for accomplishing carding actions.
Because of the carding action between them, fibres get distributed on both
cylinder and flat surface. The enormous speed difference between them
causes the flats to be loaded with fibres very fast and they lose their opening
capacity. Therefore, they need to be taken out of carding zone for cleaning
and in the process replacing the loaded ones by fresh flats. While the flats get
loaded with fibres very fast as they enter the carding zone, over the rest of
their journey through the carding zone, it keeps on absorbing dust, neps and
trash particles being thrown by cylinder.
Apart from individualizing the fibres, flats also contribute significantly

to the cleaning achieved in the card. While heavier type of trash is found in
licker-in region, lighter trash composed of leaf-bits, motes and broken seed
coats and immature fibre clusters are removed in the flat strips. The cleaning
action of the flat is dependent upon type of flat used, flat speed, flat to cylinder
setting, front plate setting and condition of flats. Increase of flat waste up to
a point is associated with improved yarn appearance, while waste extraction
beyond this level does not contribute much to quality. Hence the flat waste
should be kept at the optimum level by proper choice of flat speed. Normally,
a flat speed of 6”/min is adequate for semi high production cards, while for
high production cards, flat speed can be increased up to 10”/min. A good
opening of the fibres in the licker-in region are therefore helpful to keep down
flat to cylinder action. Flat waste should also be checked for uniformity of
thickness across the width of a card. Cards showing thicker flat strips should
be checked for settings.
If the flats move in the direction of movement of cylinder, then removal
of stripping is easy. In reverse movement of flats, cylinder carried the material
to be cleaned by flats just above licker-in. The flat take up the dirt/trash but do
not transport it throughout the whole machine in normal forward movement
systems, instead dirt is immediately removed from the machine. The speed
of flats is so slow in comparison to cylinder surface speed, that a change in
speed of flats makes hardly any difference in the aggressiveness of carding
action, where as strip waste generated by flats increases with contaminants
increase in the extraction of thrash, neps, seed coats and dust. As a result card
cleaning efficiency is expected to increase. With increase in production rate
i.e. with modern generation card, it is imperative to use higher flat speed in
order to effectively clean the stock by taking out more waste in absolute terms.
Besides a lower waste extraction in blowroom primarily aimed to avoid nep
generation and shattering of seed coat and other trash particles also necessitate
more flat waste to be extracted at a card.
Flat setting and flat waste plays a vital role in quality of carding sliver.
Hence trials have to be taken to optimize the flat setting and amount of flat
waste to be extracted. Closer flat setting will give more flat waste. The speed
of the flat is also directly related to the amount of waste removed in the form of
flat strips, i.e. the higher the flat speed heavier is the flat strips. The condition
of flat and cylinder wire points will also plays an important role in flat waste
extraction.
To analyze the flat waste, AFIS test has to done for the flat waste. If the
length of flat waste from the AFIS test was more than 70% of the original fibre
length then it is evident that good fibres are going along with the waste. Hence
the flat setting has to be opened slightly.
Effect of cylinder undercasing to cylinder setting

The setting between cylinder undercasing and cylinder affects the cylinder
fly waste which is composed mainly of good fibres. Normally 0.2% to 0.3%
waste at this region is considered to be satisfactory.
Pre-carding zone waste
The SFL (Stationary flats above licker-in) waste can be optimized by
1. Waste plate setting – wider setting leads to more waste and vice versa.
2. Gap between knife and waste plate – more gap results in higher waste
and vice versa.
Post-carding zone waste
The SFD (Stationary Flats above Doffer) waste can be optimized by
1. Front top plate setting – Wider front top plate setting in the middle
leads to more white waste. The setting of 1.1 mm should not go at any
point in front top plate.
2. Gap between the knife and front top plate – More gap resulted in
more waste and vice versa.
Norms for different types of waste in carding are given in Table 4.16.
Table 4.16 Norms for card waste (SITRA)
Mixing Type of card Licker-in droppings Flat strips Others Total
20s to 40s SHP 1.5 2.5 0.5 4.5

HP 1.8 3.0 1.2 6.0
VHP 2.0 3.5 1.5 7.0
Above 40s SHP 1.2 2.3 0.5 4.0
HP 1.5 2.8 1.2 5.5
VHP 1.8 3.0 1.2 6.0
4.3.4 Carding of synthetic fibres and blends

Earlier the mills used to set the cards so as to remove negligible amount of
waste. However, there is general consensus to set the card to remove a small
amount of waste even with man-mad fibres. This approach gives better results
especially for production of clean yarns free from neps. The waste removed in
carding of man-made fibres is mainly contributed by flat strips. The level of
card waste in a metallic card varies between 1% and 2% and largely depends
upon a type of fibre. A general break up of total waste for polyester and
viscose is given in Table 4.17. The waste-level break up for acrylic is more or
less similar to that of polyester.
Table 4.17 Card waste% in synthetic fibres
Type of waste Polyester Viscose
Flat strips 0.5–0.7 0.8–1.1
Lickerin droppings 0.1–0.2 0.2–0.3
Cylinder, doffer fly 0.05 0.05–0.1
Cylinder and doffer strips and others 0.05 0.05–0.1
Total 0.7–1.0 1.1–1.6
The licker-in waste mainly consists of fused fibres and fibre dust which
are not reusable. The flat strip also should not be reused as it contains
entanglements, neps and fused and undrawn fibres. However, for yarns
where quality is not very demanding the flat strips may be reused. The waste
that can be readily is the clean card sliver waste. The card-to-card variations
in flat strips should be minimized as this is one of the common drawbacks
observed in some mills. The flat strip is found to come out only over part of
the flats at edges, the remainder being devoid of strip. Sometimes it varies
in thickness along the width of the card. These things can be set right by
keeping uniform setting between front plate and cylinder across the width
of card and by removing bend in the front plate and maintaining uniform
height of flat wire.
4.3.5 Influence of modern developments on waste

optimization
Changing the amount of waste extracted at the licker-in was always
a troublesome and time-consuming operation. For this reason, the
technologically necessary adaptation to the raw material was often neglected.
In practice, this meant excessive amount of waste and therefore poor yield
from the raw material.
Waste extraction at the licker-in is done by two mote knives in combination
with suction hoods. With deflector blades in front of the mote knives the
amount of extracted waste can be easily fit. If the setting of these deflector
blades is opened, more air passes beneath the edge of the corresponding mote
knife, and therefore more waste are extracted. In contrary, if the deflector
blade setting is closed there is a reduction in the amount of waste extracted
as shown in Fig. 4.12. When man-made fibres are being processed the closed
deflector blades prevent fibre loss in the licker-in region. This ensures optimum
adjustment to any raw material processed.
Figure 4.12 Deflector blade in licker-in
The area of the first roll of the WEBFEED System is the main cleaning
zone of the TC 5. Here, an optimal setting of the knife is important, particularly
with regard to an optimal waste composition. This applies to the distance of
the knife to the clothing points, as well as to the clamping point between feed
roll and opening roll, since both influences the degree of cleaning. This is
exactly what the successful Precision Knife Setting System PMS (Fig. 4.13)
of the TC 5 provides.
The knife, which circles around the centre of the first pre-opening roll, is
infinitely adjustable within seconds, so that the distance of the knife point to
the clothing or needles points is exactly the same in every position. In doing
so, there is no need to stop the card, as the setting lever, which is positioned on
the left machine side, is freely accessible. A glance into the transparent suction
ducts immediately shows the success of the readjustment.
Among the multitude of possible setting points which have an influence on
quality and productivity, it is known that the setting of the carding gap between
main cylinder and revolving flats is the most effective and important one.
1. Feed roll
2. The adjusting slide moves with the knife on a circular path
around the centre of the pre-opening roll
3. With this lever the position of the knife is adjusted in no time at
all
4. The permanent suction keeps the card clean in this area as well
Figure 4.13 Precision Knife Setting (PMS)
Hence, the tiniest changes of even a few thousandths of an inch influence the
card sliver quality. When considering, however, that this important setting is
usually still carried out by subjective sensing of the distance via feeler gauges,
it becomes clear that this is the most effective place to simplify the setting
and improve the reproducibility of the carding quality. For the new high
production card, the interaction of all elements of the revolving flats system
was newly designed to meet these requirements with
• flat bars made of high-precision aluminium extruded profiles

(Fig. 4.14)
Figure 4.14 Aluminium flats
• flexible bend, now with 6 instead of 4 adjusting spindles (Fig. 4.15)
Figure 4.15 Adjustment of the flexible bend with 4 and 6 adjusting spindles
• flat drive with a separate variable speed drive

• non-contact flat distance measuring system Flatcontrol FCT
(Fig. 4.16)
Figure 4.16 Flatcontrol FCT
• newly developed precision setting device Precise Flat Setting (PFS)

(Fig. 4.17) the flat adjustment can be carried out in seconds without
tools, reaching a new optimal level and up to now unknown precision.
With the help of the Flatcontrol print-outs, how such an adjustment
can be accurately carried out, for instance in two steps by 4/1000”
each as shown in Fig. 4.18.
Figure 4.17 Precise flat setting PFS

Figure 4.18 Flat adjustment with PFS
4.4 Control of comber waste

The waste at combers needs to be checked regularly and controlled accurately
as:
1. Higher waste than nominal result in a financial loss
2. Less waste than the nominal leads to poor yarn quality and also results
in count variation between bobbins.
3. Controlling the waste at the pre-determined level ensures that
the average comber sliver wrapping does not vary from time and
is uniform on all combers working on the mixing so that routine
wrapping checks at the combers can be dispensed with.
Combing can be applied to a wide range of spinning processes and the
range of improvement in quality is correspondingly wide. Accordingly, quality
classes must be differentiated in combed yarns:
• Semi-combed (upgrading) with a noil percentage below 12%;
• Normally combed, with a noil percentage between 12% and 18%;
• Highly combed, 18–22%;
• Super combed, with noil percentages above 22%.
Combing with a noil percentage below 12% is also referred to as
upgrading, since this type of combing enables cotton stock to be moved up
one or two classes, with the additional advantage of elimination of short fibres.
Combing with a noil percentage above 22% is rare and is generally used only
where superfine yarns are to be spun. Besides the removal of impurities,
combing serves mainly to eliminate short fibres. The effect is shown in a
simple example in Fig. 4.19: a is the original staple, b the staple diagram after
combing and c the diagram of the noil.
Lmm Lmm Lmm

40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100% 0 20 40 60 80 100% 0 20 40 60 80 100%
Figure 4.19 Fibre length frequency: a - cotton before combing; b - cotton after
combing; c - noil
Figure 4.20 shows the effect of combing at different noil percentages

for a certain type of cotton. What can be generally noticed is that with
increasing noil percentages the important quality parameters of strength
and evenness improve, but not as much as may be expected. A far bigger
improvement can be achieved in imperfections, and the big leap up to 10%
of noil is remarkable here. This is exactly the range of upgrading. A further
improvement is noticeable with regard to the ends-down rate in downstream
processing. Compared with carded material, the ends-down rate in spinning
combed cotton is generally lower, but the improvement does not continue
with the increase in noil percentage; on the contrary, the ends-down rate can
start to increase again as the noil percentage rises above 20%.
Figure 4.20 Dependence of various quality parameters on noil elimination; A,

improvement of yarn quality in %; B, noil elimination in %; a, yarn strength; b, yarn
evenness; c, yarn imperfections
The minimum level of comber waste which gives the desired yarn
quality and productivity in ring frame depends upon the nature of fibre length
distribution in cotton. The relationship between the fibre length distribution
in cotton and optimum comber waste to be removed for better yarn quality is
shown in Table 4.18.
Table 4.18 Recommended level of comber waste for different fibre length distributions
Type of fibre length Short fibre Mean Optimum level of

distribution in cotton percentage by length comber waste%
number SFC(n)
Triangular > 20% < 26 mm No optimum level.
Triangular
Increasing the noil
percentage continuously
improves quality
Flat < 18% > 26 mm 0.5 × short fibre %

Flat
4.4.1 Influence of preparation of comber lap on noil%

For a given mixing and count, the noil percentage to be removed in comber
depends not only on the comber machine settings and process parameters
but also on the comber lap preparation. The following parameters have to be
considered in preparation of lap:
1. Parallelization of the fibres in the batt
2. Batt thickness (weight)
3. The disposition of the hooks
4.4.1.1 Parallelization of the fibres in the batt

From the viewpoint of both economics and quality, the degree of parallelization
has a very great influence on the result of the combing operation. Lack of
longitudinal orientation, i.e. noticeable fibre disorder, leads, as already
explained, to elimination of longer fibres together with the noil. Loss of good
fibres owing to fibre disorder is reinforced to the extent that the circular
combs are overloaded during passage through a disordered batt, so that they
pluck and tear at the stock, thereby carrying away bunches of fibres. The same
happens with an excessively thick batt.
Figure 4.21 Dependence of noil elimination on the degree of parallelization of the

fibres in the feedstock (degree of parallelization corresponding to the draft). A: noil
percentage. B: draft between the card and the comber.
With constant machine settings, the quantity of noil decreases linearly

with increased parallelization of the fibres (Fig. 4.21) and with a decrease in
batt thickness (below the optimum, of course). It therefore does not always
follow that more noil is automatically associated with better yarn quality. The
correct goal is always a predetermined waste elimination level.
4.4.1.2 Batt weight
The self-cleaning effect of the batt exerts a considerable influence on the
combing operation. This effect arises from the retaining power of the fibres
relative to impurities, which depends not only on the disorder of the fibres but
also on their quantity. A thick batt always exerts greater retaining power than
a thin one. At least up to a certain level, the clamping effect of the nippers is
also better with a higher batt volume. Adversely, a thick batt always exerts
a heavy load on the comb and this can lead to uncontrolled combing. In this
case, the fibre farthest from the circular combs (upper side of the nipped web)
may escape the combing operation, since the combs are no longer able to pass
through the whole of the layer. Depending on staple length (and Micronaire
value), the ideal batt weight lies between 72 and 80 Ktex for short and medium
staple cotton, and between 64 and 74 Ktex for long staple cotton > 1 1/4 (Figs.
4.22 and 4.23).
[g/m] 82
80
78
76
74
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
1 13/32
1 16/32
1 17/32
1 19/32
1 21/32
1 23/32
1 11/32
1 11/32
1 11/16
1 8/32
1 8/16
1 3/32
1 5/32
1 3/16
1 7/32
1 3/16
1 7/32
1 9/32
1 5/16
1 5/16
1 7/16
1 9/16
1 7/8
1 7/4
1 3/8
1 1/2
1 5/8
1 3/4
[inch]
1
Maximal achievable
Figure 4.22 Batt weight in relation to staple length
Numbers of fibers in cross-section [x 1000]
3
700
3.5
600
4
500 4.5
5
400 5.5
300
200
54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88
Batt weight [g/m]
Figure 4.23 Batt weight in relation to fibre mass (Micronaire value and number of
fibres in the cross section are decisive)
It is observed that a heavier lap is an essential requirement for preventing

buckling of the combed fringe during its forward movement. In addition, it
also results in a better constraint to hold back the neps and trash particles
during detachment. The orientation of fibres and the lap weight are considered
together by taking the lap strength. The effect of lap strength on quality of
combing is shown in Fig. 4.24.
Figure 4.24 Effect of lap strength on cleaning effect
4.4.1.3 Disposition of hooks

The fibres must be presented to the comber so that leading hooks predominate
in the feedstock. This influences not only the opening out of the hooks
themselves, but also the cleanliness of the web. If the batt is fed in the wrong
direction, the number of neps rises markedly. It also increases the noil and
loading of top combs and circular combs, and finally the neppiness.
4.4.1.4 Effect of pre-comber draft

Higher the pre-comber draft, the better will be the parallelization of the fibres
and also more will be the hook removal. This in turn is expected to reduce
the noil% for the same comber settings. In other words for the same comber
noil%, it is expected that the yarn quality will improve with increased pre-
comber draft.
4.4.2 Influencing factors in comber on noil%

4.4.2.1 Feed amount moved per cycle
This has a noticeable influence on
• noil percentage,
• the quality of the combing operation, and
• the production rate
A high feed amount increases the production rate but causes deterioration
in quality, especially in the cleanliness of the web. Hence, the feed amount
per cycle must be set lower, the higher the quality requirements, and this
correlates – not exactly but approximately – with the fibre length. Figure 4.25
serves as an indication in selecting the feed amount.
mm
1 11/6 11/8 13/16 11/4 15/16 13/8 17/16 11/2 B
Figure 4.25 Typical values for the feed amount per cycle. A, feed amount per cycle in
mm; B, corresponding staple length of cotton in inches
4.4.2.2 Type of feed

Forward feed used to be chosen for higher production rates when quality
requirements were not too rigorous, mainly for upgrading with noil
percentages of up to 12% (max. 14%). When higher demands were made on
quality, backward feed had to be used with noil percentages in the range of
12–25%. With modern high-performance the situation has changed. Forward
feed is mostly used over all staple ranges for achieving noil levels from 8 to
18%. One main reason is the better “self-cleaning effect” during detaching
and top combing action by generating higher retaining forces. Fibre rear ends
and the hooks are more extended. Disturbing impurities (husk particles, dust
and trash, leaf and husk remnants, fibre neps and seed coat fragments) and
short (floating) fibres are hold back by the top comb during detaching and are
combed out by the next circular combing cycle.
4.4.2.3 The detachment setting
This refers to the distance between the clamping line of the nippers and the
nip line of the detaching rollers when these parts are at their closest spacing.
The detachment setting provides the chief means for influencing the level
of noil elimination. A wide detachment setting results in a high level of noil
elimination; a closer setting is associated with a lower noil level.
Spinning mills must find the optimal setting for their own conditions. If
the detachment setting is increased, starting from a certain optimum, there
will be hardly any improvement in quality except in relation to imperfections.
The detachment setting normally lies in the range of 15–25 mm. If the noil
percentage varies for no reason while the machine settings (including the
detachment setting) are kept constant, the cause lies not in the machine but in
the raw material (variability of the raw material characteristics, e.g. short fibre
content).
4.4.2.4 Depth of penetration of top comb

Noil extraction can also be influenced by the depth of penetration of the top
comb. Lowering of the top comb by about 0.5 mm is followed by an increase
in noil of about 2%. The main improvement due to this procedure has to be
seen in the elimination of neps. Initially the top comb can be set to +0.5. In
case of extracting less than 10% noils the top comb can be set to ‘0’ or (–1).
For higher waste% and when quality requirement is high it can be set to (+1).
As always, the optimum setting must be established, since excessively
deep penetration of the top comb disturbs fibre movement during piecing. The
result is deterioration in quality.
4.4.2.5 The number of points in the comb

Comb segments on older machines had a clothing of needles. Both the point
density and the fineness of the needles were adapted to the raw material. Top
combs are still clothed in this way or are equipped with teeth. Clothing of
circular combs has changed in recent decades: a saw tooth clothing is used
today. In comparison with needles, the new type of clothing is more robust,
needs less maintenance and is more universally applicable. Since the combs
are called upon to perform the main work of the machine, their influence on
quality is considerable.
Needles on the top comb have a flattened cross-section and are formed
with a bend. Usually they are used with a point density in the range of 23–32
needles per centimetre.
Fewer needles are used when higher production is needed together with
lower waste elimination. More needles produce more noil.
An important fact about neps that is significance in the context of
optimizing comber waste is as follows. The proper place for controlling neps
is carding and not combing. Firstly, the quality of carding influences the level
of neps considerably and secondly, it is often more economical to run cards
at somewhat low production rates than to take out extra comber waste for
keeping the level of neps in yarn at the desired low level. The nep removal at
combers is expensive because the comber needles cannot positively comb out
neps, which are smaller in dimension than the spacing between the needles of
even the top comb. The neps are in fact removed along with the clusters of
fibres which go into the waste. Thus, large amount of wastes will have to be
incurred for increasing the nep removal at combing.
4.4.3 Reasons for comber waste variation

Reasons for variation in waste% between heads and machines are:
1. Variation in mixing time to time
2. Variation in blending of different cotton
3. Variation in unsuitable and unproportional mixing of soft waste
4. Variation in lap weight
5. Insufficient draft in lap preparation
6. Bad mechanical condition of lap machine like bent weighting hooks,
defective top rollers and variation in top roller pressure
7. Bad condition of comber machine parts like brush, unicomb, top
comb.
8. Variation in unicomb to nipper gap between heads and top comb
penetration
9. Poor nipper grip and bent nipper
10. Variation in feed ratchet gear; count change gear and tension change
gears between combers
The head-to-head variation can be controlled to the level ±1.5% and the
comber-to-comber variation can be controlled to the level of ±0.5%.
4.4.4 Procedure for control of comber waste

Two important parameters such as “overall comber waste%” and “head-to-
head variation” in waste are to be controlled during combing process. Both
the head wise as well as overall comber waste can be determined accurately
by collecting and weighing the head wise noils and sliver made during five
minutes of production.
Loaded circular and top combs are known to cause a slight increase in
the waste percentage. Depending on the preparation given, it rises by 0.5–
1% in the first 20 minutes and then remains more or less constant. To obtain
comparable measurements, therefore, before every measurement, the circular
and top comb must be cleaned properly; i.e., the machine must run in slow
speed for some time. However the waste percentage is determined afterwards
at normal speed.
Both head-wise as well as over all comber waste can be determined
accurately by collecting and weighing the head-wise noils and the combined
sliver from the cans made during 5 minutes.
Weight of noil from heads
Overall comber waste % =
Weight of sliver + Weight of noil from all head
Weight of noil from heads ‘X’
Head wise waste % = × 100
1/n (Weight of sliver + Weight of noil from X head)
where n = number of heads on the comber.
Estimating the waste percentage, longer periods more than an hour and
measuring individual head noils and sliver produced has close relationship
with the above easy method. Estimating the waste% less than 5 minutes does
not give accurate results as well as longer duration more than 5 minutes do
not improve the accuracy also. The waste% of comber has to be checked and
reset at least once in 15 days. The comber which is mechanically sound and
properly set the waste% will vary time to time. Such natural variation must be
allowed before taking up the comber for resetting.
For combers in good condition, the coefficient of variation of comber
waste based on a 5 minute test is about 4%, while that for the waste from
individual head is about 6%. For these values of CV, Table 4.19 gives the
limits within which there is no need for readjusting the comber.
Table 4.19 Limits of comber waste
Normal waste % 8 10 12 15 18 20
Comber to comber (+) 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Head to head (+) 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.4
Stepwise procedure for controlling the comber waste is given below:

1. Determine the optimum level of comber waste (0.5 × short fibre%) to
be extracted from cotton/mixing.
2. Find out the variability of comber waste by taking at least 20 waste
readings of 5 minutes each over a period of 10–15 days. If the
CV% of head waste and comber waste are higher than 6% and 4%
respectively, attempts should be made to bring down by looking into

the mechanical condition of the combers.
3. Take a 5 minute test, collecting the sliver from the can and the waste
from each head
4. Calculate the head-wise and the total comber wastes.
5. Adjust each head where the waste falls outside the limits and recheck
the waste by a second test.
4.4.5 Improvement in mean length on combing

Combing efficiency is generally assessed by the improvement in fibre length
that achieved in sliver in relation to that of the input material. Theoretically,
the comber should remove all the fibres in the lap which are shorter than the
detachment setting, i.e. which are shorter than the minimum distance ‘d’ mm
between the nippers and the grip of the back detaching rollers. Also, if ‘f’ mm
is the lap feed per nip than all fibres longer than d + f should always go into
the sliver. Fibres of intermediate length (i.e., those longer than d but shorter
than d + f) would go either into the waste or into the combed sliver depending
upon their position in the feed cycle. Even a perfectly maintained comber,
therefore, cannot remove short fibres as selectively as could be expected from
its mechanism since it is not possible to feed all fibres in the lap as straight
fibres without any hooks and parallel to the length of the lap, also the fibre
movement should not be influenced by any frictional contact between the
neighbouring fibres.
The words fractionating efficiency refer to the degree to which a comber
succeeds in removing all the fibres shorter than the detachment setting d
without losing any fibres longer than the detachment setting plus feed, d + f.
Combing efficiency (%) per 1% noil extraction is given by =
50% span length of comber sliver-50% span length of comber lap 100
×
50% span length of comber lap % noil
A periodic check on the fractionating efficiency of combers serves two

purposes: (i) it permits the assessment of improvement in fibre length in
relation to the comber waste percentage; and (ii) it helps indirectly to judge
the mechanical condition of the combers.
4.4.6 Factors influencing the combing efficiency

4.4.6.1 Fibre length distribution in staple diagram
The combing efficiency not only depends upon the amount of waste extracted
but also has a greater bearing on the amount of short fibre content in the feed
material. For example in the triangular-type fibre distribution the increase in

noil% improves the combing efficiency. However in the more like rectangular
(i.e., flat) type staple diagram the extraction of noil% beyond the short fibre
content does not improve the combing efficiency.
4.4.6.2 Amount of waste extracted

Under good working conditions, for every 1% increase in comber noil, yarn
lea strength will increase by 1% and the yarn evenness will improve by
0.15U%. Apart from machinery condition and process parameters used, the
combing efficiency also depends on the short fibre content of feed lap. Higher
the short fibre content better will be the combing efficiency. The norm for
combing efficiency is given in Table 4.20.
Table 4.20 Norms for combing efficiency
Rating Combing efficiency (%) per 1% noil extraction
Up to 12% noil extraction 13% to 20% noil extraction
Good 0.6 0.8

Average 0.5 0.7
Poor 0.4 0.6
4.4.6.3 Comber lap preparation

The combing efficiency may slightly improve with better lap preparation.
However the type of fibre distribution in the staple diagram is the major
contributor.
4.4.6.4 Comber machine settings

The following settings have influence on the combing efficiency.
1. Top comb penetration
2. Unicomb to nipper gap
3. Nipper grip
4. Brush and wind protecting plate setting
5. Detaching roller loading
6. Detaching distance setting
7. Timing of unicomb
8. Selection of control wheel index setting
4.4.7 Influence of modern developments on comber

waste
4.4.7.1 Concentric synchronise movement of the nippers
The combing will be better if the bottom nipper lower surface remains at fixed
set distance from the bottom comb during the entire circular combing. This
is achieved by using the standing pendulum principle (Fig. 4.26). The Rieter
E65/E 75 comber, Trützschler Comber TCO 1, Marzoli Comber CM600N are
equipped with concentric synchronise nippers movement.
Figure 4.26 Concentric nipper assembly
4.4.7.2 Reducing the clamping distance

By reducing clamping distance, long fibres going into the waste can be avoided
(Fig. 4.27). If this distance is wide, fibre control during combing is hampered,
thus deteriorates combing efficiency. Rieter comber has designed this area to
keep this distance minimum.
Figure 4.27 Clamping distance in Rieter comber
4.4.7.3 Self-cleaning top comb

The top-combs, during operation, get loaded with short fibres and impurities.
Thus, the machine is stopped intermittently for cleaning and results into
production loss. Trützschler comber is equipped with self-cleaning top combs
(Fig. 4.28). An extremely short compressed air blast of a few milliseconds
purges the needles from top to bottom and detaches the adhering fibres. The
cleaning frequency can be adapted to the respective degree of soiling.
Similarly Rieter also provides ‘Ri-Q-Top’ top-comb with high self-
cleaning effect as shown in Fig. 4.29. The flat teeth combined with wedge-
shaped wire profile minimize the wrapping tendency of fibres in the top comb
wires.
Figure 4.28 Self-cleaning topcomb from Trützschler
(a) (b)
Figure 4.29 (a) Conventional top comb; Vs (b) Rieter Ri-Q-Top
4.5 Contamination removal techniques

In today’s circumstances, contamination playing a vital role in deciding the
quality of cotton apart from essential properties such as length, strength,
fineness. Contamination of raw cotton can take place at every step, i.e. from
the farm picking to the ginning stage. Contamination, even if it is a single
foreign fibre, can lead to the downgrading of yarn, fabric or garments or even
the total rejection of an entire batch and can cause irreparable harm to the
relationship between growers, ginners, merchants and textile and clothing
mills.
An International Textile Manufacturers Federation (ITMF) reported that
claims due to contamination amounted to between 1.4% and 3.2% of total
sales of 100% cotton and cotton blended yarns. All this makes it important
to find the most effective solution to combat foreign matter in cotton. Many
foreign fibre problems are only detected after finishing, and the spinner is
finally made responsible for the damage. Therefore, the costs for such claims
can be considerable, and provisions have to be made to absorb such claims if
the spinning mill does not have a quality management system to eliminate or
minimize the number of foreign fibres in yarns.
4.5.1 Contamination level in cotton bale

Extraneous contaminants are found in cotton from all origins, without any
exception. Not one single cotton shipment was found to be totally free from
contamination in the last eight years. The perceived degree of contamination
in all growths steadily increased from 1989 to 2007. Indian cotton always
have high contamination level due to poor work practices right from picking
to finishing stage. The raw cotton bales from different countries differ in the
degree of contamination. Broadly, cottons from 15 origins can be classified
into 3 groups – group I with low contamination, group II with medium levels
of contamination, and group III with high level of contamination – as can be
seen in Table 4.21.
Table 4.21 Extraneous contamination by origin (2006–07 average)
Origin % of bales % of fibrous Amount of

contaminated contaminants contamination
Group I Australia 10–20% 60–75% 1–3 g/ton

(Low Brazil
contamination) China
Mexico
United States
Group II Mozambique 60–80% 75–85% 4–12 g/ton

(Moderate Paraguay
contamination) Uzbekistan
West Africa
Zambia
Group III India 90–100% 80–90% 20–100 g/ton

(High Pakistan
contamination) Syrian Arab
Republic
Uganda
Zimbabwe
4.5.2 Types of foreign material in cotton

Mixing of foreign material/matter with main product at any stage of collection,
production, handling, storage, processing in the yarn manufacturing process is
termed as contamination. The International Textile Manufacturers Federation
(ITMF) investigates the contamination of cotton bales on a global scale. The
classification of foreign material in bales is given in Fig. 4.30.
Figure 4.30 Classification of contamination in bale
4.5.3 Effect of contaminations on process efficiency

The influence of various types of contaminations on process efficiency and
the remedial measures are given in Table 4.22.
Table 4.22 Effect of contaminants on further process
S. Source of Effect Remedies

no. contamination
1 Strings/fabrics • Increased end breakage • Avoid use of jute/hessian
of jute/hessian rate at ring/rotor for transportation at farms
• Poor yarn appearance and ginning
• Differential dye pick-up • Use of cotton cloth for
cotton bales
2 String/fabrics of • Poor quality of yarn/cloth • Automatic transportation
cotton due to coloured fibres • Manual picking
• Education/Training
3 Strings/fabric of • Differential dye pick-up • Avoid usage of plastic

woven plastic/ • Very poor yarn/fabric material
plastic film quality • Better house-keeping and
• Damage to machinery practices
4 Organic • Damage to machinery • Use of pre-cleaners at

matters: leaves, • Increased waste at ginning
feathers, paper spinning • Better house-keeping and
leathers etc practices
5 In organic • Damage to machinery • Use of pre-cleaners at
matter: • Increased waste at ginning
(a) Sand dust spinning • Better house-keeping and
practices
(b) Inorganic • Damage to machinery • Better house-keeping and
matter practices
metal/wire
6 Oily • Mars yarn/fabric • Avoid usage of stamp
substances: appearance colour
(a) Stamp • Use of printed/pre-marked
colour cotton cloth/paper
(b) Grease/Oil • Mars yarn/fabric • Better house-keeping
appearance • Replace single roller gin by
double roller gin
7 Hair-human • Increased end breakage • Use of caps
rate at ring/rotor spinning • Automatic transportation
• Poor yarn/fabric • Education/Training
appearance
• Differential dye pick-up
8 Stones • Damage to machinery • Better house-keeping and
practices
9 Seed-coats • More waste at spinning • Use pre-cleaner and post
• Poor yarn/fabric cleaner ginneries
appearance
10 Pouches-Gutka • Damage to machinery • Education/training
• Poor yarn appearance • Better practices
4.5.4 Size and appearance of foreign matter in spinning

mills
In order to convert a fibre into yarn, cotton passes through a large number
of processes in a spinning mill. A large number of machines mechanically
reduce the size of most foreign matter clusters into a large number of
individual foreign fibres. These fibres can remain undetected under normal
mill processing conditions and only become noticeable when the production
process is interrupted, by a spinning end break or when the yarn is used to
make up fabric and the fabric is subjected to normal quality control inspection.
If foreign material cannot be eliminated prior to the card the foreign
material is cut into pieces by the card. A piece of plastic can result in a number
of individual foreign fibres after the card. As these fibres are mostly colored
fibres, the cluster of foreign fibres can easily be recognized in the card sliver
(Fig. 4.31).
Often in some spinning mills some of the foreign fibres are added
accidentally through human ignorance, waste recycling, etc., which
contaminate the cotton fibres during the spinning process. For such fibres the
clearer as a monitoring system at the last stage of the spinning process is the
only tool which can eliminate such fibres. The foreign fibres which cannot be
eliminated during the spinning process will show up in the yarn and have to
be eliminated by the yarn clearer either on the winding machine or OE rotor
spinning machine.
Figure 4.31 Effect of contamination in bale on yarn
4.5.5 Appearance of foreign fibres in spinning mills

In order to understand the appearance of foreign fibres in spinning mills we
have to consider that foreign fibres which exist as clusters in the card sliver
are drawn in the spinning process. The more steps in the spinning process
the more increases the distance from foreign fibre to foreign fibre in the
yarn. Therefore, the distance between two foreign fibres is longer in a ring
spinning operation with combers than in an OE rotor operation as shown in
Fig. 4.32. Assumption: Plastic film prior to card of 2 cm2. Resulting cluster:
400 individual foreign fibres in the card sliver. In Fig. 4.32, the processing
steps and the drawing ratios are shown for the 3 most important spinning
processes. It can be seen in the figure that the distance between two foreign
fibres is short for short spinning processes and long for spinning processes
with many steps.
Figure 4.32 Influence of spinning techniques on contaminated yarn appearance
4.5.6 Causes of contamination in picking and ginning

process
Most contamination arises from impurities being incorporated into the bale as
a result of human interaction during harvesting, ginning and baling as shown
in Fig. 4.33.
The following are the some of the reasons behind high contamination
level in cotton:
1. Hand picking method

2. Reuse of fertilizer bags
3. Lack of infrastructure and awareness
4. Improper maintenance work methods
5. Iron tap for bale packing
6. Label
Figure 4.33 Contaminants collected during ginning process
4.5.7 Effects of contamination

1. Contamination of cotton causes it to become sticky that creates
obstruction in rollers.
2. It causes wastage of dying material and requires extra efforts at
cleaning process that unnecessarily inflates cost.
3. Even after cleaning leftover embedded pieces of contamination in
yarn affect its quality and value.
4. Contaminants such as stones, metal pieces, etc… causes disturbance
to material flow especially in spinning preparatory process which
affects production as well as quality of the process.
5. Metal pieces tend to cause fire accident which leads to severe machine
and material loss.
6. Fabric appearance produced with contaminated yarn will be poor and
prone to rejection (Fig. 4.34)
Figure 4.34 Polypropylene contaminants in knitted fabric
7. Dyeing affinity of contamination is different from dyeing affinity of

fabric which leads to uneven fabric coloration.
4.5.8 Methods to eliminate contamination in cotton

Figure 4.35 shows the domains of foreign material removal systems and the
frequency of foreign material. It is obvious that the frequency of foreign
material increases considerably in the area of fine foreign matter (human
and animal hair, plastic fibres, fragments of strings, seed coat fragments). It
is evident that the type and frequency of foreign matter require an effective
system to combat this problem.
Figure 4.35 Methods to eliminate foreign material in cotton

and foreign material frequency
Over the years spinning mills used the following methods to eliminate
disturbing foreign matter in order to keep the defects within acceptable limits:
1. Cotton selection
2. Manual labour to pick foreign matter in cotton prior to the opening
3. Contamination removal devices prior to the card
4. Foreign fibre clearers in winding
5. Installation of ultraviolet (UV) lights in the packing and inspection
section
In some cases, especially in vertically integrated textile mills, the mending
of defects after finishing the fabric is also common practice, but only part of
the foreign fibres can be extracted.
4.5.8.1 Cotton selection

It makes sense in a spinning mill to know the growth areas with low foreign
material contamination. It must be the aim to order cotton from areas with a
low number of foreign material content to keep the risk of remaining foreign
fibres low and to improve the efficiency of the removal systems both human
and electronic. Further, they help to keep the number of foreign fibre cuts with
the clearer on a low level.
This is especially valid for end customers who ask for “zero foreign
fibres” as a mandatory requirement, and a significant premium is paid for
such a high value addition. If the premium which the spinner can realize is
not significant, choosing low contamination cotton can often lead to other
issues seriously affecting profit margins. This may be cotton with higher nep
content, higher short fibre content and higher cotton prices. Further, cotton
supply contracts in general do not include contamination level as a dispute
clause, with the result that losses cannot be recovered in case contamination
expectations are not met.
4.5.8.2 Manual labour

Spinning mills situated in countries where labour costs are comparatively
low employ large numbers of people to patrol the bale lay down and remove
contamination from bales before cotton is fed into the blow room line by the
bale opener as shown in Fig. 4.36.
A small number of spinning mills are able to manually check and remove
contamination from every bale of cotton before it is repacked and released
for processing in the mill. This manual sorting is either done directly from
the bale or the bale is first opened using a bale opener with a spiked lattice
to open the cotton prior to manual sorting. The cost for this manual cleaning
is estimated at 3.1 to 4.4 US cents per kg of lint depending on the level of
contamination
Figure 4.36 Manual removal of contamination in spinning mill
The number of people or the work load employed varies from mill to
mill and the end use. Estimates from spinning mills in China show between
1 person per 1 to 3 bales depending on the quality demand. Therefore, in an
average size spinning mill with 30,000 spindles the number of employees who
do these jobs vary from 60 to 180 people.
4.5.8.3 Contamination removal systems prior to the card

There are various contamination removal systems available today prior to the
card. In general such devices are important to eliminate the foreign matter of
a size greater than 1 sq cm to avoid further disintegration into finer fibres and
to increase cuts in the final inspection by the yarn clearers. However, such
systems do not help to fully meet the quality targets of the end user since the
size and the number of ejections makes it practically impossible to eliminate
the single foreign fibres which constitute the highest amount of disturbing
defects in the final yarn or fabric. Further, the location of the system and the
size of the tuft play a decisive role for the detection efficiency.
Removal systems in the blow room line focus on the bulk of the
contamination. Such systems have not been designed to detect and remove
small particles (in the range of several millimetres such as individual fibres).
The use of only yarn clearers can only be considered in the event of very
clean cotton. Normal cotton (such as Asian and African cotton) will contain so
much contamination that it cannot be removed without an excessive number
of clearer cuts i.e. without a loss of machine efficiency which cannot be
accepted.
Depending on the quality requirements one system in the blow room

line may, however, be sufficient particularly where manual picking is still
used during the opening process. In case of stringent requirements and of
heavily contaminated cotton both measures are recommended: The sorting
machine in the blow room will act as a coarse filter removing the bulk of the
contamination, the yarn clearer focusing on the remaining particles which can
be eliminated with an acceptable number of cuts.
Effective position of contamination clearer in blow room line
The degree of opening of the cotton tufts is the controlling parameter for selecting
the optimal position in the bow room line. The better the degree of opening, the
smaller the risk that contamination is hidden within the tufts. Experience shows
that a system at the beginning of the blow room line will detect only about 20%
of the particles which can be detected at the end of the line.
The degree of opening is important not only in respect to the detection
performance but also in respect to the loss of good fibres. If the cotton is not
well opened, larger cotton tufts will have to be removed. The loss of good
fibres at the beginning of the line is about 5 times higher than the loss at the
end of the blow room line (about 3–8 grams per removal cycle as compared
to 0.5–1.0 gram). In case of a system at the beginning of the line, it will be
necessary to reduce the loss of good fibres by subsequently manually sorting
the removed material.
Figure 4.37 Position of contamination clearer in blow room line

Blow room lines frequently start with one bale plucker and are afterwards
divided in two lines. In such cases two removal systems would be necessary at
the end of the line whereas only one system would be needed at the beginning
as shown in Fig. 4.37.
Contamination detection by optical means
All systems detect contamination by optical means. Yarn clearers and the
Sorter of Loptex use photo sensors and detect the contamination as being
darker than the cotton. Other sorting machines use colour cameras and
detect contamination as being different in colour. The difference in practical
performance is insignificant. Cameras, however, are more delicate and costly
(for repairs and replacements) and, if they fail, will cause a total breakdown of
the system. The default of a photo sensor will not lead to a total break down,
but only slightly reduce its performance. Since the photo sensors are arranged
on separate modules, the replacement will be easy and cost effective. In some
cases cameras will not monitor the fibre flow directly but only indirectly
through mirrors. Mirrors attract, however, dust and need to be cleaned.
The critical point, however, is that an optical sensor can only see what is
visible, meaning that it cannot detect contamination which is hidden within
the cotton tufts. To compensate this handicap most systems, use two optical
sensors each positioned at the opposite side of the pipe. This permits to detect
contamination which is located on the back of a cotton tuft. In most cases this
will be sufficient. However, if the opening of the raw material is poor, it can
happen that the contamination is hidden inside of the tuft contamination which
offers no contrast to the cotton i.e. colourless contamination or contamination
of the same shade. Unfortunately one of the most harmful contaminations,
namely packing material in polypropylene, comes in whitish shades which do
not offer a sufficient contrast to the raw material.
Contamination detection by ultrasonic means
Everyone knows the phenomena of echo. Louds will be reflected by a rock
wall. The degree of reflectance of acoustic waves depends on the surface
structure of the object in their path. It detects contamination independent of it
colour on the basis of its surface structure. Most contamination has a denser
surface structure than loose cotton tufts, in particular plastics. The sensor
consists of a number of emitters of ultrasonic therefore not hearable waves.
The receiver will receive waves which are reflected by the contamination
contained in loose cotton. If no contamination is present, the ultrasonic waves
will be absorbed in the absorber box located on the other side of the pipe.
Contamination detection with ejection by pneumatic valves
In case of the detection of a contamination being by the optical or the acoustical
system the electronic control will activate pneumatic valves. It will take into
account the transportation speed of the raw material and release the air blow
after the necessary delay. The number of valves which will be activated is
variable. It depends on the size of the detected contamination. The air blow
will be targeted since only the valves are activated which are located in front
of the passing contamination. The contamination will be deviated through an
opening in the pipes into the waste container of the machine.
Loptex Optosonic Sorter
Optical detection of colored contamination doubled with ultrasonic detection
of colourless material. The raw material will first be presented to the acoustic
sensor and thereafter to the optical sensor as shown in Fig. 4.38.
Figure 4.38 Loptex optosonic sorter
The acoustic sensor will emit ultrasound waves. A contamination with

compact surface structure like plastic will reflect these waves into the receiver.
The receiver will thereafter trigger the ejection device.
The optical sensor consists of standard fluorescent light tubes and custom
made photo sensors array. A colour contamination reflects less light to the
photo sensor array which thereafter will trigger the ejection device.
Only the pneumatic valves placed in front of the contamination will be

activated. The duct opposite the valves, presents an opening through which
the contamination is blown into the waste container.
Rieter’s Visionshield
Detecting module consist of two CCD line colour camera with associated
lighting system, rapid deflection system for ejecting the detected contaminants.
Twelve long-life fluorescent tubes arrangement in front and back side of tuft
for illumination. The CCD camera require small gap between the fluorescent
tubes for optimum illumination as shown in Fig. 4.39.
Figure 4.39 Rieter Visionshield (grey scale image)
Trutzschler’s Securomat
The dedusting function is taken on by a modified material separator (1) by
means of perforated plates. The dusty exhaust air is not led to a filter, as
would be usual, but is used to dispose of the foreign parts (2). This saves filter
capacity and all costs involved. Apart from the distribution flaps, the material
separator has no moving parts and thus distinguishes itself by low energy
consumption and is very easy to maintain. From the material separator, the
dedusted material gets into a reserve trunk (3).
Figure 4.40 Trutzschler Securomat
This reserve trunk represents a sufficiently large material buffer directly

in front of the cards and makes the continuous feeding of the cards much
easier. With varying production amounts, the delivery of the SCFO changes
and the preceding cleaner always works at an even production rate. The
feed mechanism (4) of the SECUROMAT SCFO feeds the material into the
working area of a needled opening roll (5) as shown in Fig. 4.40. This roll
guarantees an even, high opening of the cotton tufts. By the way, the fans
for feeding and material suction of the SECUROMAT SCFO as well as for
feeding the cards, which are driven by frequency-controlled motors, are “on-
board” the machine so that a compact design of the blow room installation can
be realized.
The surface of the rotating needle roll, which is covered with fibres, is
permanently monitored by a CCD colour line camera (7) with 2048 pixels per
line as shown in Fig. 4.41. Camera and lighting system (8) are accommodated
in a dust-tight room. The needle roll cover (9) can be easily removed to clean
the window.
An intelligent evaluation unit on the basis of a powerful computer
system detects all foreign particles which are different in colour from the
metallic background of the needle roll and the fibres transported on it that
is also pastel-colored, e.g. yellow, foreign particles, which would not give a
sufficient contrast against the background of a compact cotton tuft. Due to the
high opening of the fibre material and the good presentation of the objects on
the needle roll even tiny foreign particles can be safely detected.
Figure 4.41 (a) Compressed air nozzles with opening roll;

(b) CCD colour-line camera
The separation of the foreign parts is effected by means of 32 compressed

air nozzles (10) distributed over the total working width of 1600 mm, which
can be individually controlled by pneumatic valves, in fact exactly at the
point where a foreign part is located on the surface of the needle roll. The
compressed air stream aiming at the roll in a tangential direction is activated
for only a few milliseconds. Therefore, the consumption of compressed air
can be neglected even with high separation rates. This form of selectively
blowing out the foreign particles results in a minimal loss of good fibres of
only 1–2 grams of fibres per blow-out. A low good fibre loss is the necessary
precondition for adjusting a high sensitiveness and separating even tiny
foreign particles.
The waste disposal concept of the SECUROMAT SCFO can only be

called progressive. Instead of collecting the foreign parts and fibre tufts in a
separate container that must be manually emptied in regular time intervals,
the separated material of the SECUROMAT. SCFO can be directly fed to
the filter. Where this solution is not possible or is not desired because the
separated objects shall be examined later, a condenser on a stand with a
collecting container below can be delivered.
4.5.8.4 Foreign fibre clearers in winding

Foreign fibre clearers are by far the most efficient systems to solve the
contamination problems. Today in the rest of the world (excluding China)
over 75% of delivered clearers are with foreign fibre functionality. Since the
clearers are integrated in the automatic winder, they are in a position to make
the final inspection and monitor every millimetre of yarn. Further, the clearers
are today capable of detecting the finest defects not clearly visible to the naked
eye. This includes white and transparent polypropylene defects. The clearer
can replace each disturbing defect with a splice, thereby eliminating the defect
from the final package to the end user.
The foreign material removal systems prior to the card have little influence
on the cut rate of the clearers, because most of the foreign fibres which are
eliminated by the clearers cannot be recognized by systems prior to the card.
It also has to be taken into consideration that the automatic foreign material
elimination systems prior to the card eject a considerable amount of cotton
together with the foreign materials which must be separated manually from
the “real” foreign materials to keep the waste on a reasonable level. Table
4.23 shows the influence of remaining foreign fibres in yarns on subsequent
processing stages in the textile chain.
Table 4.23 Experience values / end breaks in beaming, weaving, knitting caused by
foreign matter
Process Benchmarks for end breaks End breaks caused by foreign matter
Beaming 0.2–0.3 per 10,00,000 meters Up to 50%
Weaving 1–2 per 1,00,000 picks Up to 50%
Knitting 1–2 per hour Up to 40%
Classification of foreign fibres with the USTER® QUANTUM 2

Uster Technologies has developed a classification matrix for foreign fibres.
This matrix is shown in Fig. 4.42.
Appearance
A4 B4 C4 D4 E4
30%
A3 B3 C3 D3 E3
20% F
A2 B21 B22 C2 D2 E2
10%
B13 B14 C12 D12 E12
no counts
7%
B11 B12 C11 D11 E11
5%
0 1.0 1.4 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 cm Length
Figure 4.42 Uster classification matrix for foreign fibres (grey scale image)
This matrix was developed in a similar way as Uster Technologies

designed the matrix for thick places and thin places. A considerable amount of
foreign fibres are located in the B1 class. Therefore, the B1 class (B11 to B14)
serves as a benchmark for recognizing the degree of contamination of the raw
material. The experience values are the given in Table 4.24.
Table 4.24 Benchmarks for foreign fibres
Yarn type Low degree of Heavily contaminated

contamination per 100 km per 100 km
Combed yarns, 100% cotton 10 150

Carded yarns, 100% cotton 20 300
Worsted yarns, 100% wool 20 100
Figure 4.43 shows an investigation for a large European knitter. It is a

comparison of foreign fibre content in yarns from the supplier with the least
contaminated and the most contaminated raw material.
4.5.8.5 Installation of ultraviolet (UV) lights in the packing and
inspection section
Installing Ultra Violet lights in the packing and inspection departments to
detect chemical/oily substances and foreign fibres such as polyester and other
synthetic manmade fibres and defective packages are rejected manually.
Figure 4.43 Foreign fibres shown in classification matrix, two yarn suppliers
4.5.9 Measures to reduce contamination

1. Introduction of standardized picking storage and marketing of raw
cotton.
2. Dissemination of awareness through mass media to the targeted
segment.
3. Cloth bags instead of jute and fabric must be provided by farmers and
ginning factory owners to pickers.
4. Cotton should be stored on clean and proper floors.
5. Metal body open trolleys should be used for quick transportation of
cotton from field to factories.
6. Sheds and platforms should be built properly in the market.
7. Bags should be opened by unsewing instead of cutting twine in to
small pieces.
8. Bags should not be beaten on heap. Instead it should be done separately
and obtained cotton should be cleaned properly to be added in heap.
9. Conveyers can greatly facilitate.
10. Plastic strips are used for strapping bales to avoid contamination by
rust.
11. Bale packing should be graded and create awareness to improve bale
packing.
4.6 References
1. Artzt P. (1985). Melliand Textilberichte, Influence of Various Card Clothing
Parameters on the Results Obtained in High-speed Carding on Cotton, E789-E796 /
701–712, English Edition.
2. Bhaduri S.N. (1959). Effect of openness of cotton on subsequent processing,

Proceedings of ABS Joint Technological Conference, p.13.
3. Bhaduri S.N., Subramanian N. and Patel S.M. (1956). On reducing card waste without
deterioration in yarn quality, ATIRA Research Note, 6, 3.
4. Bogdan J.F. (1955). How to reduce card waste, Textile World, 105, No. 3, p.87.
5. Chattopadhyay R. (2001). Process Control in Spinning, Department of Textile
Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.
6. Cotton Contamination Survey, ITMF, 1997.
7. Garde, A.R., and T.A. Subramanian (1987). Process Control in Spinning, ATIRA,
Ahmedabad.
8. Grover, J.M. (1983). Some studies at blowroom and cards in relation to waste
extraction and lint loss, Proceedings of ABNS Joint Technological Conference, pp.
3–9.
9. Gupta A K, and Patel R S, and Subramanian T A (1985). Some studies on the removal
of seed-coat fragments from cotton to control blemishes on ring spun cotton yarns,
Journal of Textile Institute, 76, No. 6, p.40.
10. Gupta A K, Garde A R and Grover J M (1978). Cleaning at blow room and cards in
relation to the nature of trash in cotton: Part I – Assessment of trash content, Indian
Journal of Textile Research, 3, No. 2, p.29.
relation to the nature of trash in cotton: Part II – Generation of trash in cotton and
optimization of processing parameters, Indian Journal of Textile Research, 3, No. 2,
p.36.
relation to the nature of trash in cotton: Part II – Generation of trash in cotton and
optimization of processing parameters, Indian Journal of Textile Research, Vol. 3, No.
2, p.36.
13. Gupta, A.K. (1985). Some studies on the removal of seed coat fragments from cotton
to control the blemishes in ring spun cotton yarns, J. Text. Inst, 76, p.407–412.
14. Gupta, A.K., Shah, P.H. and Subramanian, T.A. (1986). Spinning fault free cotton
yarns: from a dream to reality, 18th International Cotton Conference, Bremen.
15. Klien, W. and Schneider, U.T. (1992). The blowroom – Key to quality and economy,
International Textile Bulletin, 2, pp. 3–7.
16. Mariappan, S. and Shanmuganandam, D. (2011). How to improve yarn realization in
a spinning mill? SITRA Focus, 28, pp. 1–8.
17. Measures to reduce cotton contamination in ginneries, SITRA Focus, Vol. 28, No. 5,
January 2011.
18. Mehtani, J.G. (1998). Contamination in Indian Cottons: Status and Remedies, 39th
Joint Technological Conference, NITRA.
19. Operating instruction of C60 carding, Rieter, Winterthur, Switzerland.
20. Operating instruction of TC11 carding, Trutzschler, Germany.
21. Patel R.C. (1959). How to get the best out of blow room machinery, Proceedings of
the BTRA Technical seminar on ‘Practices and Experience in processing cotton to
yarn.
22. Patel, D.I. and Shah, P.H. (1994). Towards contamination free and cleaner lint through
improved ginning, 39th Joint Technological Conference, NITRA.
23. Ratnam, T.V. and K.P. Chellamani (1999). Quality Control in Spinning, SITRA,
Coimbatore.
24. Shanmuganandam, D. (2009). How to improve yarn realization and control wastes?
The South India Textile Research Association.
25. SITRA Focus (1985). Yarn realization and process waste control, 3, No. 4.
26. SITRA Focus (2011). Measures to reduce cotton contamination in ginneries, 28,
No. 5.
27. Sreenivasan, J. and Shanmuganandam, D. (2013). Hard waste control in automatic
cone winding – an analysis, SITRA Focus, 31, pp. 1–8.
28. Sreenivasan, J. and Shanmuganandam, D. (2014). How control invisible loss in
spinning mills? SITRA Focus, 31, pp. 1–8.
29. Subbarayudu D., and Subba Rao V.N. (1961). Behaviour of cotton in blowroom,
Proceedings of the Technical Seminar on Spinning, Textile Association of India, pp.
10–16.
30. Wakankar V.A. and Bhaduri S.N. (1963). Effect of fibre configuration in feed on
comber waste, Textile Research Journal, 33, p. 239.
31. Wakankar V.A. and Bhaduri S.N. (1963). Effect of fibre configuration in feed on
comber waste, Textile Research Journal, Vol. 33, p. 239.
5
Control of neps and fibre rupture
Abstract: This chapter provides insight into the types of neps, their measurement,
and control in blow room, carding and combing processes. The fibre and process
parameters influencing the nep generation in blow room and their control have
been dealt in this section. Further, the influence of process parameters in carding
and comber on nep removal efficiency has been discussed here. Further, the fibre
and process parameters influencing the fibre rupture in blow room and carding
is also discussed in detail in this section. The effects of modern developments
on improvement in quality of the intermediate products in these machines have
also been dealt.
Key words: nep, fibre rupture, NRE, setting, speeds, wire clothing, grinding
5.1 Introduction
The ASTM (ASTM, 1994, 1995) defines a nep as, “one or more fibres
occurring in a tangled and unorganized mass”. Neps are created when fibres
become tangled in the process of harvesting, ginning and other operations.
They can cause difficulty in processing and detract the appearance of yarns
and fabrics. Over the years neps have been classified in several ways.
A distinction is made between two basic types of neps (Fig. 5.1):
• Fibre neps are small knots of entangled fibres, often with immature
fibres at their core.
• Husk or seed coat neps consist of tangled fibres attached to a fragment
of seed coat.
Pearson (1933) discussed a “nep classification” including various nep-like
structures and tangled knots of fibres. His classification of neps was based on
four groups of fibres: thick walled fibres, medium-walled fibres, thin-walled
fibres and fuzz fibres. From these 4 fiber types, 15 nep categories were defined
according to the types of fibres that are in the tangle. Later he discussed the
following four structures: naps, neps, motes and seed-coat fragments. The
distinction between naps and neps is based on a difference in size. Neps, in
contrast to naps, are very small tangles of fibres. Naps are large tangles of
fibres which are visible when the lint is viewed as a whole. The Bureau of
Agricultural Economics considers neps to include all fiber tangles up to those
that are twice the size of a pinhead.
(a) Fibre neps (b) Seed coat neps

Figure 5.1 Types of neps
A more recent classification defines neps as biological or mechanical.

Mechanical neps are entirely composed of fibres and are created during
mechanical processing. Biological neps contain foreign materials, such
as seed, leaf, and grit, with fiber attached. There is a general agreement
that neps are affected by most mechanical processing stages in the cotton
production chain. Souther (1954) observed that the majority of neps were
created in the ginning process. Subsequent operations such as opening and
cleaning almost doubled the amount of neps. Mangialardi (1985) found
that the gin machinery affected nep content, with the gin stand and saw
cylinder lint cleaners being the major contributors to the formation of
neps.
Many fibre properties such as elongation, fineness, length, maturity,
strength, and short fibre content, along with contaminants such as stickiness
and seed coat fragments have been cited as possible predictors or as related
to nep formation. Mangialardi & Meredith (1990) found that among varieties,
neps were highly correlated with maturity-fineness measurements. They
also found significant correlations between nep counts and fibre strength,
elongation, mote counts, and funiculi. Van der Sluijs (1999) reported a study
where micronaire emerged as the most significant fibre property in terms of
determining nep levels and nep size. Van der Sluijs (1999) also reported that
the number of neps per grams decreased as micronaire, length uniformity
ratio, strength, and span length increased. The review of literature (Van der
Sluijs, 1999) for neps extensively covers the occurrence of neps and processes
for neps removal, yet rarely does the literature deal with the prevention of nep
formation.
In general, cotton neps are associated with fine fibres, but in particular
with immature low micronaire cotton.
Control of neps and fibre rupture 143
The susceptibility to neps is typically with:

• micronaire 0.5–1.0
Investigations of causes of neps in general showed that:
• 60% due to immature fibres
• 35% due to normal fibres
• 5% due to seed coat fragments
However it should be pointed out that certain cotton varieties and growing
regions produce a cotton seed that has a relatively fragile coat. The coat breaks
off with the cotton fibre during the ginning operation. Owing to the design of
blow room machinery and the nature of fibres, the nep count progressively
increases up to the card and is then reduced considerably. During the rest of
the preparation processes the nep count increases slightly with the exception
of the combing process in which again the neps are removed. The increase or
decrease in nep level after each process are given in Fig. 5.2.
A – Bale; B – Card mat; C – Card sliver; D – Ribbon lap; E – Comber sliver;

F – Finisher sliver; G – Roving
Figure 5.2 Nep level in each processing stage
5.2 Guideline values for neps in bale as per Uster

The guideline values for neps in bales for short, medium and long staple
cotton fibres are given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
Table 5.1 Guideline for neps in short and medium staple cotton
Fibre neps/gram Seed coat neps/gram Cotton rating

Less than 100 < 10 Very low
101–200 11–20 Low
201–300 21–30 Medium
301–450 31–45 High
Above 451 > 45 Very high
Table 5.2 Guideline for neps in long staple cotton
Fibre (Neps/gram) Seed coat (Neps/gram) Cotton rating

Less than 100 <7 Very low
101–150 8–12 Low
151–200 13–20 Medium
201–250 21–25 High
Above 250 >26 Very high
5.3 Evaluation of machine efficiency

In order to express the degree of increase and removal of neps respectively
DNi (%) and DNr (%), the theoretical relation between the cotton ability and
machine efficiency the elimination of impurities was derived. Degree of
increasing and removal of neps, respectively, DNi (%) and DNr (%) can be
defined by the following formulae:
DNi (%) = CNi (%)/ MNi
DNr (%) = MNr × CNr
Where, CNi = Increase ability of neps
CNr = Removal ability of neps
MNi = Neps increase efficiency
MNr = Neps removal efficiency
Thus, the more the cotton has a tendency towards the formation of
neps (CNi is big) the more DNi (%) is raised. But better the conditions of the
machine (MNi is big), the less is a formation of neps. So, DNi (%) is reduced.
Whereas, the more the neps are easily eliminated (CNr is big) and the card is
good because it eliminates more neps (MNr is big), the more DNr (%) is better.
Therefore, yarn nippiness is a result of quality, processed raw materials and
the technological process.
The degree of increase and removal of neps respectively DNi (%) and DNr
(%) can be determined by the following expressions:
Nbneps out – Nbneps in
DNi (%) =
Nbneps in
Nbneps in – Nbneps out
DNr (%) =
Nbneps in
Nbneps in = Number of neps per gram at the input of machine
Nbneps out = Number of neps per gram at the output of machine
Table 5.3 Classification of DNi (%)
Class (%) Interpretation

> 80 Very bad
60–80 Bad
40–60 Average
20–40 Good
< 20 Very good
According to the Uster, it is possible to classify the degree of increase and

removal of neps as indicated in Tables 5.3 and 5.4.
Table 5.4 Classification of DNr (%)
Class (%) Interpretation

> 90 Very good
80–90 Good
70–80 Average
60–70 Bad
< 60 Very bad
A new method is presented to determine the neps increasing ability (CNi)

and neps removal ability (CNr) for cotton fibres by the determination of the
neps number in the case of raw cotton after passage on two standard cleaners
by adapting two methods:
1. The laboratory apparatus Shirley Analyzer permits to value the
neps increase ability, because it eliminates trash while increasing
the number of neps in the cotton. This device behaves as a blow
room machine. Indeed, the CNi factor can be determined by the ratio
between the number of neps increased after passage of the cotton on
Shirley Analyzer (Nbneps out i) and the number of neps/g at the input of
this device (Nbneps in i). So, the more CNi (%) shows that cotton has a
strong tendency towards the formation of neps.
Nbneps out i
CNi (%) = × 100
Nbneps in i
2. The laboratory apparatus “Microdust Dust and Trash Analyzer 3
(MDTA3)”, allows the determination of the neps removal ability,
because it eliminates trash and neps in the cotton. This device
simulates the carding and combing action. The CNi factor can be
determined by the relation between the number of neps eliminated
after passage of the cotton on MDTA-3 (Nbneps out r) and the number
of neps per gram at the input of this device (Nbneps in r). So, a high
CNr factor means neps reduction by the card becomes an easier
process.
Nbneps out r
CNr (%) = × 100
Nbneps in r
5.4 Control of nep generation and fibre rupture in

blow room
Nep generation and fibre rupture are necessary evils in the process. For tuning
the blow room, we have to give more importance for increase in SFC (n) than
nep generation. In general, the increase in nep should be 100% and increase
in SFC (n) at least by 1%. Optimum level of nep generation and SFC (n)
increase will be there to ensure proper opening. Insufficient opening will lead
to overloading of carding.
A well-tuned blow room should have the following quality values:
• Neps generation – 90–130% in Neps/gm
• Fibre rupture – Below 2%
• Cleaning efficiency – 50–60%
• Waste percentage – Equivalent to trash% in cotton
• Lint ratio – Lint presence 30–40%
Nep generation in blow room can be measured by the following formula:
Neps/gm in delivery – Neps/gm in feed

Nep generation % = × 100
Neps/gm in feed
The guideline values for some of the blow room machines are given
below:
• Bale plucker / Unifloc / Blendomat – 10–20%
• Vario clean / Uniclean – 15–20%
• Unimix / Mulitimix – 20–25%
• Flexi clean – 20–30%
Fibre rupture in the process can be assessed on two aspects:
• Amount of length reduction in UQL(w)
• Increase in short fibre content in the delivery
UQL (w) feed – UQL (w) in deliver
Fibre rupture % = × 100
UQL (w) in feed
Guideline value for the fibre rupture can be given in the following manner:
• Fibre rupture should be less than 2%; 2.5% span length should not
drop by more than 4%. If the uniformity ratio drops by more than 4%,
then it is considered that there is fibre rupture.
• Increase in short fibre content (number) must be within 2% in absolute
value
5.4.1 Contribution from machinery parameter

(1) Number of beating points
The number of beating points (no. of blow room machines) depends upon
the fibre parameters like maturity, fineness and trash level of the cotton.
More number of beating points or aggressive opening will lead to higher nep
generation and fibre rupture. For example, for DCH Cotton, 1.5 Beating Point
is enough and for Cotton like J34, the beating point varies 2.5 Beating Point
because of higher trash content.
(2) Beater speed
Higher beater speed again lead to higher nep generation and fibre rupture. For
Indian cotton, beater speed 450–600 RPM works well.
(3) Type of beater
Proper design of the preparatory line and regular condition monitoring of the
beaters is key to consistent yarn quality and good fibre yield. Fibre opening
is a key to good yarn spinning. Good, gentle opening ensures maximum

retention of fibre strength by minimizing fibre rupture, reducing the level of
neps, effective trash removal and minimal amounts of micro dust and lint.
In modern blow rooms, four types of beaters are primarily used – disc
beaters, peg beaters, pinned beaters and saw tooth beaters; each having its
own function and suitability to certain requirements and conditions. As disc
and peg beaters are used exclusively for beating and pre-opening of cotton
fibres.
It was not until the 1960s that blow room cleaning machines embraced
metallic wire as an option to bladed, porcupine, vertical or pin beaters.
Production limitations of traditional blow room lines of around 300 kg/h
gave way to metallic wire wound cylinders enabling dramatic increases in
production. This provided more intense opening and cleaning, however, not
without quality concession. Metallic wire in many applications results in fibre
damage and requires frequent maintenance.
Typical Indian mills producing fine ring spun yarn up to the 1980s used
up to seven cleaning points in their blow room lines and no metallic wire was
used. Though in modern blow room lines, it is claimed that less cleaning points
are required which helps reduce fibre damage at high productions rates, what
is actually done is that multiple cleaning points are provided in a single blow
room beater or card. However, even if one or two cleaning points are actually
reduced, use of metallic wire leads to aggressive opening and consequent fibre
rupture, which affects ring spun fine yarns quality in particular.
It may be prudent to replace the wire wound rolls with pinned rolls to
reduce fibre damage, particularly for fine count, ring spun applications. Most
super high production lines are suited for open end spinning operations where
quality demands are more forgiving. Ring spun yarns, on the other hand, are
very sensitive to speeds, over beating, and aggressive cleaning. Machine
makers are thus increasingly adopting the pin technologies to overcome some
of the issues posed by aggressive metallic wire cleaning.
Engineering improvements, such as use of long lasting alloy steel pins,
extruded alloy aluminium lags and special pin profiles, along with proven
advanced methods of pin fixing that provides pin-point accuracy, have
dramatically improved the performance of pinned beaters, which was never
achieved in wooden products. The advantages of pinned beaters are the
following:
• Pins provide extended product life.
• Pins are kind to fibres – reduced fibre rupture leading to yarn strength
improvements.
• Pins provide fibre process flexibility.
• Pinned products are easily repairable (cost savings).

• Extruded aluminium tubes and profiles are lightweight alternatives of
most metallic wire applications with cast or steel base rollers.
• High tech pin fixing methods provide pinpoint accuracy without
grinding.
• Pin designs provide improved fibre transfer/doffing.
Choice of beaters and sequence of opening depends on the nature of fibre
and the process requirements. Long staple cotton with low trash would require
lesser beating and more opening than short staple, trashy cotton. Synthetic
fibres require no beating and only gentle opening. Though not preferred, saw
tooth wires can be used for opening polyester or nylon fibres. However, they
can cause several problems if used for opening soft fibres like viscose since
such fibres have a tendency to disintegrate under stress.
In saw tooth wire, the opening action is done by the knife-edges of the
saw tooth, which tend to cut open the fibres (Fig. 5.3a). This leads to fibre
rupture and lint generation. This tends to increase the percentage of short
fibres and the level of neps. The trash contained in the fibre supply also tends
to disintegrate into micro dust due to the saw tooth action.
In comparison, the pin has a smooth round surface and a spherical tip,
which opens the fibres through a gentle untangling action (Fig. 5.3b). It is
obvious that fibre rupture would be minimized as well as the consequent
generation of micro dust and lint would also be reduced considerably with the
use of pins. The round profile of pins also has another significant advantage
that of higher performing life and more consistent quality of opening.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.3 Action of (a) Saw tooth wire (b) Pinned wire
As the lifetime of saw tooth beater increases, the knife-edge gets rounded
thus reducing opening action significantly. Moreover, small cuts or crevices
develop on the leading edge of the saw tooth, which tends to ‘Catch’ the fibres
and create neps. Usually, the edge of the saw tooth loses its sharpness in the
first few months itself, thus causing a rapid deterioration in the fibre opening
action. This is partially mitigated by grinding the roller so that the teeth regain
their sharpness, but this lasts for much less duration before the deterioration
occurs again.
Another significant effect of this loss of sharp edge is that the saw tooth
begins to push fibres rather than open and carry them forward. This obviously
results in an increase in fibre rupture, leading to a loss of rich fibre and
lowering of fibre yield.
Since the pin has a rounded tip, it retains its opening ability much longer.
Additionally, the wear all around the tip causes a new tip to be formed as the
old one is eroded, though the pin length gets slightly reduced. This results in
several significant benefits: increase in life of pins, more consistent opening
action, thus ensuring a consistent sliver quality and a higher fibre yield as
compared to saw tooth wires.
Key process conditions and requirements influencing selection of beater
designs are:
(a) Type of fibre – As mentioned earlier, synthetic fibres need to be
opened using a different process than cotton. Even the type of cotton
or synthetic fibres has a bearing on the preparatory process.
(b) Cleaning – The percentage of trash in cotton will determine how
many opening points and what intensity of beating are required.
(c) Fibre rupture – There is a trade-off between better cleaning and fibre
rupture so a delicate balancing act is required. What achieves better
cleaning can also cause higher fibre rupture, if not carefully managed.
(d) Micro dust – Saw tooth beaters are generally easier to use but in case
of trash content being high, micro dust generation can be a problem
with such beaters.
(e) Lint – Low micronaire cotton tends to generate more lint with saw
tooth wires.
(f) Neps – Generally, neps level tends to increase with the increase in short
fibre percentage, though this is not always the case. The preparatory
system design has to consider the causes of neps to minimize them.
(g) Production rate – What works in a low production line may not do so
for high production rate. Consistency of quality becomes a primary
factor when designing a high production preparatory line.
(h) Desired quality of yarn – Preparatory requirements differ for fine
counts and coarse counts, with fibre rupture being a much more
significant quality factor in case of higher counts as is the levels of
lint and neps.
(i) Maintenance cost – This becomes a very sensitive issue in high

production lines as breakdowns, repairs and reconditioning mean
loss of production, increase in operating expenses and inconsistent
quality.
(j) Fibre yield – Sometimes there is a trade-off between higher fibre yield
and a better-opened and cleaned fibre; which one is more important
depends on the quality of yarn produced.
Design factors in beaters
(i) Diameter – Increase in diameter helps reduce the rpm of the beater
and also helps increase production. This is an option open only to
machine manufacturers, though.
(ii) Opening points density; projection and angle of points; and tip
profile – They influence intensity of opening and cleaning, operating
life, reduction in neps and fibre rupture.
(4) Beater to feed roller setting
Wider setting results in lesser rupture and also less fibre opening
(5) Beater to grid setting
The influence of this setting on fibre rupture is less. But too closer setting
(Grid setting of 1) will lead to fibre rupture.
(6) Fan speed
It is advisable to run the fans at optimum speeds. Higher fan speeds will
increase the material velocity and will create turbulence in the bends. This
will result in curly fibres which will lead to entanglements. The influence of
ventilator fan speed of material transport is lesser. But too high fan speed lead
to higher fibre rupture.
5.4.2 Contribution from raw material

The influence of fibre properties on neps and fibre rupture in blow room are
given in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Influence of fibre properties on blow room performance
Parameter Influence
Maturity ratio Lesser the MR, higher Nep and SFC (n) generation higher
IFC Higher IFC, higher Nep and SFC (n) generation
Moisture content Lower the MC, higher SFC (n) generation
Higher the MC, higher Nep generation
Low strength Lower the strength, higher SFC (n) generation
5.5 Control of neps and fibre rupture in card

It is normal for the nep count in the card matt to be double the count in the
raw cotton. The card nep removal rate can be between 80 and 90 percent of
the neps in the matt.
A well-tuned carding should have the following quality values:
• Neps removal efficiency – 75–85%
• Fibre rupture (SFC(n)) – No rupture
• Trash in sliver (including micro dust) – 0.04–0.1%
• Waste percentage – It is decided by trash level, micro dust, SFC and
end yarn quality
• U% / 5 m CV% – 3 to 4.5/ below 2.5%
A decisive factor is not only the number of neps but also the size. Small
neps are often not visible in rotor yarn or in coarse ring yarns, but are of major
concern in fine-combed yarns. Small neps are difficult to remove even by the
comber.
Neps may be reduced in two ways: by removing them or by opening
them. It has demonstrated that 75% of all neps can be opened, but normally it
is no more than 60%. The majority of the unopened neps either passes into the
sliver or is removed by the flats. A small percentage is removed in the waste.
5.5.1 Influencing factors of neps in card

Nep removal efficiency (NRE) in card can be expressed in percentage and
calculated as
(Neps/Gm in feed – Neps/Gm in delivery)
NRE% = × 100
Neps/Gm in feed
Opening/removing of neps at the card is primarily accomplished by:
• Close settings of the clothing
• Sharp clothing
• Low doffer speeds
• Light sliver weight
The factors influencing nep removal in card can be categorized as
1. Contribution from machinery parameter and
2. Contribution from material parameter
The contribution from carding machinery parameters and material
parameters on nep removal efficiency is given in Table 5.6 and 5.7, respectively.
Table 5.6 Influence of carding machine parameters on NRE
Parameter Influence (%)

Type of card clothing wire 20
Wire sharpness of card clothing 40
Flat-to-flat height variation and
flat to cylinder setting 50
SFD setting 10
Cylinder RPM 15
Waste percentage 20
Relative humidity 20
Productivity Directly related with increase in production
Table 5.7 Influence of material parameters on NRE
Parameter Influence
Micronaire Lower the micronaire, higher neps in sliver
Type of trash in the mixing Higher low weight trash like leaf bits, higher neps
in sliver
Maturity of cotton Lower the maturity level, higher sliver neps
Neps in feed material Nep generation is high with rupture in BR will lead
to higher neps
Honey dew content Higher honey content, higher neps in sliver
5.5.2 Control of neps in card

For reduction of neps in carding we have to consider the following factors:
1. Wire sharpness of card clothing
2. Flat to flat height variation
3. Flat to cylinder setting
4. Cylinder speed
5. SFD setting
6. Relative humidity
7. Waste percentage and
8. Production (doffer speed & sliver hank)
(1) Wire sharpness of card clothing
The guideline for wire population and speeds for producing quality sliver are
given in Table 5.8.
The primary indication that the clothing needs to be ground is that the nep
count in the sliver has reached the upper tolerable limit. The wire condition
should be visually checked using a magnifying glass of 30 to 50x powers.

The tips of worn clothing appear rounded with no carding leading edge. It is
then necessary to grind the clothing until a clean sharp leading edge is visible
over the whole of the clothing. The recommended grinding interval and life
of the different card clothings are given in Table 5.9. The grinding should be
performed carefully and in small steps to prevent the formation of “burrs” on
the front edge of the teeth.
Table 5.8 Guideline for speeds and wire density of different components for
processing different fibres
Fibres Very fine Med-fine yarn Coarse yarn Manmade Manmade

yarn combed Nm carded / OE > 1.0 dtex < 1.0 dtex
combed ring 100 – 3.3 – 0.6
Yarn count > Nm 80 Nm 40 …. 100 < Nm 35
( >Ne 48 ) (Ne 24 …. 60 ) (< Ne 20 )
Licker-in 41 41–61 41–61 32 36 pin roller
- PPSI
- angle 10 deg. 10 deg. 10–15 deg. 0–5 deg. 58 deg.
- rpm 900–1300 1000–1450 1300–1700 800–1100 1430
Cylinder 800–1080 800–1000 600–865 450–650 720
- PPSI
- angle 30 deg. 40 deg. 30 deg. 30 deg. 30 deg.
- rpm 350–450 400–500 450–600 400–450 400–450
Flat clothing 550 480 410 350 430
Doffer 340–365 340–365 280–340 280–340 340–365
- PPSI
- angle 30 deg. 30 deg. 30 deg. 30 deg. 30 deg.
Table 5.9 Recommended guideline for grinding interval of wires in card
Life 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

(Tones) sharpening sharpening sharpening sharpening sharpening
Cylinder 450 No Sharpening is needed. If the flat tops are changed at 350 tones, the wire
wire may give life up to 700 tonnes
Flat tops 400 100 180 260 340 Replace
For sharpening the flat tops, full width emery roller to be used. Once in alternate grinding, full width
ceramic stone is used for leveling. For synthetic tops, there is no sharpening needed
Licker-in 120–150 No sharpening for licker-in. Life depends on trash level/fibre stickiness in
wire cotton
SFD 450 No sharpening for SFD
SFL 120–150 No sharpening for SFL
Doffer 450 Sharpening is need based or once in 100 tonnes
(2) Flat-to-flat height variation / flat to cylinder setting

To increase the nep removal efficiency in card, the flat wire height variation
should be minimum to ensure uniform setting between flat to cylinder at all
points. Flat height variation has to be measured with reference to cylinder. If
it is measured in a jig, toe area to be measured
Within flat variation – 0.02 mm
Flat-to-flat variation – ±0.02 mm
Overall range of variation can be max of 0.05 mm.
The factors influencing the flat height variation are:
(a) Method of Flat Clipping & Leveling – To get a perfect clipping, flat is
to be clipped only after pasting. After loading the new flat, it is better
to go for one ‘On the machine’ flat levelling.
(b) Off machine Wire Sharpening is not recommended.
(c) Resting of Heel & Toe on flexible bend is to be ensured. If the flats are
lifted up, the chain may be reason. Proper lubricating of the Chain &
proper torque tightening of Flat bolts to be ensured.
(d) Twist in the flat, which has to be corrected during re-clipping.
(e) Wear out of Heel & Toe Area – New Clipping is to be done only after
end Milling if the wear out is noticed.
(f) Fibre accumulation in the flat guide pulleys will tilt the flats.
The aggressive opening action depends upon the cylinder to flat setting.
Every fibre depending upon its fineness, dust level and tenacity has an
optimum setting. Over the entire flat zone, the setting is gradually reduced
in the material flow direction in order to gradually increase the intensity of
opening. A too close setting would lead to intensive opening of fibre clusters
with liberation of dust and trash but neps and short fibres may increase due
to high level of stress acting on fibres. A wide setting will cause insufficient
opening and nep disentanglement. As a result short thick place in yarn and nep
level might increase.
(3) Cylinder speed

In any card, the highest cylinder speed attainable is limited by mechanical
design considerations. Today, though a speed of 600 rpm is attainable on
modern card, usually it runs in the range of 300–500 rpm. In the transfer of
fibres on to the doffer, speed plays a significant role in addition to geometry
and population density of wire points of respective surfaces and closeness
of their approach. The influence of cylinder speed and its consequences are
given in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10 Influence of cylinder speed
Expected outcome Consequences

Intensive opening action are train More individualization, higher stress on
between cylinder and flat, cylinder and fibres, more liberation of trash particles,
carding segments seed coats and short fibres
Higher centrifugal force on fibres and • More liberation of trash particles, seed
trash particles as well coats and short fibres
• Increase in transfer efficiency with
concomitant decrease in cylinder load.
This will lead to better fibre opening
From the quality point of view, the following things can be expected with
the increase in cylinder speed.
• Increase in cleaning efficiency especially removal of finer dust
• Reduction in neps
• Reduction of fibre clusters
• Increase in flat strip
• Generation of short fibres especially with long and finer fibres
With higher cylinder speed, slight reduction in the Neps/gm and Nep Size
can be noticed. However, in the process, the following negative impact on
quality of sliver, which we need to be observed and corrected.
(i) Increase in waste%
(ii) Increase in SFC (n)%
With the lower cylinder speed (Say 360 rpm), the AFIS results may be
good with respect to Neps/Gm & SFC(n), but yarn quality results may not
be good. This is due to less opening at carding due to lesser cylinder speed.
Hence Optimum fibre opening must be ensured at Card. Other than DCH, No
cotton will give quality results with cylinder speed of 360 rpm.
(4) SFD setting

With the closer post carding segment settings, the NRE can be increased
slightly due to better opening and cleaning action of already well opened
fibres from the flat zone. For low production less than 20 kg/hr, 0.225 mm
setting and for Higher Production above 20 kg/hr, 0.25mm setting can be kept
for better performance.
(5) Relative humidity

Relative humidity in the department plays an important role in nep reduction.
Higher the RH in the department, lower the NRE and higher Neps/gm in card
sliver due to lack of opening and sticking of fibres in the machine parts. For
cotton like PIMA, the temperature must be 100–103 °F and RH% must be
42–45%. Normal recommendation of RH% in carding department is 50–55%.
(6) Waste percentage

Removal of higher waste in carding results in lower the Neps/gm up to some
point of waste level. Flat strips are the main waste which is responsible for nep
removal which can be increased either by closer flat setting or by increasing
the flat speed. Beyond certain limit, Neps/gm will not come down as the waste
percentage increases. It is better to take more waste in Comber than in card to
have better quality
(7) Productivity
The optimum production rate of a card is mainly dependent on raw material
quality, technological sophistication of the machine and quality of yarn. The
production rate of a card can be changed by different modes such as:
1. Change in doffer and feed roller speed keeping sliver hank and
cylinder speed constant
2. Change in sliver fineness keeping doffer and cylinder speed constant
3. Change in overall aped of the machine.
The consequences of increase in production rate of card are given in
Table 5.11.
Table 5.11 Influence of production rate on carding performance
Production enhanced by
Doffer speed Sliver fineness Machine speed
Transfer efficiency Increase Decreases Increase
Cylinder load Increase little Increases Decreases
Total waste (%) Reduces Reduces Reduces
Licker-in waste (%) Reduces Reduces Increases
Flat strip waste (%) Reduces Reduces Increases
Flat load Increases – Increases
Cleaning efficiency Reduces Reduces Increases
Nep level – Increases Increases
Web appearance Poor Poor –
Major hook Increases Increases –
Minor hook Decreases Decreases –
Productivity and neps in card sliver are directly related i.e. as the
productivity (depends on doffer speed and sliver hank) increases, the Neps/gm
in sliver will also increase due to lack of fibre opening and individualization in
the flat region as the fibres will soon transferred to the doffer. The guidelines
for the productivity level in card for better performance are given below:
Up to 20’s count – Up to 55 kg/h
30’s – 40–50 kg/h
40’s – 30–40 kg/h
60’s and above – Depending on mixing and quality requirement
5.5.3 Influencing factors of fibre rupture in card

The factors influencing fibre rupture in card can be categorized as
1. contribution from machinery parameter and
2. contribution from material parameter
The contribution from carding machinery parameters and material
parameters on nep removal efficiency is given in Table 5.12 and 5.13,
respectively.
Table 5.12 Influence of carding machine parameters on fibre rupture
Parameter Influence %
Type of card clothing wire 20%
Cylinder RPM 30%
Relative humidity 20%
SFL setting 50%
Licker-in wire type 20%
Licker-in speed 20%
Licker-in to feed plate setting 15%
Table 5.13 Influence of material parameters on fibre rupture
Parameter Effect Major Contributing setting

Micronaire Lower the micronaire, higher Licker-in to feed plate setting,
the rupture licker-in wire angle and speed
Maturity Lower the maturity level, higher Cylinder speed, licker-in to
rupture feed plate setting
Strength Lower the strength, higher the SFL setting
rupture
5.5.3.1 Reduction of fibre rupture in card

For reduction of fibre rupture in carding, we have to consider the following
factors:
1. Type of card clothing wire
2. Cylinder speed
3. Relative humidity
4. SFL setting
5. Licker-in speed, wire type and feed plate to licker-in setting
(1) Type of card clothing wire

Higher wire angle and higher wire population (PPSI) will give higher fibre
rupture due to intensive opening. To overcome this for higher angle wire,
we have to keep wider SFL setting to reduce the fibre rupture. The guideline
values for pre-carding segment setting (SFL) are given below:
30° Angle – 0.3–0.35 mm
35° Angle – 0.325–0.375 mm
40° Angle – 0.35–0.4 mm
If the production rate is more than 30 kg/h, another 0.025 mm has to be
added with the above setting.
(2) Cylinder speed

With higher cylinder speed, the fibre rupture will increase which can be
noticed from increase in short fibre content (SFC (n)) or reduction in fibre
length before and after carding tested in AFIS instrument. Except for PIMA
and J34, all other cotton will perform better with 430 rpm. For DCH having
very fine micronaire value, the cylinder speed of 360 rpm will be optimum.
(3) Relative humidity

Relative humidity in the department plays an important role in nep reduction.
Higher the RH in the department, lower the fibre rupture in card sliver. This
has to be balanced in such a way that this should not affect the NRE. For fibres
having low strength, higher RH in the department will be helpful to reduce
the fibre rupture.
(4) SFL setting

The pre-carding zone setting plays a vital role in fibre rupture in carding.
Closer SFL setting results in higher fibre rupture due to aggressive opening.
This can be optimized only by trial and error method.
(5) Licker-in speed and wire type

This can be optimized only by Trial-and-Error method for different material
and production rate depending on the fibre parameters like length, strength
and fineness. Generally, we have to use 5 degree wire for processing longer
fibres.
Table 5.14 Influence of licker-in speed
Expected outcome Consequences

Intensive opening of fibre tufts Greater scope for trash to get exposed
Reduction in tuft size on licker-in Smaller tufts get passed for carding
Higher force on fibres as they teased out More liberation of trash particle with
from feed nip possible danger of fibre damage
Higher centrifugal force to be experienced Greater scope for escape of trash and
by tufts on licker-in surface immature fibre clusters entrapped within
tufts with associated danger of fibre loss
Lessening of draft between licker-in and Difficulties in fibre transfer to cylinder
cylinder at excessive high speed
Aggressive opening action between Greater scope for trash liberation with
combing bar segment and licker-in possibilities of fibre rupture
The influence of licker-in speed in carding is given in Table 5.14. Hence

one can expect that higher speed would lead to better cleaning and carding at
the cost of more waste generation and fibre damage. Difficulty in transferring
the fibres to cylinder also can be experienced at excessive high speed. For
adequate transfer, the draft between cylinder and licker-in should be around
1.5–1.7 for cotton and 2.5–2.9 for man-made fibres. Poor transfer of fibres
may cause licker-in loading with serious consequence of unopened fibre tufts
being passed on to a cylinder in an erratic manner and loss of good fibres as
licker-in waste. Sliver quality is therefore expected to improve initially with
the rise in speed with associated increase in waste. But beyond certain speed,
the quality may in fact deteriorate. The exact optimum speed may vary from
mixing to mixing, machine design and production rate.
(6) Feed plate to Licker-in Setting

This setting mainly influences the distance between the point of release of
fibres from the grip of feed roller – feed plate to the line of action of the teeth
of licker-in. The gentle teasing of fibres are away from the nip is required as
they are released but not plucking of fibre tufts as a whole. The length of the
fringe depends upon fibre length. If greater part of this fringe is brought in
contact with licker-in teeth by having closer setting, more fibres with trailing
ends still lying at the nip or beyond will be pulled out and therefore more
aggressive the action would be. If on contrary, setting is increased only the
tip of the fringe with the fibres leading end reach this point, many of them
will have trailing end released from the feed nip. Since no resistance will be
offered to their withdrawal from the fringe, they will be simply be plucked
away without being teased. Hence intensity of opening will suffer.
5.6 Control of neps and short fibre content in

comber
The cotton sliver produced by the card contains several contaminants that
interfere with the spinning of fine high quality yarns. There are trash particles,
neps and up to 10% by weight of short fibres less than 0.5 inch (12.7 mm).
Additionally, the fibres in the card sliver are entangled, hooked and generally
not aligned. To further prepare these fibres for the spinning of yarns finer
than Ne 36/1 on the ring spinning or on the high draft “Vortex” system, the
combing system is needed.
Performance attributes of combing are:
• Neps removal efficiency – 60–70%
• Mean fibre length L(n) – Must increase
• SFC (n) – 2–3% reduction
• U% / 5 m CV% – 3–4/ below 2
• Web appearance – No web cut
5.6.1 Influencing factors of neps and SFC in comber

sliver
5.6.1.1 Contribution from machinery parameter
Top Comb
(a) Top comb depth – The deeper the penetration of the top comb, the cleaner
the combed sliver will be. The noil level will also be increased. The short
fibres and trash restrained by the top comb are primarily retained in the
remaining batt fringe and then combed out by the next action of the circular
comb. With an increased top comb penetration or with a higher number of
needles/cm, the top comb tends to fill up with trash particles and short fibres
and more frequent cleaning of the top comb is required. Top comb depth
must be always +1 for better action of top comb and removal of neps and
short fibres.
Over deep penetration of top comb disturbs the fibre movement, with
close detaching setting, it can also result in fibre breakage and creation of
neps. Particularly top comb with higher density with deeper penetration
results in creation of neps and also chocking of needles. A practical example
of nep level at the yarn is given in Table 5.15.
Table 5.15 Influence of top comb penetration on yarn quality
Top comb penetration + 1.0 + 0.5

U% 13.98 14.27
Thin/Km 147 179
Thick/Km 510 554
Neps/Km 431 557
Total imperfections/Km 1088 1290
In the above example the variation is only the top comb penetration and
all the materials and the process parameters are same up to yarn stage.
(b) Top comb setting – The top comb setting of 0.2 mm must be uniform
between the heads for achieving better results.
(c) Type of top comb – The number of needles in Top comb depends on
the fibre micronaire, the lap weight and fibre parallelization in the lap. If the
fibre Micronaire is less than 3.6, number of needles per cm in top comb can
be 30. In general for fibres above 3.8 Micronaire, 26 needles per centimetre
is used. The cleaning of the top comb is important in maintaining the quality
of the combing action. It is not appropriate to increase the intensity of the
top comb and reduce the necessary time between comb-cleaning cycles if the
operators cannot perform the task in a timely manner. The top comb cleaning
cycle should not be less than every four hours (the maximum cleaning cycle
should be at least 8 hours to maintain good running conditions). Self-cleaning
top comb is better for achieving better quality.
Brush setting
Brush setting plays an important role in cleaning of Unicomb for its better
action. At 20 index position, the brush can’t be rotated by hand which has
more influence on quality. Air Shield plate setting has to be checked after
brush setting. The setting has to be checked frequently in all the heads to
find out brush diameter and the difference between head to head should be
rectified by closing the setting for better cleaning of Unicomb.
Unicomb
(a) Nipper to unicomb setting – The unicomb to nipper gap has greater
influence on the yarn quality particularly the neps and imperfections. Closer
the gap, better the nep removal and vice versa. The setting between the bottom
nipper must be always within 0.275 to 0.325 at 5 Index position for better
action of Unicomb on the fibre fringe. With too wide setting, there is a chance
for the longer fibres to go as a waste.
(b) Unicomb condition – The basic requirement for an efficient comb-
out is the cleanliness of the circular comb clothing. The needle geometry and
the needle surface also have a decisive influence. The combs are intensively
cleaned at 30-minute intervals by reducing the speed of the machine to a
slow speed for a few seconds while the clearer brush remains in high speed.
Circular combs, which have a tendency to soiling, have a negative effect on
the combing and yarn quality. Rough surfaces and sharp edges on the needles
tend to load much more than smooth round needles. Unicomb wire points
must be sharp enough for better combing.
(c) Unicomb index – Unicomb index 36 will give better yarn quality by
10%.
Nipper
Variation in setting between head to head will lead to noil variation
Nipper bend will lead to long fibre loss
5.6.1.2 Contribution from material and process parameter

(1) Feed material
(a) Feed lap weight – The self-cleaning effect of the lap sheet arises from the
retaining power of the fibres relative to the impurities. This depends on the lap
weight. If lap weight is more, the unicomb efficiency may not be good. But
the nipper grip will be good for heavier lap weight. Therefore an optimum lap
weight should be decided. It depends on fibre micronaire (no. of fibres in the
cross section below 500,000). The relationship between number of fibres in
comber lap, comber sliver and micronaire are shown in Fig. 5.4.
For E7/4 comber, lap weight of 52–60 grams per meter can be selected
to produce a fairly good quality yarn. In case of E-62 comber (latest from
RIETER), it can range from 65 to 75 grams per meter to produce a fairly good
yarn. Lesser the number of piecing in comber, better is the quality. Every piecing
in comber is a defect. Therefore, it is better to increase the lap weight as high as
possible. For modern lap preparation, it is around 20–23 kg/lap and for older lap
preparation, it is around 12–13 kg/lap.
(b) Length distribution – The fibre selectivity is an important criterion for
assessing the separation of short and long fibres in the combing process. Higher
the SFC (n) in feed, lower will be the quality of comber sliver.
(c) Lap preparation – There are different types of lap preparation. The best
combination is draw frame and unilap combination. Lap piecing will be less in
this combination compared to sliver lap and ribbon lap combination. Every lap
piecing is a major fault compared to sliver piecing. If number of lap piecing
is less, top comb damages will also be less. The total draft for sliver lap and
ribbon lap combination should be around 9. If Micronaire is less than 3.8, the
lap licking tendency will be more. For such fibres, the total draft between card
and comber should be kept as low as possible, i.e. around 8.5. For draw frame
Figure 5.4 Relationship between fibre fineness and number of fibres in sliver
and unilap preparation the total draft can be from 9.5 to 11, depending upon the
fibre and lap weight. Fibre parallelization in a lap should be reasonably good,
to avoid long fibres in the noil. With the modern cards, the fibre parallelization
is improved because of the stationary flats. Better fibre orientation lead to lesser
long fibre loss and better mean fibre length in comber sliver.
(2) Process parameter
(a) Noil% – Plays major role in combing quality
(b) Feed/mm – 5.3 for Coarse count up to 24’s
– 4.7 for Medium count up to 60’s
– 4.3 for Finer count above 80’s
(c) Break draft – Break draft selection according to feed weight
(d) Top roller load – 3.5 bar front roller /5 bar back roller
(e) Calendar roller load – As minimum as possible
(f) Table tension draft – Higher draft gives 5–10% IPI improvement
5.7 Influence of modern developments on nep

removal
5.7.1 Developments in card
Now as before, the card is the one machine in the spinning mill which does have
the greatest effect on the quality of the end product. However, to accomplish
this as effectively as possible under the above-mentioned conditions, special
emphasis was placed on the redevelopment of the setting elements and the
advancement of online sensor technology on latest innovations.
Settings
Among the multitude of possible setting points which have an influence
on quality and productivity, it is known that the setting of the carding
gap between main cylinder and revolving flats is the most effective and
important one for nep removal. Hence, the tiniest changes of even a few
thousandths of an inch influence the card sliver quality. When considering,
however, that this important setting is usually still carried out by subjective
sensing of the distance via feeler gauges, it becomes clear that this is the
most effective place to simplify the setting and improve the reproducibility
of the carding quality.
In the new high production card, the interaction of all elements of the
revolving flats system was newly designed to meet these requirements.
With
1. Flat bars made of high-precision aluminium extruded profiles
(Fig. 5.5)
Figure 5.5 Aluminium flats
2. Flexible bend, now with 6 instead of 4 adjusting spindles (Fig. 5.6)
Figure 5.6 Adjustment for flat setting
• Flat drive with a separate variable speed drive

• Non-contact flat distance measuring system flat control FCT
(Fig. 5.7)
Figure 5.7 Flat control (FCT)
• Newly developed precision setting device precise flat setting

(PFS) (Fig. 5.8). The flat adjustment can be carried out in seconds
without tools, reaching a new optimal level and up to now unknown
precision.
1. Metal flexible bend

2. Wear-resistant special plastic slide rails
3. Setting lever
4. High-precision aluminium flat bars
5. Cam timing belt for the flat drive
6. The setting can be read directly from a scale
Figure 5.8 Precise flat setting (PFS)

• With the help of the FLATCONTROL print-outs (Figure 5.9), flat

adjustment can be accurately carried out, for instance in two steps
by 4/1000” each.
Figure 5.9 Flat adjustment with PFS

Sensor technology
In the field of quality sensor technology, sensors to control and regulate the
sliver evenness on the card are part of the standard equipment today. With help
of these sensors and sophisticated closed-loop feedback control techniques
– into which all drives that determine the material flow are gradually
incorporated – it is possible today to produce card slivers at an excellent level
of evenness and to continuously monitor their quality. Of same, if not even
more importance is the removal of trash, neps and other interfering particles
from the material by the card. A control of this important function, however,
is still carried out by very expensive random tests in the laboratory within the
scope of gravimetrical trash measurement and nep counting. The realization
of online control for the interfering particles is therefore rightfully an item of
top priority for the spinning mills.
The development of the online nep sensor nep control provides a device
which ensures that these requirements placed on high production cards are met.
In this connection, a camera located below the stripper roll (Fig. 5.10) traverses
in a hollow profile and detects the size and number of interfering particles
by constantly providing sample images over the width and length of the web
produced. A computer installed at the profile classifies the type of interfering
elements as neps, seed-coat fragments and trash, and transmits the result to the
card control. Afterwards the particle counts per gram can be shown on the card
display. In addition to plotting neps over time, the nep distribution can also be
established over the working width and automatically monitored for limiting
values. By utilizing the NCT, the setting of the card to a constant nep level can
for the first time be carried out in a quick and accurate way.
Figure 5.10 Nepcontrol (NCT)
A digital camera films the web under the takeoff roll approx. 20 times
per second as shown in Fig. 5.11. In doing so, the camera moves about
the whole working width of the card in a special, fully closed profile. This
optical principle copies the visual perception of a person, and is thus superior
to indirect measuring methods. The high-performance computer, directly
attached to the profile, evaluates the pictures with special analysis software,
and discerns:
• Neps
• Trash particles
• Seed coat fragments
Figure 5.11 The camera view of the web with trash particles
(neps, seed coat fragments, trash parts)
Grinding
Sliver quality is directly related to the sharpness of the clothing. The number
of neps in the sliver is affected positively or negatively by the state of the card
clothing. The IGS-System (Integrated Grinding System), has been developed
by Rieter in order to maintain the clothing at a constant level of sharpness and
hence to obtain even better carding sliver quality. IGS-Classic and IGS-Top
add-ons are available for cards of type C 50 and C 51.
During carding, the tips of the card clothing wear and must therefore be
sharpened at regular intervals. Increased production throughput of the cards
is accompanied by a decrease in the life expectancy of the card clothings
which also become increasingly complex to sharpen. As a result, the cylinder
clothings are sharpened more infrequently and in some instances are no longer
sharpened at all. By contrast, with the IGS sharpening of card clothings could
be done irrespective of time and personnel.
The IGS is an integral part of the card; it is permanently installed in the
lower zone of the cylinder. Sharpening of the cylinder takes place automatically
without any interruption of production. The life of the clothing can sustain about
400 grinding cycles. Software which forms part of the IGS calculates when it is
time for sharpening and automatically initiates the movement of the grindstone.
During every grinding cycle only a minute fraction of the clothing is
removed. Experience shows that this increases the average life of the clothing
by up to 20%. However optimum carding necessitates regular grinding of the
flat clothing and its regular adjustment to match the cylinder clothing.
When grinding the new generations of clothings, practically no sparks are
detectable any more. Maintenance of this type of clothing can only be carried
out by very well trained operating personnel. But with IGS, grinding of the
clothings is carried out precisely and automatically by the machine. This means
that excessive or insufficient grinding of the clothings is a thing of the past.
The IGS-classic cylinder grinding system
It consists of an aluminium profile as carrier and a linear-directed grindstone
stabilized by spring pressure. In the parked position (right-hand side of the
machine) the flat belt is pushed upwards by clamp profiles so that no dust
or particles of fibres can get inside the profile. The parameters necessary for
the grinding operation can be entered on the card (Fig. 5.12). The program
calculates the grinding schedule, distributing the fixed grinding cycles
optimally over the lifetime of the cylinder clothing (270 and/or 400, to and fro
= 1 cycle). The time between cycles is longer at the beginning of the schedule
than at the end. On the way to the left-hand side of the machine the grindstone
is lowered. Grinding occurs when the grindstone moves from the left to the
right-hand side of the machine. This means a sharp wire all the time and thus
constant quality (Fig. 5.13).
Figure 5.12 IGS classic
Figure 5.13 Effect of IGS grinding on wire sharpness
IGS-TOP integrated grinding system

A grinding brush is permanently installed behind the flat cleaning device
(Fig. 5.14). Under the grinding brush and the one flat in contact with this
brush a spring is provided that presses the flat bar against the brush. The flats
are thus raised one by one and ground at this point. With the IGS grinding
device grinding takes place for more than 100 cycles during the lifetime of
the clothing.
Figure 5.14 IGS-top grinding

IGS-classic and IGS-top feature considerably more frequent but less

aggressive grinding than takes place in manual clothing maintenance. This
prolongs the service life of the clothing, and at the same time the tips always
stay sharp. The success of this approach is reflected in the card sliver through
high consistency in purity and low nep content (Fig. 5.15).
Figure 5.15 Quality improvement using IGS system
5.7.2 Developments in comber

Nippers geometry
The nipper geometry for short and long-staple material has been optimized
with respect to fibre guiding by reducing the clamping line distance
(Fig. 5.16).
(a) Others (b) Rieter

Figure 5.16 Nipper geometry with short clamping distance
This has a positive effect on the fibre selectivity and ultimately results in
a higher yarn quality. Additionally the nipper profile has been designed to give
a double clamping action, which securely holds the batt without damaging the
fibres (Fig. 5.17).
(a) Conventional nipper (b) Modified nipper

Figure 5.17 Double clamping action of modified nipper profile
Synchronization of movements
The coordinated interaction of the elements involved in the combing process
has a considerable influence on the fibre selection and the purity of the combed
sliver. One important parameter, for example, is the distance between nipper
and circular comb during the combing action. During the entire combing
process, the fibre fringe should thereby be guided as close as possible to
the circular comb. Further, a more precise combing action is achieved by a
concentric movement of the nipper with the circular comb (Fig. 5.18).
(a) Others (b) Concentric nipper motion

Figure 5.18 Concentric nipper assembly in Rieter comber
5.8 References
1. Bar H P, Furter R, and Harzenmoser I (1990). Influence of autoleveling and on-line
quality control on the quality of ring yarns, Textil Praxis, 45, p.362.
2. Chattopadhyay R (2002). Advances in Technology of Yarn Production, New Delhi,
NCUTE Publications.
3. Dipali Plawat and A. R. Garde – Spinning Tablet II, Carding – The Textile Association
(India).
4. Dr. H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and Dr. A. K. Basu – Optimization of Opening, Cleaning
and Blending at Blow room – NCUTE Pilot programme 30th and 31st Jan 1999.
5. Dr. R. Chattopadhyay – Quality consideration in blow room – NCUTE pilot
programme 30th and 31st Jan 1999.
6. Garde A R and Subramanian T A (1978). Process Control in Cotton Spinning, 2nd Ed.,
Ahmedabad, ATIRA.
7. J. M. Grover and A. R. Garde – Spinning Tablet III, Drawframes – The Textile
Association (India).
8. Klein W (1987). Short Staple Spinning Series, Vol 3: A practical Guide to Combing
and Drawing, Manchester, The Textile Institute.
9. M. C. Sood and A. R. Garde – Spinning Tablet VI – Ring Frames – Part I: Yarn
Quality and Productivity – The Textile Association (India).
10. Morton W E and Nield R (1953). The effect of lap preparation on waste extraction at
the cotton comber, J. Text. Inst., 44, pp. T317–T334.
11. Operating instruction of RSB 851 drawframe, Lakshmi machine works, Coimbatore,
India.
12. Piyush H. Shah and A. R. Garde – Spinning Tablet IV – The Textile Association
(India).
13. Purushothama, B (2007). Linking exercises – A strong tool for Quality Auditing –
Quality Update, Indian Society for Quality.
14. Ratnam T V, Seshan K N, Chellamani K P and Karthikeyan S (1994). Quality Control
in Spinning , Coimbatore, SITRA.
15. Salhotra K R (2004). Spinning of Manmade and Blends on Cotton System, Mumbai,
The Textile Association (India).
16. SITRA Focus (1983). Neps assessment and Control, 1, No. 4.
17. SITRA Focus (1985). Fibre damage during spun yarn manufacture, 9, No. 5.
18. Slater K (1986). Textile Progress: Yarn Evenness, Manchester, The Textile Institute.
19. van der Sluijs M H J and Hunter L (1999). Textile Progress: Neps in Cotton Lint,
Manchester, The Textile Institute.
20. Vivek Plawat and Garde, A. R. Spinning Tablet I, Blow room – The Textile Association
(India).
6
Control of count, strength and its variation
Abstract: This section provides insight into the control of variations in yarn
count and strength. The main process/machine to look for the control of count
variation is the draw frame. The two aspects for control of count variation such
as with-in bobbin and between bobbin variation and their control are discussed
in this section.
Key words: count variation, strength variation, with-in bobbin, between bobbin
6.1 Introduction
Quality of the product depends on three aspects: (1) Product meets the
specifications as per the requirements of user (2) value addition of the product
(3) fault free final product. The aim of spinner is to produce the actual count of
yarn as close as the nominal count of yarn. It is the basic requirement because
any change in the count will change other properties.
6.2 Control of count

The procedure for control of count should consist of three steps: assessing
process capability, improving it when possible and using the improved value
for specifying sample size and tolerance limits.
6.2.1 Assessing the process capability

Process capability is generally determined by the quality of raw material,
the level of technology used for production, the mechanical condition of the
machines and the competency of the personnel. In case of yarn count, the
process capability is best measured in terms of the co-efficient of variation of
weight of leas. Hence, the first step in setting up count control is, therefore,
the determination of the coefficient of variation of lea count. For this purpose,
wrappings are taken in different departments and pinion changes effected with
a view to controlling the count. More often, the tolerance limits for effecting a
pinion change are fixed arbitrarily and not determined on the basis of process
variation and sample size.
Sampling – The number of samples to be taken in any department would

depend on the variations in the product and the desired level of accuracy in the
estimate of the average.
Sampling error – It is very significant to note that even though the
average count spun by a mill is 60s, the count in individual leas would
vary anywhere between 55s to 65s. In other words, if one lea is tested
at random the count may vary anywhere from 55s to 65s. When number
of leas are tested, the average of sample of leas would be nearer to the
actual count spun by the mills. The larger the sample size, the closer
would be the sample average to the actual count spun by the mills. The
difference between the actual count and the count estimated from the
sample is termed on the sample error due to sampling. The standard error
in the estimation of count from a sample of ‘n’ leas is ±2 S.D./√n at 95%
confidence limits.
For example, for the Count CV% = 4.2% (S.D. = 2.48); Sample size = 25;
Nominal count = 60s
60 ± 2 × 2.43
Standard error = = 60 ± 1.0
25
Sample size – The estimated sample size is derived from the standard
2 × S.D. 100
error € expressed as the percentage of mean e = ×
n Mean (X)
2(CV%)
e =
n
4(CV)2
n =
e2
Where, n is sample size.
The number of wrappings CV% and allowable error in different
departments for the length of wrappings normally tested by the mills for the
purpose of count control are shown in Table 6.1.
Since the draw frame is the key point of count control and the CV% of the
weight of 5m finished sliver is low at 1% the sample size could be so selected as
to given an error of only 0.5% in the average weight. Practical considerations
of time and material used will also govern the size of the sample and when
variability is higher as in the case of speed frames and spinning frames, less
precise estimates will have to be accepted.
Control of count, strength and its variation 177
Table 6.1 Number of wrappings in different departments
Department C.V.% % Error No. of

allowable (e) wrappings (n)
Drawing 5 m sliver 1.0 0.5 8
Fly frame 15 m wrapping 1.5–2.0 1.13–2.0 8
Ring spinning lea 2.0–5.0 0.64–4.9 25
Tolerance limits – The tolerance limit for affecting the pinion changes
can be obtained from mean values ±3S/√n. If any sample falls outside these
limits, it is indicative of the fact that the value of the product has significantly
deviated from the standard and corrective action is warranted. While setting
the control limits, the limitations imposed by mechanical factors should also
be taken into account. Consider a ring frame with a draft change pinion of A.
A change of pinion is advantageous only when the true deviation from the
desired count exceeds C/2A. Based on this consideration, the limits for the
average count beyond which a pinion change may be called for have been
given below:
C 3S
C+ +
2A n
C 3S
C– –
2A n
To illustrate, if a mill spinning a nominal count of 60 gets a CV% of 5
and has a change pinion with 50T, for a test of 25 leas, the tolerances are ±
(3 + 3/√25 + 60/100) = ± 2.4 counts. In other words, if the average count lies
between 57.6 and 62.4, no change in pinion is warranted. Once the tolerance
limits are based on these considerations and wrapping results show that the
product is outside the limits, the possible causes are:
1. Hank of the feed material and
2. Variation in atmospheric conditions
6.2.2 Other considerations on control of count

6.2.2.1 Weighing equipment
The weighing equipment should be sensitive enough to make accurate
estimates of the count or hank. For assessing yarn count, roving and sliver
hanks, auto sorter with electronic balance may be used. Once in every month,
the balances should be checked for their sensitivity as well as for proper
weights. Weighing of all leas together will reduce the errors of weighment in
addition to providing a check on weights. Care should be taken to ensure that
the correct length is taken.
6.2.2.2 Atmospheric conditions

The weight of a sample of cotton, sliver, roving or yarn is the combination of
two weights, the weight of the cotton itself and the weight of the moisture.
The latter is determined by the atmospheric conditions in the room. Thus, in
any attempt to control the count, the amount of moisture should necessarily
be taken into account. The most accurate method to estimate moisture regain
is by the use of oven drying method but a figure only slightly less accurate
can be obtained more quickly by an electronic moisture meter. It is advisable
to keep the material in the wrapping room for 2–3 hours before testing and
the average relative humidity and temperature of the room should be used for
applying the correction.
6.2.2.3 Wrapping procedure
Routine wrappings for count control need to be taken only at ring frame and
finisher drawing sliver. The suggested frequencies are given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Suggested wrapping procedure
Department Sample per count Frequency of wrappings

Ring spinning 25 leas (a) Once a week for counts 40 and finer
(b) Twice a week for counts 18–39
(c) Daily for counts coarser than 18
Finisher drawing 8 wrappings of 5 m Once in a shift
If very few ring frames are working for a specific count, select adequate
bobbins from each ring frame in order to take the leas required. For the
purpose of average count control, only one lea per bobbin needs to be taken.
No regular wrappings are required at cards, breaker draw frames, combers and
fly frames; only spot-checks needs to be done at the time of count change.
6.3 Control of count variation

Higher count variability invariably leads to higher strength variability. The
weak patches in the yarn lead to frequent end breaks in further processing,
which often leads to rejection of bobbins and cones. In latest autoconers,
which have settings for rejecting bobbins with count of yarn exceeding
beyond certain limits of the nominal, processing of yarns with even slightly
high count variations becomes extremely difficult. Winding efficiency
reaches unacceptably low levels with such yarns. Higher count variability
especially of medium to long length range results in moiré-like appearance
in fabric and increases warp way streaks and weft bars. Ring cuts and soiled
ring packages is another problem with higher count CV. To overcome this,
wider clearance is kept between ring diameter and full package leading to
lower doff weights. With higher count variability, percentage of bobbins
exceeding tolerance limits of nominal count increases, leading to sales
rejections and market complaints.
In shuttle-less looms, problem of weft tear is encountered during weaving
when count of weft changes abruptly beyond certain limits at the time of pirn
change. High count variations in weft are also a cause of warp way fabric
creases in processed fabrics like dyed poplins.
Dependence on length variability of count depends upon the length of
the yarn used for estimating count. Though 120 yds. or lea is normally used
for estimating yarn count, sometimes half leas are used especially in coarse
polyester blend counts to keep strength measurement within the capacity of
strength tester. In very fine counts like 120s, two leas are weighed together to
estimate count to achieve better accuracy in weighment.
The first pre-requisite for control of count variation is to test adequate leas
(200 to 300), set the control limits and do the statistical tests of significance
while interpreting data. The sample should be representative to cover all ring
frames. If bobbins from a single doff alone are taken, a certain amount of
count variation will result. If bobbins from different doff, perhaps over one
day or one week is tested, a large variation in count will result. This is because
there are slow long-term changes in count which hardly affect the count in a
doffing. The data on count variation should therefore be collected preferably
over a period of one week.
It is well known that CV of count decreases with increase in length but
the rate of reduction decreases with increase in length. CV of half lea will
be 1.2–1.3 times the CV of full lea. Tracing the source of count variation
location of source of count variability will be greatly facilitated if wrappings
and estimate of CV from the same are based on corresponding wrapping
lengths of material at different stages. Thus wrappings and CV of wrappings
may be based on 5yd instead of the traditional 15 yd length. At draw frames,
CV of wrappings based on 0.5 yd length will be more useful from the same
consideration. Estimation of CV of such lengths can be obtained from modern
evenness testers.
6.3.1 Categories of count variation

The count variation can be distinguished into two components, namely, with-
in bobbin and between bobbin variations. What causes these variations can
best be studied by relating equivalent lengths of each earlier product which,
after drafting becomes one lea or one bobbin of yarn as the case may be.
The equivalent lengths in 40s Ne carded count having a length of 5000 m

in one cop for a mill having top-arm drafting in ring frame, single process fly
frame, and two passages of drawing with 36 doublings are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Length of material required for production of one lea and one bobbin
Process Draft given in each For one lea, 110 m For one bobbin,
process (120 yd) 70g
Yarn 25 110 m 5000
Roving 10 4.4 m 200 m
Drawing II 6 44 cm 20 m
Drawing I 6 7.33 cm 3.33 m
Cards 100 12.22 mm 0.55 m
Blow room 0.12 mm 5.55 mm
Variations in lengths less than those given in the second column of

Table 6.3 will not have any added influence on count variation because all
such variations occur within a lea and not between leas. Thus, these length
figures could be taken as the minimum lengths which can cause lea count
variation. Similarly, the figures in the fourth column of Table 6.3 are the
minimum lengths for ‘between-bobbin’ variation.
From Table 6.3, it appears that the identification of cause of high count
variation may need a complete investigation starting from blowroom to ring
frame. But logical analysis by seeing the table shows that in a large majority of
cases the causes of high count variation, whether within-bobbin or between-
bobbin has to be looked in a few specific places only, specifically after draw
frame because the control of variation in very small length is not possible.
Variation in blow room lap or card sliver is not going to affect the variability in
yarn count particularly within-bobbin variation. Further, the doubling process
in drawframe will greatly reduce the effect of variability of lap and card sliver
on within-bobbin count variation. Hence, if the within-bobbin count variation
is found to be higher than the norms the causes are not to be looked for in the
blow room or card sliver, nor in the raw material barring exceptional cases.
The most important single cause of within-bobbin count variation is defective
draw frame drafting and it is important to understand that only draw frame
one to one correspondence is there in the material.
The contribution to between-bobbin variation from the preparatory
section is largely from longer lengths. Millimetre-to-millimetre variation in
blow room lap and meter-to-meter variation in card sliver and breaker draw
frame sliver influence the between-bobbin variation. In finisher draw frame
and roving frames, the corresponding lengths are much longer. Ring frame is
also a source of count variation for both between and with-in bobbins.
6.3.2 Source of contribution to count variation

The relative contribution of the various sources to yarn lea count variation
under very good working conditions is given for carded yarns in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Contribution of different processes on count variation
Source Percent to total* CV%

Blow room variation
1. Full lap weight 0.14 0.60
2. Meter to meter 0.39 1.00
3. Centimetre to centimetre 3.50 3.00
Card variation
1. Waste% 0.39 1.00
2. Sliver U% 9.80 5.00
Drawings I and II variation
64 Doublings 66.78 1.80**
Roving variation 9.25 –
Ring spinning variation 9.75
1. Within-bobbin – 1.18
2. Between-bobbin – 1.62
Total 100.00 2.00
* Expressed as a percentage of the square of count CV%

* For finisher head (0.5m)
The overall count CV% under good working conditions is 2.0%. The
between-bobbin variations account for about 65% of the variance and the
within bobbin variation for the remaining 35% under good working conditions.
Blow room and cards accounts for about 14%, draw frames for about 67%, fly
frames for 9% and ring spinning for 10% of the total variation.
6.3.3 Contribution from various processes

6.3.3.1 Blow room
The starting point of the control of hank is blow room. Individual laps
are weighed and the laps which fall outside certain limits are rejected or
reprocessed. Likewise, weight variation within the lap is also checked, that is
metre to metre variation. The following points are to be considered to control

the lap weight variation.
(1) Tuft size: The tuft size in the blow room is maintained by opening
the material thoroughly and gradually and also synchronizing the production
level. The mixing bale opener should run 80 – 85% time when comparing to
the Scutcher running time.
Theoretically, full lap weight and metre-to-metre variations within a lap
can be expected influence the between-bobbin variation. However, their effect
is much smaller than the experimental error associated with the estimation
of count variation. The effect of centimetre-to-centimetre variation in lap is
small at lap CV% of 3.5% provides the lap is very regular.
(2) Material level in the Hoppers: The material level in all the hopper is
to be ¾ level in all the time. Higher variation in hoppers, cause uneven feed,
subsequently weight variation.
(3) Piano feed setting: Piano feed should be set such that, the belt on cone
drum should run always in the middle. Also the sensitivity of Piano feed is
to be checked and should act effectively for feed variation. The condition of
pedal links, pedal to feed roller setting are to be checked.
(4) Material deposition on cage: Normally, the material deposition on top
cage 2/3 and bottom cage 1/3. This can be achieved by adjusting cage side
flap. In the case of poor lateral distribution of the material across the width
of the lap, the adjusting flap is to be adjusted for allowing more or less air for
even distributors of the material.
Apart from the above, the physical condition of calendar roller, cage
surface, condition of wheels, fan speeds, connection of air passage and
material passage are to be checked.
6.3.3.2 Cards
The contribution to count CV from card sliver arises from stripping cycle,
differences in the amount of waste extracted between cards and short-term
variation in sliver. The presence of extremely ling-length variations in card
sliver with wavelengths larger than the total length of the sliver in the creel of
draw frame cannot be evened out by doublings. Variation in waste between
cards is occasionally cited as a source of count variation, but its effect is
microscopic. The reasons for higher short-term irregularity in carded sliver
are
1. Improper feed roller weight
2. Eccentric cylinder, doffer, calendar roller and worm feed roller
bearing
3. Improper licker-in speed
4. Undue slippage of lap from lap roll to feed roller
5. Defective gears
6. Improper under casing settings, allowing laps of waste to doffer
7. Higher tension draft and different draft pinion used in different card
8. Difference in lap weight
9. Worn out clothing causes improper transfer of material
In case of chute line
1. Chute width gradually increased – each following chute 2 mm more
2. Separating nose to be set such that all the chute filled evenly. Pressure
drop should be 2 mm WC from separator head to separator head
3. There should be minimum return material
4. Flock feed production and card production is synchronized. Flock
feeder motor should run 40–60% of its speed.
5. Fan speed set such that material should move only in the middle of
duct.
6. In the last card feed chute there must be static pressure of 20 mm WC.
6.3.3.3 Comber
The contribution by combed sliver U% and variation in sliver weight to yarn
lea count variation would be of the same order as that of carded material in
the case of carded counts. The short-term irregularity U% of the comber sliver
has a significant influence on within-bobbin count variation, whilst long-term
variation of about 0.15–0.3 m sliver affects between-bobbin count variation.
Variation in waste between heads of a comber as well as between combers
will not have any significant effect on yarn lea count variation.
The causes for high comber sliver variations are
1. Eccentric top and bottom rollers
2. Misalignment and bent nippers
3. Broken or bent needles of unicomb and top comb
4. High head-to-head variations
5. Improper timing of combing and damaged/meshed gears
6. Aspirator system choked
7. Non-standard drafts, such as between lap roller and feed roller or
detaching roller and calendar roller
8. Variations transferred from ribbon laps at different average levels
6.3.3.4 Draw frame
Major contribution to yarn count variation comes from drawframe. Primarily
there are two sources of variability medium-term variations in the sliver and
long-term variations in the average hank between frames and between shifts.
Variation in the lengths 0.25–0.7 m depending on the count spun are the
factors affecting within bobbin count variation. Variation in longer lengths of
about 1.5–2.5 m in breaker head and 10–20 m in finisher head influences the
between-bobbin count variation.
The draw frame introduces much higher variation because of one or more
of the following causes:
1. Roller slippage
2. High tension draft
3. Over-parallelization of fibres
4. Improper pinion changes
5. Improper roller settings
1. Roller slippage: The top roller slip is one of the major causes of draw
frame sliver variation. This is due to damage pressure hose/membrane, hooks,
pressure saddle, low air pressure, minimum top roller diameter, eccentric of
top and bottom roller, too closer roller settings, etc. The length of the finisher
draw frame sliver corresponding to one lea of yarn ranges from 0.25 m to 0.70
m. The lower end of this range corresponds to the wave lengths of the period
that are introduced by roller slip in the finisher draw frame. Modern drafting
system such as 4 over 5 and 3 over 5 give protection against roller slippage.
2. High tension draft: The tension draft at creel and delivery side is
maintained according to the material processed. The variation of tension
draft wheel among different frame also causes variation. Excessive web
tension draft can be a cause for with-in bobbin count variation as shown in
Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Effect of tension draft in drawing
Web tension draft Normal 1.10

Sliver U% 4.10 5.60
Lea count CV% 3.78 5.31
An increase of web tension draft from 1.02 to 1.06 however did not
shown any appreciable increase in count variation. Thus, web tension draft
would be of consequence only in case it is excessively high. The optimum
web tension draft for the finisher head is 0.95 for the short cottons and 1.03
for fine combed cottons.
3. Sliver U%: Some of the causes for short-term irregularity of the draw
frame sliver include bent or eccentric rollers, weight hooks or pins not acting
properly, hollowness of bent roller, wrong settings, incorrect size of trumpet,
improperly meshed or worn gears, excessive creel draft, broken or loose
slides, eccentric pinion, gears bored eccentrically, gear wheel brackets broken
or improperly secured, etc.
Appreciable increase in draw frame sliver irregularity shows only

marginal increase in lea count variation in finer counts as shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Effect of finisher draw frame sliver U% on count CV
Count (Ne) U% of sliver CV% of yarn

3.91 2.72
20s 4.69 2.90
7.80 3.79
3.54 2.96
60s 6.65 3.07
7.66 3.81
3.65 2.78
80s 6.30 3.13
8.91 3.66
The higher lea count CV% in 60s and 80s can be attributed more to the
increase in the variation in longer lengths of sliver along with the increase in
sliver U%. This, however, does not mean that the U% of the finisher draw
frame sliver is unimportant; its influence would be reflected in lengths shorter
than a lea.
4. Over parallelization and doubling: More number of doubling in the
draw frame will give better CV%. The draft applied in the draw frame is
almost equal to the number of doubling. The amount of draft mainly depends
upon the staple length of material. Shorter staple requires less draft and longer
fibre more draft. If the fibre is over parallelized, sliver causes stretch and roller
lapping. The sliver stretch is particularly high while combing short staple
cottons.
The problem of over-parallelization can be to some extent overcome by
humidity control, heavier hanks, lower speeds and reduced drafts in draw
frames.
5. Improper pinion changes: To reduce the overall count variation,
particularly the day-to-day variation, pinion changes should be made on
a scientific basis. Mills make frequent and unwarranted pinion changes,
particularly in drawing, which in turn increases the overall count variation.
6. Improper roller settings: One of the purposes of drafting is to straighten
the fibres by removing hooks and crimps. By effective removal of hooks and
crimps, one could expect to reduce count variation, since count variation is
nothing but mass variation between successive lengths of yarn, the length
being 120 yards. Hook and crimp removal will be optimum only if the
relationship between fibre length and roller settings is optimum.
Roller setting adjustments based on the fibre length as presented to

a particular drafting zone would be of practical significance in obtaining
optimum results since fibre length changes as fibres processed through
the various machines due to removal of hooks and crimps, probable fibre
breakages, etc. Therefore, in order to exercise control over count variation
‘in-process length’ of fibres is to be measured and according to the ‘in-process
length’ the roller settings are to be maintained.
“In-process length” is the length of the fibres in the fibre fleece as they
are coming out of a drafting zone before they are condensed in the form of
sliver. AFIS and Digital Fibrograph are popular instruments to measure the
“in-process length” of fibres in terms of span length. The recommended roller
setting in draw frame based on AFIS 5% length is shown in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 Guideline for roller setting in draw frame
Setting zone Break zone setting Front zone setting

Breaker draw frame 5% length + 4 mm 5% length
Finisher draw frame 5% length + 6 mm 5% length + 2 mm
Co-efficient of variation of yarn count is nothing but the weight variation

between successive lengths of yarn, the length being 120 yards. Due to the
maximum removal of hooks at settings based on span length concept, it is logical
to expect a reduction in weight variation between successive lengths of yarn.
6.3.3.5 Speed frame

The contribution to with-in bobbin count variation can be from two sources:
irregular drafting and irregular stretching. Of these the effect of irregular
draft is not much. This is because irregular drafting will introduce variability
between small lengths of roving. Such variability will be averaged out in a 5
m piece of roving which roughly correspond to a lea of yarn.
The effect of irregular stretching caused by improper regulation of bobbin
speed can introduce differences in the weight of roving over different layers
of the roving bobbin. Ratching would affect both the within-bobbin and
between-bobbin count C.V. Ratching within lengths of about 100 to 300 m
of rove would produce a higher effect on within bobbin CV% while ratching
over higher lengths would affect between bobbin CV% to a greater extent.
The detection of ratching can be easily accomplished by wrapping each
layer on a few bobbins. The position of cone drum belt at the time of full doff
also gives an indication of ratching. If the belt is near its extreme position, the
ratchet wheel is almost correct. It should be ensured that the tension draft in
fly frames at the beginning of the doff should be less than 1%.
The tension difference between the initial build of the bobbin and the
final build of the bobbin causes roving hank variation. This hank variation can
be due to two sources: tension difference and material variation in the back
process. The full bobbins are collected at the time of doff and then the bobbins
with 2 initial layers are collected with the same spindle immediately.
Hank of the initial layer – H1
Hank of the final layer – H2
H1 − H 2
Tension difference = × 100 . This should not exceed 1%
(H1 + H 2 ) / 2
The winding-on-wheel determines the initial bobbin speed and the
ratchet wheel, its later speed. Incorrect winding-on-wheel is, however, more
detrimental to count variation than an incorrect ratchet wheel. The effect of
winding-on-wheel on CV% is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 Effect of winding-on-wheel on CV%
Winding-on-wheel 17T (Normal) 19T 22T
Weight per 5.5 m (g)

Front row 3.31 3.22 3.07
Back row 3.30 3.30 3.16
CV% of 5.5 m
Front row 2.52 4.08 6.70
Back row 2.26 3.18 6.67
Yarn lea count variation 3.14 3.54 6.91
It can be seen that an incorrect choice of winding-on wheel results in a

very steep increase in count CV%.
Variation in bobbin diameter also leads to ratching since the initial
winding has to be adjusted to suit the smallest diameter. Thus, on the larger
bobbins a slight amount of ratching is bound to occur. Apart from affecting
the average hank, the higher bobbin diameter is also associated with a slight
increase of 0.3 to 0.5 in CV%. The bobbin diameter should not deviate by
more than 1% from the standard diameter. The number of coils per cm. should
be taken into account; the one usually recommended being 5√hank.
The differences in hank between rows are found to be generally small
and are of not much practical significance. However, in a few instances, the
front row bobbins are about 3% finer. This would mean a significant increase
of 15% in the relative variance of yarn. Some of the remedial measures to
minimize row-to-row differences are extended flyer tops on back row so that
roving meets the hole at the same angle and different flyer top design on each
row to give more effective twist in the front row.
6.3.3.6 Ring frame
Contribution to count variation from ringframe comes from variation in
mechanical draft between frames, slippage of top roller, stretch of material in
creel, variation in mechanical draft.
Variations in mechanical draft come from the use of different change
pinions on frames of the same make and drafting system. Some common
causes for this defective practice are lack of sufficient stock of change pinions.
Using change pinions differing by one tooth on the two sides of a frame,
ostensibly to achieve an average count close to nominal. This should be
discouraged as it increases variability in count between frame sides. Frames
of different makes and drafting systems are used for spinning the same count
but the same mechanical draft is not kept on them, slippage of strand under
top rollers arises because of inadequate weighting or improper grip. Count
variation is therefore reduced upon conversion of older version of top arms to
later versions with higher pressures. Higher frequency for cot buffing, higher
starting diameter for cot up to 30 cm is therefore helpful to reduce count
variation.
Disturbances to weighting also comes from worn out springs, leakage
of air and improper seating of plunger on rib in pneumatic drafting, leading
to count variation. One of the reasons for stretch of strand in the creel is low
roving twist. The level of creel breaks can assess this. Misalignment of creel
roving bobbin in relation to the creel roving guide is another contributory
factor to stretch. Improper location of creel guide rod in relation to the bobbin
can also cause stretch. If located too high or too low, stretch takes place when
roving unwinds from top most or bottom most portion of roving bobbin.
6.4 Between-bobbin count variation

High correlation exists between count variation of between-bobbins and the
total count variation (r = 0.7 to 0.95 in different counts). A positive correlation
of a lesser extent is noticed between ‘Within-bobbin’ variation and total count
variation (r = 0.35 to 0.70). This suggests that the high count variation in some
of the mills is mostly due to high between-bobbin variation.
Sources which can cause the average count to vary from one bobbin to
another are: (i) differences in the average hank between creel bobbins, (ii) any
pronounced trend in the hank over a creel bobbin, and (iii) differences in the
effective draft between spindles of a group of ring frames spinning a given
count.
Differences in the average hank of inter bobbins can originate from:

1. differences in blow room lap weight over such long periods that are
unlikely to be evened out by subsequent doubling.
2. draft differences between groups of cards or combers, the sliver from
which tend to get processed in isolation without inter doubling.
3. hank differences between draw frames, slivers from which tend to get
channelized, draft differences between fly frames.
4. excessive hank differences between front and back row of bobbins on
fly frames.
5. marked trend in hank over a fly frame bobbin caused by irregular
control of bobbin speed.
At ring frames, it is necessary to make sure that the draft constant of
a group of frames considered identical is kept the same. Where this is not
possible it is necessary to make sure that suitable pinions are used taking into
account the differences in draft constants.
Adequate attention is not paid by mills to the proper feed of the
creel bobbins. Sometimes, the creels are fed diagonally and beneath the
roving bars, as a result of which undue stretch occurs. Damaged skewers,
accumulation of lint in the creel and trumpet, mis-shaped trumpet, improper
back zone draft or weighting of top roller can also cause roving stretch. The
presence of creel draft variation can be checked by marking each rove end
close to the bobbin. Excessive variation in tension between bobbins due to
differences in spindle speeds, spindle-out of centre etc. can also result in
between-bobbin variation.
At this stage, it is worthwhile to consider the nature of corrective
actions needed for controlling the between-bobbin as against the within-
bobbin variation. The largest contributor to the within-bobbin variation is
the unevenness of the draw frame sliver. The sliver unevenness is reduced
essentially by means of technological actions such as change in drafts,
pressure, etc. Once implemented, these changes ensure that the sliver quality
will remain under control over fairly extended periods. In contrast to this are
the corrective actions needed for controlling the between-bobbin variation.
The most frequent causes of between-bobbin variations are poor control on
lap weight in blow room and on wrappings at draw frames, use of incorrect
draft pinions and also ratchet wheels on the fly frames at the time of count
changes on individual machines and inadequate control on levels of wastes.
Each of these three main causes can be controlled only by instituting a system
of monitoring the processes frequently.
6.5 Control of variability of lea strength

The control of average lea strength is undertaken for one or more of the
following purposes: (i) to see that the strength does not fall short of that
expected from the quality of the mixing that is being used, (ii) to ensure that
the leas strength is adequate for satisfactory weaving, and (iii) to meet the
specifications for the tensile strength of the yarn or fabric.
Strength variation could be largely dependent on count variation. It is
observed that about 50% of the variation in strength as well as about 50%
of the variation in strength CV between mills are explained by variation in
count. It can be observed that the contribution of the CV of count to the CV of
strength would be about 1.5 times the CV of count.
A large part of the within-bobbin variability in strength has to be attributed
to inherent testing errors and, therefore, this is not amenable to technological
corrective action. A reduction in the within-bobbin count variation where this
is very high is the only available means of bringing down the within-bobbin
strength CV. The between-bobbin variation is affected by three factors, namely,
the level of twist, the between-bobbin count variation and the between-spindle
differences in the condition of the drafting system. Generally, high twist yarns
have a very low strength variation. However, the level of twist is obviously
a matter of specification and cannot, therefore, be considered as a means of
controlling the lea strength variability.
In case the between-bobbin variability of yarn strength is found to be high,
action has to be taken to bring down the between-bobbin count variation. If
the count CV itself is low, then the drafting system should be examined for
differences between spindles in top arm pressure, cradle positioning, spacer
used, diameter of cops, condition of cots and aprons, pressure between aprons,
etc. In general, the preparatory processes of opening, carding and combing
need not be considered in this context.
6.5.1 Factors affecting the yarn strength

The factors which affect yarn strength are listed in the order of their importance.
1. Quality of drafting at ring frame: The type of drafting system at the
ring frame has a considerable effect on the strength of yarn. A modern top arm
drafting system gives 8–10% more yarn strength than the systems of older
systems. Given a drafting system of the top arm type, the parameters which
have a critical influence on yarn strength are: the total draft, the break draft
in relation to the twist in the rove and the apron spacer. The smallest possible
apron spacer generally gives the maximum yarn strength and evenness, but
can also result in working difficulties due to undrafted ends or formation of
crackers. It is, therefore, advisable to use an apron spacer just one size bigger
than the one which results in undrafted ends.
The mechanical condition of the drafting system is of great importance in
getting the maximum leas strength from a given mixing. Defects like eccentric
rollers can bring down the strength considerably. Another important factor is
the top arm pressure. For polyester-blended yarns a higher pressure on the
front roller is a good insurance against the formation of crackers.
2. Quality of carding: In the normal range of variability the production
parameters (hank and delivery speed) and the machine settings have only a
small effect on the yarn strength. More important, however, is the mechanical
condition of all carding surfaces. The poor maintenance and grinding practices
on cards, either with flexible fillet or with metallic wire clothing, lead to a loss
in yarn strength of the order of 5–10%. Such a loss in yarn strength which is
caused by poor carding does not get evened out by combing.
3. Quality of combing: The level of comber waste and the mechanical
condition of the comber have a substantial influence on the improvement in
yarn strength that is brought about by combing. For triangular fibre length
distributions of the mixing, successive increases in the level of comber waste
give rise to a similar increase in the lea strength; while for flat distributions,
the lea strength does not increase when the comber waste is increased beyond
a certain limit. Poor mechanical condition of cylinder and top comb needles
and of the brush, and non-uniformity of settings often result in decreasing the
advantage of combing.
4. Other processing factors: There are some processing factors which
have a little or no effect on the lea strength of yarn. In blow room, changes
in beater speeds or settings, or changes, within the possible limits, in the
number of machines in the blow room sequence have no influence on any
measured characteristic other than the number of neps and trash particles.
The amount of waste extracted in card has also no perceptible effect on lea
strength. The evenness of drawing sliver and rove does not have much effect
on average strength. The direction of feeding of fibre hooks to the ring frame
can influence the lea strength. When the major hooks (i.e., the trailing hooks
at the card) are fed to the ring frame drafting system in the trailing direction,
the yarn strength is found to be better than when they are fed as leading hooks.
5. Quality of mixing: Once the processing conditions have been ensured
to be the best that are possible, the next important step in meeting the standards
for yarn strength is the choice of a proper mixing. The bale management
programmes has to be adopted to select the appropriate mixing to achieve the
desirable strength of resultant yarn. In the context of meeting the requirements
of yarn strength through appropriate mixing, quality, the effect of twist in the
yarn on its weavability needs also to be considered. When the fibre properties
of the mixing are somewhat superior to the norm, lower twist multiplier can
be used for obtaining the required strength; this lower twist multiplier has the
advantages of higher production at ring frames and, possibly, of a better feel
of the fabric.
6.6 Control of yarn elongation

The elongation requirements of 100% cotton yarn for weaving and knitting
as specified by European buyers for different counts are given in Table 6.9.
Hosiery yarns need about 0.5–0.8% higher elongation as compared to warp
yarns.
Table 6.9 Elongation requirements for weaving and knitting
Type of yarn end use Hosiery Weaving

Count of yarn 30 34 40 Warp Weft
Yarn quality
Breaking Min. Min. Min. Min. Min.
Elongation (%) 5.8 5.6 5.5 5.0 5.0
Elongation generally has a CV of about 10% and elongation of yarn is

generally estimated by taking 100 readings. Hence, for acquiring a minimum
elongation of 5.0% (required for warp yarns) and 5.5% (required for hosiery
yarns), the average elongation to be obtained is 5.15% and 5.67%, respectively.
However, the average elongation values obtained for some of the popular
counts of Indian yarns lies only in the range of 4–4.5% as given in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10 Breaking elongation of yarns at different counts
Count Breaking elongation (%)

30s C 4.26
40s C 4.24
60s C 3.95
80s C 4.14
30s K 4.59
40s K 4.15
60s K 4.34
The inter-relation between fibre and yarn elongation, CV of fibre elongation

and yarn irregularity is shown in Fig. 6.1. To enhance the elongation values of
Indian yarns, our cottons need to be improved from the viewpoint of absolute
elongation as well as CV of fibre elongation.
The low breaking elongation of yarns is partly due to:

(i) low strength and elongation of Indian cottons
(ii) over spinning of Indian cottons (as compared to the quality of cottons
used in developed countries to spin a particular count)
The average fibre strength and elongation of some of the imported and
indigenous cottons are given in Table 6.11 for different length groups.
Figure 6.1 Interrelationship between fibre and yarn elongation,

CV of fibre elongation and yarn irregularity
Table 6.11 Average fibre strength and elongation
Cotton 2.5% Span length Fibre strength % Elongation

(mm) (g/tex)
Imported
1. African/Russian Cottons 27.5–28.5 21.0–23.0 5.5–6.0
2. American Pima 33.0–34.5 30.0–32.5 6.9–7.1
3. Egyptian Giza 34.5–36.0 31.5–32.0 6.5–6.8
Indigenous
1. LRA/S4 27.0–28.5 20.0–22.5 5.0–5.5
2. DCH 32 34.0–35.5 23.0–25.5 6.0–6.2
3. Suvin 36.0–37.5 30.0 5.2–5.5
In equivalent length groups, Indian cottons are

(i) weaker by 5–20%
(ii) have low elongation by 0.5–1.3% (absolute values)
Due to this, yarns spun from Indian cottons have low breaking elongation
as stated earlier (by 0.5–1.2% in different counts). Hence, to produce yarns
meeting European requirement for breaking elongation, two options are
available:
1. Using imported cotton (which are known for the intrinsic higher
breaking elongation)
2. Under-spinning while using Indian cottons
Under-spinning helps to increase the obtainable RKm value of yarn
and thereby the breaking elongation. The extent of under-spinning depends
on the actual elongation required. For example, to produce a 40s C warp
yarn of 5.5% elongation, under-spinning to the tune of about 25% may be
required. In other words, the quality of fibre used to spin 40s C warp yarn
with an average breaking elongation of 5.5% (meant for European market)
should be better than that used to spin 40s C warp yarn (meant for local
market) with an average breaking elongation of 4.5% by about 25%. This
would mean that the RKM value of 40s yarn for the European market would
be around 20.0 g/tex which meets Uster 10 to 15% (approximately) statistics
for breaking tenacity.
6.6.1 Influence of fibre properties on yarn elongation

The performance of a yarn particularly in weaving is largely influenced by
grey yarn elongation. In weaving, grey yarns with high initial elongation
and a higher residual elongation after weaving preparatory processes such
as winding, warping and sizing operation perform better than low elongation
values. Trials conducted at weaving stages also show that there is a good
correlation between weaving efficiency and residual yarn elongation.
Elongation properties of yarns are mostly governed by the characteristics
of fibres. The findings of the various studies to relate grey yarn elongation
with fibre characteristics and yarn parameters are as follows:
The most important fibre property influencing yarn elongation is fibre
elongation, a fact concluded by many researchers. Fibre strength ranks
second in importance as a contributor to yarn elongation. The fibre fineness
influences yarn elongation only after fibre elongation and strength. Other
characteristics such as span length, uniformity ratio, maturity, etc., do not
contribute significantly to the yarn elongation. Yarn elongation increases with
increasing twist. Coarser yarn has higher elongation than finer yarns. Yarn
elongation decreases with increasing spinning tension.
Breaking elongation of spun yarn is greatly influenced by the count
spun, twist and cotton employed. On an average, increase of every 10 counts
from a given cotton, reduces elongation by 0.43% (absolute values) and the
increase of every 1 TM (from the optimum value from the point of view of
yarn strength) improves elongation by about 0.5%.
6.7 References
1. ATIRA, Ahmedabad (1968). Count control in spinning, Technical leaflet. No. 23.
2. ATIRA, Ahmedabad (1971). How to examine wrapping averages. Technical leaflet.
No 33.
3. Bandyopadhyay, S. and Subramanian, T.A. (1953). Fabric streakincss: causes and
preventive measures— Part II: Role of lea count variation. Proceedings of the ABS
Joint technological conference, p.124.
4. Bandyopadhyay, S. and Subramanian, T.A. (1973). Fabric streakiness: causes and
preventive measures— Part II. Proceedings of the ATIRA technological conference,
9th, 1973, p.26.
5. Bandyopadhyay, S. and Subramanian, T.A. (1973). Study of fabric streakiness— Part
II: Role of count variation, Journal of Textile Association, 34, p.181.
6. Dakin, G, Foster, G.A.R and Locke, J. (1953). Roller slip and the irregularity of cotton
and rayon staple draw frame slivers, Journal of Textile Institute, 44, p.544.
7. Norms for spinning mills, SITRA publication, T.V. Ratnam, et al, March 2010.
8. Quality management in textile laboratory, Application report, Uster Technologies
9. Ratnam, T.V. and Chellamani, K.P. (1999). Quality control in spinning, SITRA
publication.
Coimbatore.
11. Subramanian, T.A. and Patel, S.M. (1958). Certain aspects of getting a uniform
scutcher lap, Textile Digest, 19, p.7.
12. Subramanian, T.A., Patel, S.M. and Sreenivasan, H.E. (1961). Count variation. Indian
Textile Journal, 71, p470.
13. Venkataraman, V. and Ahmed, N. (1933). Examination of a proposed relationship
between the lea test and the single thread test results. Journal of Textile Institute, 24,
p.235.
7
Yarn evenness and imperfection
Abstract: This chapter deals with the basic category of yarn faults such as
unevenness and imperfections. The basic characteristics, definitions and their
usefulness on evaluation of yarn quality have been discussed in this section.
The concept of irregularity, the effect of doubling and drafting on irregularity of
materials has been discussed with examples. The basic concept of measurement
of thin, thick and neps by evenness testers, their definitions and various
sensitivity levels are provided in this section. The common points in each process
to troubleshoot the higher imperfections in yarns are also discussed.
Key words: evenness, imperfections, U%, CV%, irregularity, thin, thick, neps
7.1 Introduction
The task of a spinner of staple fibres, in particular natural fibres, is to transform
a mass of millions of individual fibres with variable properties, tangled and
containing unwanted foreign matter, into a yarn characterized by uniformity
of weight per unit length, diameter, turns per inch, color, strength and so on.
Most of these characteristics are interrelated and a detailed analysis of any of
these parameters would give us a fair idea about the extent to which a yarn
is regular or irregular. However, the approach which can be considered to be
universal and which has found popularity over the years is to consider the
variation in weight per unit length. One main advantage with this method is
that it could be adopted not only for yarn but also for material in different
stages of the spinning process sequence like sliver, roving, etc.
Suppose if a strand of material is cut into short pieces of equal length
and the weight of each consecutive length is found and plotted on a graph in
a manner similar to that as shown in Fig. 7.1. By joining the points, a trace
is produced; this shows the way in which the weight per unit length varies
about a central or mean value. This basic information could be utilized in a
number of different ways. The deviations from the mean could be determined,
the mean deviation calculated, and the percentage mean deviation derived
and used as a measure of irregularity. Alternatively, the deviations could be
squared and the coefficient of variation is calculated.
Yarn evenness and imperfection 197
Figure 7.1 Variation in weight per unit length
The deviations from the mean are not always randomly distributed.
Certain plots of variations in weight per unit length show definite sequences
of thick and thin places. These thick and thin places also vary in terms of the
cross-sectional size and the length. A spinner is therefore encountered with a
plethora of yarn deficiencies which he has to clearly categorise and then take
steps to control them.
7.2 Categories of yarn faults

A yarn which is not uniform is said to be irregular or to contain yarn defects
or faults. These faults vary in their cross-sectional size and length. Figure 7.2
shows a plot of fault cross-sectional size against fault length.
Figure 7.2 Categories of yarn faults

In the above plot, three distinct categories of yarn faults are represented
based on their size, length and their frequency of occurrence.
• Unevenness or irregularity
• Imperfections
• Objectionable yarn faults
7.2.1 “Unevenness” or “irregularity”

In all staple spun material (yarn, rovings & slivers), the fibre distribution along
the material varies. For example, if a yarn is cut at a number of places there
is always a variation in the number of fibres present in the cross-sections.
Consequently, a change in the cross section of the material within about
±40% is always present. This variation is also affected by fibre fineness, fibre
fineness variations and material type. Even in an ideal fibre distribution, as
in the case of a continuous filament yarn, though small, there exists certain
irregularity because of fibre fineness variations.
The mass per unit length variation due to variation in fibre assembly is
generally known as “Irregularity” or “Unevenness” (in practice the Um% or
CVm% value). It is the skill of the spinner to arrange all machine settings in
such a way that all fibres are spread as even as possible over the length of the
material.
7.2.2 Imperfections
The extremes of variations, i.e., the thin places, thick places and neps, are
usually referred to as “Imperfections”. These imperfections, although lying,
in general, within the limit of ±100%, are normally few in number and must
therefore be counted separately rather than grouped with the irregularity
value Um% which they hardly influence. Under normal conditions, these
imperfections range from a cross-sectional size of +30% to 100% based on
the mean yarn cross-section with reference to the thick places and from −30%
to −70% with reference to the thin places. The neps are measured based on a
length of 1 mm. The length of the thicker places and thinner places is usually
in the range of 1.5 times the staple length of the fibres in the yarn. These
“imperfections” are determined according to a frequency figure or number
per 1000 m or yards.
7.2.3 Objectionable yarn faults

If one now considers faults larger than +100% based on the mean yarn cross-
section, one moves into the range of ‘yarn faults’ and correspondingly a
further reduction in the frequency. Yarn faults have sizes from +100% and
larger and lengths of 1 mm and longer.
Their frequency is always referred to in terms of number per 1, 00,000

meters of yarn. The long thick places (spinners doubles) and the long thin
places are extremely seldom-occurring, so that they are hardly referred to by
means of a frequency figure. Of the type of faults discussed above, an ‘evenness
tester’ is used to estimate the first two: unevenness and imperfections.
While an evenness tester was first used only to measure and provide these
parameters in the early days, successive developments in the field leading to the
latest generation microprocessor based instruments have led to the availability
of a considerable lot more information on the evenness characteristics.
7.3 Unevenness (Um%)

The Unevenness is the most common parameter used to express mass
variations in a strand of fibres. In simple terms, it is the percentage mass
deviation of unit length of material and is caused by uneven fibre distribution
along the length of the strand.
7.3.1 Definition of Um%

To understand clearly the concept of the Unevenness Um%, a graphical
explanation is shown in Fig. 7.3. Consider Fig. 7.3 to be a graphical trace
obtained by plotting the mass of unit length of a fibre strand against the
evaluation time.
Figure 7.3 Mass per unit length variation
Then U% is given by
Adev
U% = × 100
Atot
In graphical form, U% is the area of the mass signal of the tested material
which deviates from the average value, expressed as a percentage of the total
area (total area = full mass of sample).
7.3.2 Mathematical representation

In mathematical form, Um% is expressed as follows:
T
Um% =
∫0 | x i − x | dt × 100
xT
The U-calculator of the evenness tester operates approximately to this

mathematical method.
7.3.3 Characteristics of unevenness Um%

The graphical and mathematical representations of the Unevenness Um%
bring out clearly two distinct characteristics.
• The unevenness Um% is proportional to the intensity of the mass
variations around the mean value.
• The unevenness Um% is independent of the evaluating time or tested
material length if the mass variations are homogeneously distributed.
This is because, in the graphical representation, with an increasing
evaluation time, not only the areas a1, a2, a3, etc. but also the area ‘A’
i.e., x.T will be larger.
7.4 Mass CV (Coefficient of Variation Cvm%)

The CVm is derived from the standard deviation, which is a statistically
calculated value. Besides the old value U%, it is the common numerical value
for describing the general evenness (or unevenness) of slivers, rovings and
yarns. Because there are other CV types, such as optical diameter CV, tenacity
CV, etc., one speaks of CVm when referring to the mass variation.
The CVm value is used to determine or check the overall evenness of the
tested material. Generally lower the CVm is, the more even the material is
and the more even it will look in the end product. The example of higher yarn
CV% and its influence on fabric appearance is shown in Figs. 7.4 and 7.5,
respectively.
(a) CVm = 17.74%
(b) CVm = 11.48%
Figure 7.4 Comparison of lower and higher yarn CV%
Figure 7.5 Fabric appearance of low and higher yarn CV%

7.4.1 Definition of CVm

The mass variations can be considered to conform approximately to a
normal distribution when a homogeneous fibre composition is available.
The determination of CV% from the mass variation is shown graphically in
Fig. 7.6.
Figure 7.6 Graphical representation of determination of CV%
A measure of the size of the these mass variations is the standard deviation
s, which is expressed as
n
∑ ( xi − x )
2
s = i =1
n −1
The Coefficient of Variation CVm% is defined as the standard deviation

expressed as a percentage of the mean.
s × 100%
CV =
x
7.4.2 Mathematical representation

In mathematical form, CVm% is expressed as follows:
100 1 T
∫0 (x i − x)
2
CVm% = dt
x x
The CV calculator of the evenness tester operates exactly as per this
definition.
7.4.3 Characteristics of the Coefficient of Variation

(CVm%)
The representations of the coefficient of variation bring out a distinct
characteristic.
The larger deviations from the mean value are much more intensively
taken into consideration in the calculation of CVm% rather than in Um%
(due to the squaring of the term). For this reason, the Coefficient of Variation
CVm% has received more recognition in modern statistics than the irregularity
value Um%.
7.4.4 Expected mass deviations according to statistical

probability
In the case of a normal random distribution of the mass variation,
1. 35% of all measured individual values will be outside ±CVm × 1
2. 5% of all measured individual values will be outside ±CVm × 2
3. 0.1% of all measured individual values will be outside ±CVm × 3
Interrelation between the mass diagram, CVm and mass distribution
curve of a yarn with
CVm = 14% is shown in Fig. 7.7. Each measured point on the mass
diagram is one area unit on the histogram.
Figure 7.7 Interrelation between the mass diagram, CVm and

mass distribution curve of a yarn
Example:
A roving which will be drafted by factor 40 in ring spinning has a CVm of 9%.
Which mass deviations are to be expected in the yarn?
5% of all tested points in the roving will probably deviate more than
2 × CVm = ±18% from nominal count, and 0.1% of all the points will deviate
more than 3 × CVm = ±27% from nominal count. Each point would represent
1cm of the roving, since the cut length for the normal CV measurement is
1 cm.
With a draft by factor 40, one can expect to have 5% of the produced
yarn to have pieces of 40 × 1 cm = 40 cm or longer which deviate ±18% or
more. For every 1 km of yarn, that would be a total of 20 m with maximum
50 events of randomly distributed thick and/or thin places of ±18% deviation
(The above calculation is done under the assumption that the 1 cm or longer
deviations in the roving would all be elongated equally). Other deviations
which are truly exceptional and due to random or periodic irregularities in
the production process cannot be predicted with the CVm value such as
above.
7.4.5 Relationship between Um% and Cvm%

The Coefficient of Variation CVm is preferred more and more to the irregularity
Um value. This is evident from the increasing number of standard methods
of test which describes a coefficient of variation value for the standard mass
variations, e.g., in Germany (DIN 53804), the Eastern European Countries,
the recommendation of the IWTO (International Wool Textile Organisation),
etc. Moreover, CVm is a parameter commonly recognised for variation at all
cut lengths while Um is used to refer only to mass variations at the basic cut
length (usually 1 cm). However, till such time CVm% gains universal and sole
recognition over Um%, it is essential that a proper conversion is used from
one to another.
It can be considered that if the fibre assembly required to be tested is
normally distributed with respect to the mass variation, then the two parameters
of irregularity are related as follows:
CVm = 1.25U%
Figure 7.8 shows a typical case of a fault free fibre assembly. Here the
mass variation is distributed symmetrically, is single peaked and tends towards
normal distribution. Consequently, the conversion factor 1.25 can be used in
this case.
Figure 7.8 Distribution of a fault free fibre assembly
Where an ideal normal distribution cannot be assumed, the conversion

factor of 1.25 will be subject to error. Such cases occur quite frequently in the
textile industry. Some examples are discussed below.
(a) Distribution showing excessive

(b) Asymmetrical (c) Distribution mean value variations
Figure 7.9 Asymmetrical distribution of faults
Figure 7.9 show mass variations respectively with two or more peaks
(fibre assemblies with accentuated mean value variations) and with single peak
but with asymmetrically distributed mass variations (assemblies with frequent
and accentuated thick places). In such cases, the conversion relationship gets
modified as follows.
CVm > 1.25U%
If strong periodic mass variations (Fig. 7.10) are available in a fibre

assembly, the relationship is as follows:
CVm < 1.25U%
An example of such a type is shown in Fig. 7.10. Distributions of this type

are symmetrical, but deviate from the normal distribution.
Figure 7.10 Distribution showing strong periodic variations
For a perfect sinusoidal curve, i.e. for a fibre assembly with only periodic
variations, the conversion would be CVm = 1.11 Um. However, when the
periodic variations are superimposed by small random variations, the
conversion constant would be more than 1.11 but less than 1.25 provided the
distribution is symmetric.
If, therefore, a conversion has to be made from Um to CVm or CVm
to Um, a decision must be made based on the diagram as to whether the
conversion factor of 1.25 can be applied. A summary of the general guidelines
for usage of the conversion factor is given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Relationship between U% and CV%
Type of fibre assembly Conversion Factor

Normal Distribution (contains purely random variations, 1.25
symmetric)
Asymmetric Distribution, periodic and random variations >1.25
present (faulty test material e.g., with long wavelength
count variations, thick places, etc.)
Symmetric Distribution with strong periodic variations <1.25
7.4.6 Limiting irregularity

The efforts made to spin absolutely even yarns from natural fibres are
dependent on certain limitations. The basic requirements would be a constant
number of fibres, each having the same fineness, in every section of the fibre
material. Furthermore, this would mean that practically every case the end of
one single fibre would have to connect with the beginning of the following
fibre as shown in Fig. 7.11. No available spinning process, however, in a
position to produce such assemblies.
Figure 7.11 Schematic diagram of an ideal fibre assembly
The spinning process, whichever is used, is primarily on a procedure

which evenly mixes the fibre, separates each fibre from its neighbor, lays the
fibres parallel to each other and draws these out to produce a final count.
The mixing leads, however, to the fact that each single fibre has the same
probability of appearing in any chosen section of the fibre mass. The fibres
are therefore equally distributed in fibre assemblies. The most uniform strand
of material which our present machinery can produce is one in which the fibre
ends are laid in a random order in the sliver, roving and yarn. Even this ideal
strand would have some irregularity in the structure. It may be possible to
achieve a lower irregularity for a given count by selecting a better quality of
cotton than would normally be chosen, a practice known as ‘under spinning’.
Similarly, attempts to spin a higher count than usual for a particular type of
cotton will result in a higher irregularity.
Thus, for a particular type of fibre and count of yarn, there is an

irregularity limit which cannot be improved upon by the present machinery.
With the natural fibres, in contrast to the synthetic fibres, there is an additional
irregularity because the single fibres themselves have differences in their fibre
cross-sectional size.
The limiting irregularity for cotton and synthetic fibres are given by
1
CVlim = ,
n
100%
CVlim =
n
n = mean number of fibres in the cross-section.
This confirm that the irregularity value in terms of the CVm or Um will
be higher, the finer the count of the fibre material. Figure 7.12 shows the
relationship between the limiting irregularity and the mean number of fibres
in the cross-section. This substantiates the fact that fine fibres produce a more
regular yarn for a given count than coarse fibres.
U/CV
30
20
CVm
10
Um
Number of
0 fibers in
101 102 103 104 105 cross-section
Figure 7.12 Relationship between the limiting irregularity

and number of fibres in cross-section
7.4.7 Index of irregularity

The actually measured irregularity is always higher than the limiting irregularity
of a fibre assembly. By calculating this limit irregularity (represents the ‘ideal
case’) and then measuring the actual irregularity, we can judge the spinning
performance.
Let CVlim and Ulim = Calculated limit irregularity

CV and U = Actual irregularity
then,
CVactual U
Index of Irregularity, I = , resp. I =
CVlim U lim
The size of the index of irregularity I is a measure of the irregularity of a
spun material. A value of 1 for this ratio corresponds to the best possible yarn;
the higher the value of I the more irregular the yarn.
In order to calculate the limiting irregularity, it is necessary to determine
the number of fibres in the cross-section of the fibre assembly. The number of
fibres can be estimated by calculating the ratio of the tex number of yarn to the
tex number of the fibre
Tyarn
n =
Tfibre
In the indirect system,
15000
n =
Nec × Mic
Where Nec = English Cotton Count
Mic = Micronaire of the cotton fibres used
100 T 80 T
CVlim = 100 × F % or U lim =
= 80 × F %
=
n T n T
Where TF = Fibre fineness in tex
T = Count of sliver, roving or yarn in tex
The basic formula for the index of irregularity I can be determined from
the formulas for the limiting irregularity according to the following:
CV T CV T
=I × F or =I × F
100 T 80 T
Example:
A cotton yarn, Nec 6, has a measured irregularity of 9.3%. The fibre fineness
is 4.5µg/inch. The limiting irregularity and the index of irregularity are to be
determined.
Fibre fineness = 4.2 µg/inch = 177 µg/m = 0.177 tex

Yarn Tex = 509.5 / Ne = 590.5 / 6 = 100 tex
= 100 × √0.177/ 100 = 4.21%
CVactual 9.3
I = = = 2.21
CVlim 4.21
7.4.7.1 Limiting irregularity of wool
In case of cotton and synthetic fibres, the variation in fibre diameter is not
taken into consideration in the formulas. On the other hand with wool, this
variation cannot be disregarded; it is taken into consideration in the form of
a coefficient of variation value CVd of the fibre diameter and include in the
formula
100
CVlim = × 1 + 0.0004 × CVd2 %
n
80
(or) Ulim = × 1 + 0.0004 × CVd2 %
n
CVd = Coefficient of variation of fibre diameter in %
n = No. of fibres in the cross-section of the fibre material.
With wool, the fibre diameter dF is normally the available reference value
and not the mean number of fibres ‘n’ in the cross-section. This is taken into
consideration in the formulas, whereby, for the coefficient of variation of fibre
diameter, a mean value of CVd = 25% is assumed.
3.58 × d F 2.86 × d F
CVlim = % OR Ulim = %
T T
dF = Fibre diameter in microns µ

T = Yarn count in tex
With wool, the fibre fineness in tex can be calculated using an average
density of 1.31 g/cm2 according to the following formula:
TF = 0.00103 × dF2
These formulas can be entered into the general formulas for the index of
irregularity I:
0.279 × CV × T 0.35 × U × T
I= OR I =
dF dF
Example:
A woollen yarn, Nm 15 consists of fibres with an average diameter of dF =
22µ. The number of fibres in the cross-section and the limiting irregularity for
this yarn are to be det ermined according to the basic formula.
T = 1000 / Nm = 1000 /15 = 66.67 tex
TF = 0.00103 dF2 = 0.00103 × (22)2 = 0.5 tex
n = Tyarn / Tfiber = 66.67 / 0.5 = 133
100
CVlim = × 1 + 0.0004 × CVd 2 %
n
100
= × 1 + 0.0004 × 252 % =
9.69
133
7.4.8 Addition of irregularities through the spinning

process
Each machine in the spinning process adds a certain amount to the irregularity
of finished yarn. This is mainly due to the deterioting effect of the drafting
process. The resultant irregularity at the output of any spinning process stage
is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the irregularity of the
input material and the irregularity introduced in the process.
For instance, let us assume that CV1 is the irregularity of the input material,
CV is the irregularity introduced in the process and CV0 is the irregularity of
the output material, then the different irregularities are related as follows:
CV02 = CV12 + CV2 (or) CV2 = CV02 – CV12
The relationship between the irregularities may be graphically represented

as in Fig. 7.13.
CVO2 = CVI2 + CV2

CVO
CV
CVI
Figure 7.13 Addition of irregularities

Example:
A draw frame sliver with a CV% value of 3.5 is presented to a speed frame.
The resulting roving has a CV% value of 6.9. The yarn spun from the roving
has an overall coefficient of variation of 12.5%. It is required to determine to
what extent the irregularity was contributed by the speed frame and the ring
frame.
In this example, let the irregularity of draw frame sliver, roving and yarn
be CVD, CVR and CVY.
The irregularity introduced at the speed frame stage (say CV1) is estimated
by using the following equation:
CVD2 + CV12 = CVR2
CV1 = CVR2 − CVD2
= 62 − 6.52 = = 5.95%
Similarly at the ring frame stage, the irregularity introduced at the speed
frame stage (say CV2) is estimated by using the following equation:
CVR2 + CV22 = CVY2
CV2 = CVY2 − CVR2
= (12.5) 2 − (6.9) 2 = 10.40%

Therefore, the contribution by roving frame and spinning frame to the
total irregularity is 5.95% and 10.4%, respectively.
7.4.9 Irregularity of blended yarns

If the yarn consists of two or more fibre components or a ply yarn consisting
of two or more single yarns, each yarn having one fibre component then
an estimate of the irregularity of the blended yarn can be made from the
irregularity of the individual components. Each single yarn has a count which
corresponds to the percentage of its particular fibre component in the blended
yarn.
TG × PK
TK =
100
TK = Count of the yarn for each particular fibre component in tex
TG = Nominal count of the blended yarn
PK = Percentage of the fibre components with respect to the overall count

K = 1, 2,……, n index of the fibre components
For calculation of the overall irregularity, the individual irregularities are
taken in proportion to their respective counts.
(CV1 .T1 )2 + (CV2 .T2 ) 2 + ... + (CVn .Tn ) 2

CVBY =
∑ K = 1 TK
n
Where CVBY = Overall irregularity of the blend yarn

CV = Measured irregularity of the individual component yarns 1...n
TK = Component count in tex of each component yarn
Example 1:
For a blend of 40 tex consisting of 55% polyester and 45% wool, the expected
mean irregularity is to be determined. The irregularity of the pure wool yarn
is CVw = 20% and that of the polyester yarn CVp = 19%.
(a) Tex of wool component, TKW
Tex of blended yarn × Proportion of wool
=
100
40 × 45
= = 18
100
(b) Tex of polyester component, TKP
=
100
40 × 55
= = 22
100
( CVW .TKW )
2
+ ( CVP .TKP )
2
(c) CV of blended yarn, CVBY =

TKW + TKP
( 20 × 18)2 + (19 × 22 )2
= = 13.8%
18 + 22
Example 2:
A blended yarn manufactured according to the worsted spinning process
contains 45% wool and 55% synthetic staple material and has a yarn count of
33.3 tex. The fibre fineness for the synthetic material is 0.44 tex and the mean
fibre diameter of wool is 27.5 µm. The limiting irregularity of the blend yarn
should be determined.
(1) Tex of wool component TKW

=
100
33.3 × 45
= = 15 tex
100
(2) Tex of synthetic component TKS

=
100
33.3 × 55
= = 18.3 tex
100
(3) Limiting irregularity of wool, CVWlim
3.58 × d FW 3.58 × 27.5

= =
TW 15
(4) Limiting irregularity of synthetic, CVSlim
=100 × TFC / TC =
100 × 0.44 /18.3 =
15.5%
( CVW .TKW )
2
+ ( CVP .TKP )
2
(5) CV of blended yarn CVBY =

TKW + TKP
( 25.4 × 15)2 + (15.5 × 18.3)2

= = 14.3%
15 + 18.33
7.4.10 Effect of doubling on the Um/Cvm value

The doubling of fibre assemblies is undertaken primarily to introduce some
parallelization between the fibres and to achieve good count consistency
between bobbins. At the draw frame, for instance, a number of slivers are
simultaneously fed into the drafting elements with the purpose of levelling out
the mass variations present in each of the separate slivers (Fig. 7.14).
Sliver 1
Sliver n
CVO
CVI
Figure 7.14 Doubling at draw frame
At the input to the draw frame, the following law of doublings can be
applied.
X CV
CVI =
n
CVI = CV of all n slivers at the input to the drafting elements
X = Mean value of the CV values of all the single slivers
CV + CV2 + … + CVn
=1
n
n = Number of doubled slivers
Unfortunately, the drafting elements which come subsequently produce a
further irregularity which can deteriorate the evenness considerably thereby
increasing the value of CV at the output of the draw frame.
Example:
A draw frame is fed with 8 cotton slivers 4 ktex. Accordingly, the sum of all
the CVm values of the single slivers is 22.4%; the mean value is 2.8%. The
irregularity at the output from the draw frame is 2.5%. How large is then the
irregularity which is produced by the drafting elements of the draw frame?
CVI = X CV
n
2.8
=
8
= 0.99
CVD = CVO 2 – CVI 2
= 2.52 – 0.992
= 2.3%
7.4.11 Unevenness of ply yarn

If yarns with the same unevenness are twisted together, then it is possible
- with random variations of the unevenness – that the ply yarn has a lower
unevenness than the single yarn. The following doubling rules can be applied
(UP or CVP = unevenness of ply-yarn):
U CV
Uz = and CVz =
2 2
U CV
Triple ply yarn: UZ = and CVz =
3 3
7.5 Yarn imperfections

Yarns spun from staple fibres, besides the normal irregularity explained in
the previous chapter, also contain certain extremes of variations, referred to
as ‘imperfections’. These imperfections are subdivided into three categories:
thin places, thick places and neps.
Imperfections are caused either due to poor raw material quality or due
to imperfect process parameters. A reliable estimation and analysis of these
imperfections will therefore help in achievement of optimum processing
conditions and also provide some reference for the purchase of good quality
raw material.
Thick places and thin places normally lie within the range of ±100%
with respect to the mean yarn cross-sectional size. The type of imperfections
referred to as ‘neps’ can have a size of over +100% and are measured based
on a length of 1 mm. The length of the thick and thin places is usually in the
range of 1.5 times the staple length of the fibres.
7.5.1 Imperfections Vs seldom occurring faults

Imperfections have a size of within ±100% as mentioned earlier. Faults are
also present in the yarn with a size of above +100% or less than 100% but
with a much longer length. They are relatively less frequent when compared
to the imperfections and hence are called ‘infrequent yarn faults’ or ‘seldom-
occurring yarn faults’.
An evenness tester cannot normally give a complete picture of the
infrequent faults and they should be estimated using a separate instrument.
7.5.2 Types of imperfections

The types of imperfections displayed in mass diagram graph are shown in
Fig. 7.15.
Figure 7.15 Imperfections shown in mass diagram
7.5.2.1 Definition of a thin place

A thin place in the yarn usually consists of normal fibre material. Consider a
yarn showing mass variations as given in Fig. 7.16.
Figure 7.16 Mass variations showing thin places
In the figure, it could be seen that the curve oversteps the sensitivity level
of −50% at one place and the sensitivity level of −40% at one place. Also any
thin place overstepping a lower sensitivity level will also be overstepping the
higher sensitivity levels. Therefore, when this yarn is tested in an evenness
tester, the imperfection indicator would record the number of thin places as 1
at a sensitivity level of −50% and 2 at a sensitivity level of −40%.
Thin place sensitivity threshold (=level): −30% / −40% / −50% / −60%.

Every time the selected “%” value of mass decrease is exceeded, a thin place
is counted.
There exist no length limitations concerning thin places. The count of
more thin places on the same yarn piece will be avoided due to a hysteresis;
this means after under stepping of a responding threshold, the yarn signal has
first to increase by a setted proportional value before the new counting can be
made.
7.5.2.2 Definition of a thick place
A thick place in the yarn usually consists of normal fibre material. The
imperfection indicator records a thick place if the mass of a length of approx.
30 mm in the case of cotton and approx. 60 mm in the case of wool (long staple)
exceeds the set sensitivity level. The length threshold level for detection of
thick places is 4mm. A mass increase is recorded as a thick place only if its
length exceeds 4 mm. A mass increase with length below 4mm is classified
as a nep. A yarn showing mass variations as thick place is given in Fig. 7.17.
Figure 7.17 A thick place in a yarn and the corresponding yarn signal
Thick place sensitivity threshold (=level): +35% / +50% / +70% / +100%.

Every time the selected “%” value of mass increase is exceeded, a thick place
is counted.
Length: mean 34 mm (long staple: 68 mm). The limits of thick places
relate to the mean length (34 mm short, 68 mm long). Shorter or longer thick
place can also be counted, but their mass has to increase correspondingly. This
means that only 50% of a thick place of 22 mm and 10% of a thick place of 7
mm will be measured. The same legality applies to the faults of length over 34
mm (55 mm ~ 50% / 180 mm ~10%).
7.5.2.3 Definition of neps

A nep is a very short thick place in the yarn. It can either be made of fibre
material, of a trash particle or of foreign matter. A yarn showing mass
variations as nep is given in Fig. 7.18.
Figure 7.18 A nep in a yarn and the corresponding yarn signal in the measuring slot
Nep sensitivity threshold (=level): +140% / +200% / +280% / +400%.

Every time the selected “%” value of mass increase is exceeded, a nep is
counted. The “%” increase for neps is calculated to a reference length of 1
mm. Example: A 100% increase over 3 mm would correspond to a 300%
increase over 1mm, and would be counted as a +280% nep.
Length: Maximum 4 mm – If a short thick imperfection is longer than 4
mm, it is counted either as a thick place or not counted at all, depending on its
dimensions.
7.5.3 Imperfections at different sensitivity levels

When one considers that a fault free yarn is desirable, it is basically with
reference to the appearance of a fabric. A yarn fault present in a fabric, may
not be visible when seen from a few meters away, but will be visible when
looked at from a closer distance. This means that the seriousness of a fault is
determined by the distance from which the observation is made. Therefore,
different sizes of imperfections need to be considered to get a complete picture

of the quality of yarn tested.
7.5.3.1 Settings at the imperfection indicator and their importance

The following sensitivity levels are common for the various types of
imperfections:
Thin places: −30%, −40%, −50%, −60%
Thick places: +35%, +50%, +70%, +100%
Neps : +140%, +200%, +280%, +400%
The levels are so selected such that only those imperfections which are
disturbing to the human eye are measured. Thus, only those thick places
which are larger than +35% of the mean yarn cross-section are disturbing
to the human eye. Similarly, thin places are only disturbing when they are
thinner than −30% of the mean yarn cross-section.
7.5.3.2 Standard sensitivity settings for imperfections

The latest generation evenness testers provide imperfection values at different
sensitivity levels as mentioned earlier. However, the values at certain sensitivity
levels are considered to be standard in view of their importance with respect
to fabric appearance as well as comparison with respect to standard values.
These standard sensitivity levels are as follows:
Thin places: −50%
Thick places: +50%
Neps: +200% (280% for open-end yarns)
It may be noticed that the reference value for neps in the case of open-
end yarns is at a less sensitivity level when compared to ring spun yarns. The
reason for reducing the sensitivity of nep counting in rotor spun yarns is due
to the fact that with these yarns, the neps tend to be spun into the core of the
yarn and therefore are less visible to the human eye in the finished product.
With ring spun yarns, on the other hand, the neps, in general, tend to remain
on the surface of the yarn. Due to the above reasons, while a nep is considered
serious for a ring spun yarn even if its size exceeds +200%, it becomes serious
only after its size exceeds +280% for open end yarns.
It is however worth mentioning here that, though the imperfection values
at standard sensitivity levels i.e. +50% for thick places and −50% for thin
places indicate the acceptable quality levels in terms of fabric appearance, the
quality of processing in terms of optimization of process parameters will be
better indicated by imperfections at higher sensitivity levels. It is commonly
observed that while the thin places may be ‘0’ for any two mills at the standard
sensitivity level of -50%, the thin places at −40% sensitivity may show a wide
difference.
7.5.3.3 The choice of the setting ‘short staple’ and ‘long staple’
Evenness testers offer a choice of selection of either ‘short staple’ or ‘long
staple’ as the setting for measurement of imperfections. Users of instruments
usually face a problem deciding as to which of these settings should be
selected.
With a ‘short staple’ setting, the reference length taken into consideration
for measurement of thick places is 30 mm and with a ‘long staple’ setting, the
corresponding reference length is 60 mm. These two settings are provided
to enable accurate measurement of thick places, since the length of a thick
place has been found to be proportional to the fibre length. Accordingly, the
correct choice of this setting should be made taking the mean fibre length as
the reference point. As a general guideline, yarns whose mean fibre length is
up to 40 mm are tested with a ‘short staple’ setting and yarns with mean fibre
length of above 40 mm are tested with a ‘long staple’ setting.
If the mean fibre length values are not readily available, it can be indirectly
obtained from the maximum wavelength of the spectrogram.
Mean fibre length = λmax/2.82
We have already seen that all yarns with mean fibre length shorter than 40
mm are recommended to be tested with a ‘short staple’ setting.
At a mean fibre length of 40mm,
λmax = 2.82 × 40 mm = 11 cm
Therefore, if the maximum of the spectrogram lies at or to the left of this
limiting wavelength i.e. 11 cm, then one must measure with ‘short staple’
setting and if the maximum occurs to the right of 11 cm, then one must
measure with the setting ‘long staple’.
7.5.4 How to Attend Imperfections

• Check the yarn IPI and find out which faults category is high
• Check whether the yarn IPI is higher in all RF or it is particular to one ring
frame
• Put the evenness tester in cut mode and analyze the faults of neps and
thick places
• This will give an idea about the whether the nep is fibre neps or trash nep
• Accordingly device an action plan
7.5.4.1 Common points for attending IPI in different processes

The influence of different departments on yarn imperfections is given in
Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Influence of various factors on IPI of yarn
Machinery Influencing Effect Thin Thick Neps IPI

factors
Ring frame Front top Setting difference of 0.5
roller setting mm will lead to IPI up
to 15%. Recommended
setting is 50 mm
Top roller Bubble formation can affect
Cots – up to 10%
Bubble and
Crack
Improper This can affect as high as
buffing 150%
Wider 0.25 mm wider will lead up
spacer to 10%
Higher Shore hardness increase
shore by 5 degree will lead up to
hardness 10%
Higher TM TM increase by 0.05 lead
to 5%
Higher BD Higher BD by 0.6 will lead
up to 15%
Lower TM Lower TM by 0.05 will lead
to 5% increase in thin
Worn out Depending upon the extent
drafting of damage, the quality
gears and deterioration will be there
bearings
Bottom Depending upon the life, it
apron can create up to 20%
springs
Worn out This can affect the Nep
traveller and class. Will create odd Nep
rings increase
Heavier Heavier by 2 no. will lead to
traveller 15% IPI
Higher Higher spindle speed esp
spindle finer counts will lead to
speed higher IPI
Contd...
Contd...

factors
Speed Front and Lesser top roller load will
Frame back top lead to slubs in the roving
roller load and thick and thin
Slubs in Slubs in roving will lead to

roving higher end breaks at RF
Worn out Depending upon the
gears and extend of damage, the
bearing quality deterioration will be
there
Floating Closer condensors can
condensors create thin and thick places
Size in the roving
Worn out Can damage the surface
floating fibres and affect overall IPI
condensors
Draw Close roller Closer Setting will create
Frame setting slubs in SF. 2 mm closer
can influence up to 20% IPI
Break Can influence IPI up to
draft Belt 20%
slippage
Lesser top Reduced top roller
roller dia diameter can create up to
15–20%
Web tension Lesser tension draft by
draft 0.02 can influence up to
10%. Higher will lead to
thin faults
Comber Top comb o.5 mm depth reduction
penetration can influence up to 15%
Top comb Can influence up to 20%

Type
Unicomb More the gap, higher the
to nipper neps
setting
Brush Lesser the height, higher
height IPI
Table Higher the draft, lesser the

tension draft IPI.10%
Contd...

factors
High coiler Influences up to 10%
calender
roller load
Web cut Influences up to 15%
Head-to- Higher the variation, higher

head noil the IPI. Up to 25%
variation
Card Higher card Higher the productivity,
productivity higher IPI
Flat to Wider the setting, higher

Cylinder IPI
setting
SFD Wider the setting, higher
the IPI. Up to 30%
Too close Closer the SFL setting,

SFL higher IPI
Wire For further detail, click here
type and (File No: P Cardnep File
condition 16)
7.6 References
1. Bandyopadhyay, S., Garde, A.R., Subramanian, T.A. and Raj, B.S. (1972).
Imperfections in cotton yarns: assessment and causes, Journal of Textile Association,
33, p.65.
2. Bandyopadhyay, S., Garde, A.R., Subramanian, T.A. and Raj, B.S. (1971).
Imperfections in cotton yarns: Assessment and causes. Proceedings of the all India
textile conference, p.35.
3. Booth, J.E. (1996). Principle of Textile Testing, A Butterworth Publication.
4. Dyson, E. (1974). Some Observations on Yarn Irregularity, Journal of Textile Institute,
65, p.215.
5. Foster, G.A. (1950). Causes of the irregularity of cotton yarns, Journal of Textile
Institute, 41, p.357.
6. Foster, G.A.R. (1950). Causes of the irregularity of cotton yarns, Journal Textile
7. Further R. (1982). Evenness testing in yarn production: Part I, The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
8. Further R. (1982). Evenness testing in yarn production: Part II, The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
9. Garde A.R. and Subramanian T.A. (1978). Process Control in Cotton Spinning, 2nd
Ed., Ahmedabad, ATIRA.
10. George J. Harrison and Edna E. Craig (1945). Cotton Fibre Imperfections and Their
Probable Relation to Yarn Quality, Textile Research Journal, 15, p.247.
11. John B. Price, Timothy A. Calamari and William R. Meredith, J.R. (2002). A
Comparison of Yarn Evenness and Imperfection Data, Textile Research Journal, 72,
p.8–10.
12. Klein W. (1987). Short Staple Spinning Series, Vol 3: A practical Guide to Combing
13. Mishu I. Zeidman, Moon W. Suh and Subhash K. Batra (1990). A New Perspective
on Yarn Unevenness: Components and Determinants of General unevenness, Textile
Research Journal, 60, p.1.
14. Nutter, W. (1958). Regularity and machines. Textile Mercury and Argus, 139, p.16.
15. Operation manual, Rieter spinning system, Drawframe RSB 851.
16. Padmanabhan, A.R. and Balasubramanian, A. (1990). An Exploratory Study of
Imperfections in Cotton Yarns, Textile Research Journal, 60, p.17.
17. Premier-Evolvics, Evenness Testing- Application handbook, Premier Publication,
2002.
Coimbatore.
19. SITRA Focus (1986). Control of short-term irregularity of draw frame sliver, 14,
No.2.
20. SITRA Focus (1987). Roving unevenness – Contributing factors & control measures,
5, No. 4.
21. SITRA Focus (1988). How to control short-term irregularity of yarn, 5, No.5.
22. Slater, K. (1986). Yarn Evenness, Textile Progress, 14, No.3/4.
23. Souther, R.H. (1954). Influence of processing on nep formation, Textile Research
Journal, 24, p.495.
24. Temmerman, R. and Hermanne, L. (1950). Application of the index of irregularity to
the study of spinning on the cotton system, Journal of Textile Institute, 41, p.411.
25. Townsend, M. W., and Cox, D. R. (1951). The Analysis of Yarn Irregularity, Journal
of Textile Institute, 42, p.107.
26. Uster Application Handbook, Evenness Testing, Uster publication, Zellweger Uster.
8
Short-term irregularity
Abstract: This chapter commences with the discussion of need for autolevelling
in draw frame for the production of uniform product. The basic principles of
autolevelling, carding and draw frame autolevellers and various factors to be
considered in autolevellers for the production uniform sliver in draw frame
were discussed in this section. The influence of various processes and machine
parameters in each processing stages on yarn evenness are also discussed in
this chapter.
Key words: evenness, autolevellers, open loop, closed loop, levelling intensity,
levelling action point
8.1 Autolevelling
The autoleveller is an online monitoring device in the spinning process. Today
autoleveller has become an integral part of the spinning for the production of
high quality yarn. The quality attribute that is influenced maximum is yarn
count variation and blend consistency. Autoleveller is used to reduce count
variation in the sliver. This is mainly caused by the imperfect feeding at
carding. This is also produced due to
• drafting waves in the drawing process
• periodic variations due to the defective rotational parts in the machines
• incorrect drafts
• missing slivers in drawframe feed material and
• comber periodicities
The main task of auto leveling is to eliminate deviations in mass. The
efficiency of an auto leveling device is defined as follows: “Those machines
qualify on which the reaction time is shorter than the length of the deviation
to be eliminated”. This is applied to the elimination of long-term deviations.
In the meantime the range of application has also shifted toward short-term
regulation, due to the development of servo drives operating faster and the
availability of more efficient electronics. For modern auto leveling machines
the above-mentioned definition must be changed to: “Those machines qualify
which allow corrections to be made as quickly as deviations appear in the
incoming sliver”.
Short-term irregularity 227
The main objective of an autoleveller is:

1. To measure sliver thickness variation on real-time basis, and
2. To alter the machine draft so that a high consistent sliver thickness is
continuously produced.
8.1.1 Classification
The autolevellers are classified on the basis of
• Spectrum of length variation (i.e. short, medium, or long term)
• Principle of operation (i.e. open, closed or mixed loop)
8.1.1.1 Based on length variation

Based on the control inertial range of the autoleveller which is dependent on
the design of control system, the variation spectra has been divided into the
following:
Short term: 0.25–2.5 m
Medium term: 2.5–25 m
Long term: 25–250 m
Very long term: >250 m
(1) Long-term autolevellers
Only the mean count value is autolevelled. The actual evening out is
undertaken in full by doubling.
(2) Medium-term autolevellers
Both the mean value and also to a large extent the complete variance-
length spectrum is autolevelled. As only short-term variation remains in the
materials, the complete variation spectrum is quite considerably reduced. The
autoleveller takes over the normal function of doubling in the medium term
range.
(3) Short-term autolevellers
In this case, besides the mean value, the complete variance length spectrum
is to a large extent autolevelled and can in the ideal case also completely
take over the function of doubling is applied together with doublings, then its
advantage lies particularly in the correction of periodicities and other short
disturbances.
8.1.1.2 Based on principle of operation

There are two types of autolevelling systems:
• Open-loop system
• Closed-loop system
(a) Open-loop autolevelling

The open-loop system may generally be used for correction of short-term
variations. The input material variation is measured using a measurement
unit. A measuring sensor is provided in the region of the in feed for
continuous detection of the actual value (volume) – mechanically, optically,
pneumatically, or otherwise (Fig. 8.1). A regulator compares the result with
the set reference value, amplifies the difference signal, and feeds it to an
adjusting device (actuator), which then finally converts the impulse into a
mechanical adjustment.
Measuring
Correction
DV A TD S TG
Figure 8.1 Principle of open-loop autolevelling
M – Measuring zone
DV – Desired value
A – Amplifier
TD – Time delay
S – Speed adjusting unit
TG – Tacho generator
In open-loop system, there is no check on delivered sliver. In other words
the changes in draft are solely based on the mass variation in the input material.
Control by this chain of steps requires an additional element, namely a storage
device. Since the material has to travel a certain distance between the measuring
and adjusting points, and therefore arrives at the adjusting point with a time
delay, the signal must be held back in the storage device until this instant. This
additional requirement represents a second disadvantage of open-loop control
in addition to the lack of self-monitoring. There is a third disadvantage, since
very exact values of the adjustment are required at all times.
Advantage – This system has got shorter time lag between detection and
correction and hence can easily correct even much shorter variations. Since
the detection is done at feed end itself it is possible to correct the fault exactly
at the right location.
Disadvantage – There is no way of ensuring that the variation detected
has indeed been corrected.
(b) Closed-loop autolevelling
In the closed-loop system, is generally used for correcting long-term
variation. The measuring sensor is usually arranged in the delivery region,
i.e. downstream from the adjusting device (Fig. 8.2). The sliver coming out at
the delivery end is constantly monitored for any variation from the standard
value. Any deviation detected is fed to a correction system at the feed end
which corrects the draft depending upon the variation detected. This corrected
sliver is again monitored at the delivery and any variation detected is fed to
the feed correction system thus ensuring closed-loop system.
Measuring
Correction
TG S A DV
Figure 8.2 The principle of closed-loop control

M – Measuring zone
DV – Desired value
A – Amplifier
TD – Time delay
S – Speed adjusting unit
TG – Tacho generator
If too much material passes through the sensor, the regulating transmission
receives a negative signal (i.e. reduce speed) until the actual and set values
coincide again. Neither a positive nor a negative signal is produced when
there is coincidence – the instantaneous speed is maintained. The principle is
substantially simpler than open-loop control. However, this advantage, and the
advantage of self-monitoring, must be weighed against a serious disadvantage,
namely the dead time inherent in the system. The measured portion has already
passed the adjusting point when the adjusting signal arrives.
Compensation cannot be achieved in this measured portion; i.e. some of
the long- and medium-term errors, and all of the short-term errors, remain
in the product. It is therefore clear that closed-loop control is unsuited to
compensation of irregularity over short lengths.
8.2 Autolevellers in carding

8.2.1 Rieter C-60 integrated draw-frame card
Figure 8.3 Rieter autolevelling concept

8.2.2 Trutzschler card

The Trutzschler card contains elements for both short-term as well as long-term
autoleveling. The short-term autoleveling is done at the feed point where the
thickness of the feed is monitored with the help of a spring loaded measuring
system as shown in the figure and the variations in sliver are controlled by
carefully controlling the feed roller drive. As far as the long-term autoleveling
is concerned the sensor is located near the funnel near the calendar rollers.
These sensors are optical sensors and continuously monitor the sliver thickness
and the signal from these sensors is used to change the speed of cylinder and
feed rollers to obtain the required draft as shown in Fig. 8.4.
Figure 8.4 Trutzschler autolevelling concept
8.3 Autolevellers in draw frame

The doubling on draw frame in suppressing irregularity in card sliver is any
way an integral part of the process. The doubling process has some limitations,
such as
• It cannot correct long-term variations
• The periodic variation is also difficult to suppress and
• It can reduce CV% only by the square root of total number of
doublings.
8.3.1 Principle of Autoleveller (Rieter RSB-951)

The production speed of a draw frame is pretty high. The response characteristics
of the sensor and inertia of the whole regulating drive system, earlier did not
allow very short-term control to be exercised even with open-loop principle.

Today with the development sensor and actuator design, the correction length
has been brought down to 3 cm depending upon the operating speed. For
system designed on closed-loop principle, the correction length lies between
5–10 m of sliver length.
A schematic view of an autoleveler used in Rieter RSB-951, RSB-D-30
high speed draw frame is shown in Fig. 8.5. This system is an electronic
levelling system. The major components in the system are
• scanning roller
• signal converter
• levelling CPU
• servo drive (servo motor and servo leveller)
• differential gear box (Planetary gear box)
Trumpet Scanning Back

rollers rollers Front rollers
1132 mm
Differential gearing
Signal converter Servo motor Main motor
Electronic memory Set point stage
Figure 8.5 Drawframe Autoleveling (RSB-951)
8.3.1.1 Pre-autolevelling setting

Prior to adjusting the autoleveller, the drawframe has to be correctly set with
the autoleveller switched off. The draft, roll settings, speeds, tension drafts
and components have to be carefully optimized. The scanning rollers should
be selected according to the amount of material being fed. The scanning roller
distance, which corresponds to the cross-section of the total fed material, must
be between 2.8 and 5.2 mm. Table 8.1 shows the recommended widths of the
scanning rollers for various materials at different total sliver weights. The
scanning rolls must not touch each other when the pressure is on with no
material in place. The clearances between the tongue and groove should be
0.1 mm.
Table 8.1 Scanning roller width recommendations
Input sliver weight
g/m 12 - 20 15–28 26–40 37–52
Grains/yd 170 - 280 210–390 360–560 520–730
Material Width of scanning roller (mm)
Fine flexible fibres, i.e. combed 3 5 6.5 8

cotton, rayon, and polyester
(cotton type)
Cotton carded 3 5 6.5–8 8–10
High crimped bulky fibres i.e. 6.5 8–10 10

acrylic, polyester (wool type)
Synthetic of very high bulk 6.5 8–10 10–12
Coarse polypropylene 8–10 10–12
The sliver funnel should be clear of the scanning rollers with no material
present and the pressure on as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Figure 8.6 Sliver funnel setting with scanning roller
The scanning roller pressure has to be adjusted using the regulator and
pressure gauge, according to the material being processed. Recommended
scanning roller pressures are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Scanning roller pressure recommendations
Roller pressure daN (kg)

Delivery speed up to Delivery speed 500 to
500m/min 1000m/min
Material 100 120 140 160 180 100 120 140 160 180
Fine flexible fibres, i.e. X XX X X XX X
combed cotton, rayon,
and polyester (cotton
type)
Cotton carded XX X XX X
High-crimped bulky X XX X XX
fibres i.e. acrylic,
polyester (wool type)
Synthetic of very high XX X XX X
bulk
Coarse polypropylene XX X XX
Cotton/polyester XX X
8.3.1.2 Working of autoleveller

The RSB drawframe works with the principle of open-loop control. The
thickness of the incoming sliver is sensed by a pair of tongue and groove
rollers called as scanning rollers (Fig. 8.7). One of the scanning rollers is
moveable. These scanning rollers are loaded either by a spring loading system
or a pneumatic loading system. Pneumatic loading is always better, because
the pressure in kilograms will be always same (consistent), irrespective of
the sliver feed variation. But in the case of spring loaded, the pressure on
scanning rollers may vary depending upon the feed variation.
Figure 8.7 Scanning roller assembly in Rieter autoleveller

The variations in sliver mass of the incoming slivers displace the scanning
roller. The distance moved by the scanning is proportional to the sliver mass
fed. The angular movement of the scanning roller is converted into voltages
by means of displacement transducer. A plate is connected to the rollers and is
moved into the electromagnetic field of the transducer. This movement of the
plates cuts the flux and a voltage is induced which depends on the thickness of
the material. This signal is transferred to the electronic memory, which then
transmits it to the set point stage with a certain delay.
The correction delay is determined by the pulses which can be set by
FIFO (First in First out). The distance between the measuring rollers and the
front draft zone is divided into 177–192 pulses. FIFO is a register with the first
measured variation stored in the first register and so on. FIFO can be changed
depending upon the drafting setting and the position of the guides.
This system ensures the change in draft takes place exactly when the
corresponding deviating length of the sliver passes the main draft zone. The
set point stage uses the measuring voltage and the machine speed which are
measured by two tacho generators to calculate the speed of the servo drive. At
this stage a manual override is provided for any error in correction which can
be exactly set right by either adding or subtracting voltage from the measured
voltage. This efficiency of the autolevellers can be studied by using the
evenness tester mass variation diagram and by taking count CV% readings.
The middle roller is driven by a differential gear arrangement which has
a constant drive from the front roller and variable speed from the servo motor.
The servo drive which can rotate in both directions either to add or subtract
the speed transmits this speed to the middle roller of the drafting system
thus altering the draft. Speed of the variable speed motor is continuously
measured and it does not correspond with the intended speed the machine is
switched off. Accurate leveling is ensured by the high dynamic servo drive,
so the correction times are of the order of few milliseconds and the correction
lengths a few millimetres.
The synchronization of the mechanical parts, the drive, the electronics
and the software is therefore very decisive. High-performance draw frames
with the appropriate devices and corresponding synchronization deliver a
sliver with outstanding short-term, medium-term and long-term evenness.
Leveling is performed exclusively by adjustment of the draft. Theoretically,
there are two possibilities for such adjustment, namely via the break draft and
the main draft, respectively. However, the main draft is always used because
it is larger, and therefore finer adjustments are possible. Furthermore, use of
the break draft would run the risk of entering the stick/slip zone.
Draft variation can also be carried out by adjusting either the in-feed or
the delivery speed. Adjustment of the in-feed speed is generally used, since
lower masses then have to be accelerated and decelerated at lower speeds.

Furthermore, the delivery speed, and hence the production rate, remains
constant. The adjustments taken place in various components after detection
of variation are shown in Fig. 8.8.
Figure 8.8 Adjustment of components in autoleveller
8.3.1.3 Correction length

If there is a sudden deviation from the set volume as the material passes through,
a corresponding signal is sent to a regulating device to correct the fault. Owing
to the mass inertia of the system, compensation cannot be effected suddenly,
but must be carried out by gradual adjustment. A certain time (the correction
time) in Fig. 8.9 (I) elapses before the sliver delivered has returned to the set
volume. During this time, faulty sliver is still being produced, although the
deviation is being steadily reduced. The total length that departs from the set
value is referred to as the correction length (I). In closed-loop systems, the
correction length is further increased by the dead time. In this case it depends
upon the dead time (II) and the correction time (III). The correction length
depends upon the system and the speed of operation, and therefore varies
considerably.
The term “correction length” is used to describe the efficiency of a
leveling device. However, this term is used in different ways and sometimes
also incorrectly. The current interpretation is: “the correction length is the
length of the product which would be produced when leveling a rectangular
deviation of the product.” The length therefore refers to amplitude of the fault
of 1%. The term “correction length” is therefore a theoretical value, since
in practice rectangular faults do not occur. As they cannot be checked in the
spinning mill, the quality of the delivered sliver is usually taken as the standard
of comparison, and sliver evenness can be determined by any evenness tester.
Figure 8.9 Correction length in open- and closed-loop autolevellers
The correction length depends upon

• inertia of the regulating system and hence on its design
• delivery speed
• draft
• extent of mass variation of sliver from set value
• sense of change of mass i.e. whether it is from
– normal level to lighter side or
– lighter level to normal side
– normal level to heavier side
– heavier level to normal side
If a system takes ‘t’ seconds to level a certain percent increase in mass
variation of a sliver that is being delivered at V m/min, the correction length
(l) would be
100 Vt
l = mm
60
8.3.1.4 Testing of autoleveler

Following are the two important parameters for quality levelling
• Levelling action point ( time of correction)
• Levelling intensity
Levelling action point
Both feed variation sensing and correction are being done when the machine
is running (continuous process) at two different places (i.e. sensing is at one
place and correction is at another place). Hence the calculated correction
should be done on the corresponding defective material. This is decided by
levelling action point. The time required for the defective material to reach
the correction point should be known and correction should be done at the
right time.
Levelling action point depends upon
• break draft
• main draft roller setting
• delivery speed
The levelling action point is in the main draft zone and is influenced by
several factors that include:
• tension of the sliver entering the drafting zone (VE)
• main draft roll setting distance (HVD)
• break draft (V V)
• vertical setting of the sliver guides
• delivery speed
• fibre characteristics
Figure 8.10 shows the factors influencing the levelling action point.
Figure 8.10 Factors influencing levelling action point

Table 8.3 lists the normal ranges of levelling action points (LAP) for
some different materials:
Table 8.3 Suggested value range of levelling action point
90 pulses 88 pulses
Material Break draft LAP values (mm) LAP values (mm)
Carded cotton 1.16/1.28 1005–1023 981–999
Combed cotton > 1 1/8” 1.16 1017–1035 993–1011
Combed cotton < 1 1/8” 1.16 1011–1029 987–1005
Synthetic fibres 1.28 / 1.41 1005–1023 981–999
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8.11 Influence of leveling action point on sliver U%
Feed one meter of extra sliver with tapered end in the feed direction along
with rest of the slivers. Produce a sliver and take its mass spectra by Uster
evenness tester. The three situations are indicated in Fig. 8.11. Figure 8.11(a)
shows the correct timing. Figure 8.11(b) shows late where as Fig. 8.11(c)
shows early timing. The reason for such behavior could be that the ‘delay’
essential for the autoleveler working on open-loop principle is incorrectly set.
It has to be adjusted. An incorrect leveling start will lead to sliver joints with
long wave, whereas with correct leveling timing, a short wave deviation ±½
sliver thicknesses would occur.
Levelling intensity
Levelling intensity is to decide the amount of draft change required to correct
feed variation. The correlation between mass and volume for different fibres
is not same. Therefore the levelling intensity may be different for different
fibres. The levelling intensity setting ensures that the leveller will correct
the sliver weight if there is a major swing in mass of the in feed material.
To check and set the levelling intensity a “Sliver Test” has to be performed.
The delivered sliver produced from the normal feed is compared with slivers
produced from feeds of normal plus one sliver and normal minus one sliver.
The % deviation is then corrected by changing the levelling intensity
Wrapping of the delivered sliver should be checked with “n”, “n + 1”,
“n − 1” sliver at the feeding side. The format for determination of A% to
determine the levelling intensity is shown in Fig. 8.12.
Sliver weight (ktex)
(n – 1) slivers n slivers (n + 1) slivers
Average
A%
(ktex(n–1) – ktex(n)) × 100 (ktex(n+1) – ktex(n)) × 100

A% = A% =
ktex(n) ktex(n)
A% + = Overcompensation A% + = Undercompensation
A% – = Undercompensation A% – = Overcompensation
Figure 8.12 Sliver test for adjustment of levelling intensity

The sliver weight of the delivered sliver should be same for all the three
combinations or should be the minimum. This can be checked if the sliver is
checked at UT 3(Uster) or premier tester 7000 for mass variations (U%). If
Levelling correction point and levelling intensity is selected properly, then the
cut length CV% of 1 meter will be less than 0.5, if the sliver is tested in UT-3
instrument.
8.4 Advantages of high performance leveling

8.4.1 In the spinning mill
• reducing count variations;
• fewer short-term mass variations in the yarn (CV %);
• improving the coefficient of variation of yarn strength (CV % cN/tex);
• fewer yarn imperfections (IPI and Classimat);
• improving the efficiency of roving frame and spinning machine by
reducing the ends down rates;
• fewer cuts on the winding machine.
8.4.2 In the subsequent process stages

• Reduction of ends down rates in weaving preparation and weaving;
• Even appearance of the finished cloth;
• Reducing the cost for claims by eliminating a remarkable number of
faults.
8.5 Control of yarn evenness (U%)

The short-term irregularity in the processed material and yarn is generally
determined by assessing the U%. The Uster U% is a measure of the variation
in the weight of pieces of 20 mm in the case of sliver and 12 mm in the case
of rove and 8 mm in the case of yarn.
8.5.1 Blow room

The reasons for variation in blow room lap weight are given below:
• Insufficient opening of cotton and wide variation in tuft size.
• Use of excessive soft waste in the mixing
• Malfunctioning of the length measuring motion
• Cage choked with dust and dirt on their surface
• Ineffective working of feed regulating motion.
Between lap CV% as per norms is 0.6. The tolerance set is directly related
to CV%. So the tolerance should be set (i) by finding out the between lap
CV% (ii) based on lap weight/metre. As per rejection theory laps weighing
±5% of the nominal lap weight need not necessarily be rejected. This CV%
is calculated by weighing the laps individually and finding out the deviation
from mean lap weight. The norms for within lap and between lap CV% are
given in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Norms for with-in and between lap CV%
Particulars Good Average Poor

Between laps 0.6 0.8 1.0
Within a lap (1 m length) 1.0 1.5 2.0
8.5.2 Card sliver

Control of card sliver irregularity has to be given much importance, since its
effect on the overall yarn quality is marked. In fact, if the card sliver is very
even, its contribution to the count variation is about 10%. The norms for card
sliver U% are given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Norms for card sliver U%
Type of card Unevenness (U%)

SHP 4.0
HP 3.5
VHP 3.0
The card sliver U% can be reduced by the following ways:

1. Doffer wire condition should be checked frequently. If needed doffer
grinding can be done.
2. Under casing tongue setting has to be set according to the fibre
processed for better fibre transfer from cylinder to doffer.
3. Optimum web tension draft to be selected for that particular speed in
the transfer zone
4. Drive transmission to be perfected (no loose belts, no slippage, and
minimum play between gears)
5. Optimum feed draft between lap-to-feed roller or chute-to-feed roller
6. Trumpet/condenser selection as per hank of sliver
7. Variation in flat speed between cards processing the same mixing
8. Obstruction in the movement of aprons during doffing in modern
cards should be avoided
9. Check the condition of back and front plates. Bent/damaged plates

should be replaced
10. Difference in drafts between cards
8.5.3 Comber sliver

As in the case of card sliver, a high irregularity in comber sliver could have
a detrimental effect on the yarn count variation. The norms for comber sliver
U% are given in Table 8.6.
Table 8.6 Norms for comber sliver U%
Sliver hank
Rating
0.12–0.16 > 0.16
Good 3.0 3.5
Average 3.5 4.0
Poor 4.0 4.5
The following points require careful attention to reduce the U% of the

comber sliver.
1. Difference in waste extraction between heads
2. Variation in settings between back detaching roller and nipper
3. Unicomb choked with seed coats or immature cotton
4. Wider setting between unicomb and brush
5. Improper needle spacing, broken or bent needles
6. Variation in detaching roller diameter and improper timing of top
combs
7. Bad maintenance of the machine
8. Bad lap preparation (too little draft in preparation)
9. Dirty lap tension roller, Nippers, fluted rollers, fleece guides, trumpets,
etc.
10. Badly set drafting system
11. Bottom detaching roller running eccentric
8.5.3.1 Adjustment for evenness of sliver
Draw box setting: Closer draw box setting than recommendation will
1.
give lower U% but may leads reduction in yarn strength. Normally
5% Uster staple or hand pulled staple is the guideline for the above
setting.
Correct the top rollers and top roller weighting: Top roller eccentricity,
2.
too smaller diameter, physical damages on the cots will influence the
U%.
3. Control wheel index: The control wheel index has greater bearing on
the output sliver U%. The over lapping length depends on the length
of the fibre processed as well as the draft employed in the draw box.
Longer fibre requires longer over lapping and vice-versa.
8.5.4 Draw frame sliver

Control of draw frame sliver irregularity is one of the important points in
reducing yarn count variation. Under good working conditions the short-term
variation in draw frame sliver contributes about half of the lea count variation.
The norms for assessing the draw frame sliver irregularity are presented in
Table 8.7.
Table 8.7 Norms for finisher draw frame sliver U%
Sliver hank
Rating
0.12–0.16 > 0.16
Good 2.0 2.5
Average 2.5 3.0
Poor 3.0 3.5
There should be a constant and continuous check on the draw frame sliver
irregularity – each delivery should be tested once in a week. The draw frame
sliver irregularity will have a significant influence on roving U%. The factors
which affect the draw frame sliver U% are outlined below.
8.5.4.1 Setting between the rollers
Roller settings based on span length would be more meaningful as this
measure considers the distribution of part length of the fibres as is present
in the drafting zone. Such settings are known to confer improvements in the
performance of preparatory and spinning machines as well as in sliver and
yarn quality. Table 8.8 shows the guideline for roller settings.
Table 8.8 Recommended settings in draw frames based on span length concept
Setting zone Break zone setting Front zone setting

Breaker draw frame 5% length + 4 mm 5% length
Finisher draw frame 5% length + 6 mm 5% length + 2 mm
8.5.4.2 Web and creel drafts

The break draft is determined by a number of factors such as the fibre
properties of raw material, type of draw frame, first or second passage, etc.
The recommended break draft is given in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Recommended break draft in breaker and finisher draw frame
Draw frame passage Carded count Combed count Manmade fibres

Breaker 1.7 1.3 1.7
Finisher 1.3 1.3 1.3
The web draft and creel tension draft should also be maintained at
optimum level in order to ensure a low sliver irregularity. The web draft,
which is governed by the type of material used, must be slightly lower at the
breaker drawing than at the finisher. Excessive web draft would lead to an
increase in the sliver irregularity as well as lea count variation. The normal
web drafts recommended are given in Table 8.10.
Table 8.10 Web draft for cotton and manmade fibres
Count Web draft

Cotton:
Upto 24s 0.96–0.97
24s–36s 0.98–1.00
Above 36s 1.00–1.02
Manmade fibres 1.00–1.02
The creel tension draft should be as low as is practicable and in any case
it should not exceed 1.02 to get satisfactory levels of sliver evenness.
8.5.4.3 Trumpet size
The size of the trumpet is also a factor which would affect the sliver irregularity.
The recommended sizes are given in Table 8.11. Use of a proper trumpet
helps to obtain a sliver of sufficient compactness necessary for subsequent
processing.
Table 8.11 Diameter (mm) of trumpet hole for draw frames (carded counts)
Carded counts
Sliver hank
Breaker Finisher
0.25 and above 3.0 2.5
0.18–0.24 3.0 2.5
0.15–0.17 3.5 3.0
0.12–0.14 3.5 3.5
8.5.4.4 Machinery condition

The mechanical condition of the draw frame is also an important factor
determining sliver irregularity.
8.5.5 Roving
Under normal working conditions, roving process contributes for about 15%
of the yarn irregularity. The norms for rove U% are given in Table 8.12.
Table 8.12 Norms for roving U%
Sliver hank
Rating
1.2–1.6 > 1.6
Good 3.5 3.8

Average 4.0 4.3
Poor 4.5 4.8
Periodic irregularity in roving affects lea strength variation adversely.

The effect is more pronounced in fine counts. Short-term irregularity in roving
(U%) influences medium-term variation in yarn which is mainly responsible
for end breaks in ring spinning.
The factors which affect the roving unevenness are explained below.
8.5.5.1 Setting between the rollers

Fly frame roller setting depends on the fibre length distribution in the roving
and the hank of roving. In case of 3/3/ drafting arrangement, the front and
middle zone settings are fixed and the back zone settings are arrived by 2.5%
span length + 12–15 mm allowance.
8.5.5.2 Total draft and break draft

The total draft and break draft on the machine are some of the major parameters
influencing the amount of irregularity added in the roving process. They are to
be decided by factors like type of drafting system, quality of back material and
condition of the machine. General guidelines are given in Table 8.13.
Table 8.13 Drafts to be used on fly frame with top arm drafting system
Count (Ne) Draft in fly frame Count (Ne) Draft in fly frame
20s 9.0 70s 13.5

30s, 40s and 50s 10.0 80s 14.5
60s 12.0 90s and 100s 15.0
Break draft in simplex must be maintained between 1.2 (finer hank) and
1.4 (coarser hank) for satisfactory performance.
8.5.5.3 Wrong size of sliver guides

Selection of sliver guides of proper size helps to condense the sliver effectively
and reduce uneven rate of feeding. The guideline for sliver condensing guides
and floating condensers are given in Table 8.14 and 8.15, respectively.
Table 8.14 Size of sliver condensing guides in fly frame
Hank of sliver (Ne) 0.09–0.12 0.121–0.140 0.141–0.20
Inlet condenser (mm) 16 × 4 15 × 3 12 × 2.5

Middle condenser (mm) 11 or 14 9 or 11 6 or 9
Table 8.15 Size of floating condensers in fly frame
Hank of sliver Hank of roving Size of floating Size of spacer

(Ne) (Ne) condenser (mm) (mm)
0.09–0.12 0.5–1.0 11–18 6–9

1.1–1.6 9 –16 5.5–8
1.7–2.5 7.5–14 5 –7
0.121–0.14 0.6–1.0 11–16 6 –9
1.1–1.6 9–14 5.5–8
1.7–2.5 7.5–11 5–7
0.141–0.17 0.7–1.2 9–14 5–8
1.3–1.6 7.5–11 5–8
1.7–3.0 6–9 5–7
0.171–0.2 1.0–1.6 6–9 5 –7
1.7–3.0 6–7.5 5–7
8.5.5.4 Slipped or missing aprons

Spindles running without bottom aprons create uneven yarn because
the materials are being stretched in loose state and without any guidance.
Irregularity of roving produced thus could be higher than that produced with
bottom aprons by as much as 2–2.5 U%.
8.5.5.5 Top roller loading and shore hardness

In the case of fibres with high inter fibre cohesion, the drafting force
required for a given draft would be higher. Under such circumstances, chances
for top roller slip will be more if the loading on the top roller is not adequate.
Recommended top roller pressures on fly frames are given in Table 8.16.
Table 8.16 Top roller pressure (kg) in fly frame
Material
Position
Cotton Manmade
Front line 22 25.0

Middle line 12- 13 16.5
Back line 12 -13 16.5
If the shore hardness of the roller is too low (lower than 70°), then they
will wear out at a faster rate. On the other hand if the hardness is too high, load
will not be properly applied on the fibres. Therefore, the shore hardness of top
roller cots must be maintained at an optimum level. A shore hardness of 80°
proves to be ideal both for cotton as well as for man-made fibres.
8.5.5.6 Machinery condition

The mechanical condition of the fly frame is also an important factor
determining roving irregularity.
8.5.6 Yarn unevenness

The yarn unevenness can be assigned to three causes, namely, cotton quality,
processing parameters in ring frame – type of drafting, draft and mechanical
condition and roving irregularity. An expression relating these three factors
and yarn irregularity derived by SITRA is given below.
d −1  d − 1
U2 = 29.4 ( F / L ) Ne  + a ( d − 1) + U r
2 2
+ a
d  d 
Where
U = Yarn unevenness
Ne = Yarn count
d = Ring frame draft
F = Fineness
Ur = Roving unevenness (U%)
a = Contribution of the ring frame
The major process parameters that affect the yarn irregularity are outlined
below.
8.5.6.1 Roller setting
In order to avoid the creation of drafting waves and to reduce short-term
irregularity (U%) of yarn, proper roller settings must be adopted. The guideline
for back zone setting is given in the Table 8.17.
Table 8.17 Recommended back zone setting for ring frame
Count group Back zone setting (mm)

Upto 20s 55
21s to 60s 60
61s and above 65
8.5.6.2 Top roller pressure and shore hardness

Insufficient loading of top rollers leads to erratic movement of the fibres due
to fibre slip between the drafting rollers. This, in turn, will lead to high level of
short-term unevenness of yarn. The recommended top roller pressure in ring
frame is given in Table 8.18.
Table 8.18 Recommended top roller pressure in ring frame
Position Pressure (kg)

Front line 16–18
Middle line 10–12
Back line 12–14
Use of softer cots (shore hardness of 70° to 75°) generally improves the
yarn quality by reducing slip between the cot and the bottom-fluted roller.
Softer cots with a top roller pressure of 18 kg in counts below 50s and 15 kg
in counts finer than 50s will result in improved yarn quality.
8.5.6.3 Draft distribution

The total draft and break draft employed in spinning influence the amount of
irregularity added in spinning and they depend on the quality of roving and
condition of the ring frame. The optimum levels of total draft that could be
adopted in ring frame for different counts are given in Table 8.19.
Table 8.19 Recommended draft level in ring frame
Count (Ne) Draft Count (Ne) Draft
10s 10 50s 24
16s 14 60s 26
20s 17 64s 26
26s 21 70s 26
30s 21 80s 27
40s 22 90s 28
44s 23 100s 29
Break draft in ring frame is mainly to break the mild twist in the roving.
Higher the break draft, greater will be the fibre breakage at the back zone. If
the twist multiplier in the roving is higher, then comparatively higher break
draft could be employed. While using the higher break draft, the back zone
settings should be wider to obtain optimum performance. The recommended
levels of break draft for different twist levels in roving are given in Table 8.20.
Table 8.20 Recommended levels of break draft in ring frame
TPI in roving Break draft

1.38 1.2
1.94 1.3
2.35 1.4
8.5.6.4 Apron spacing

Cradle opening in ring frame contributes to the tune of 60–80% on the
incidence of thick and thin places and slubs in the yarn. Wider cradle opening,
lesser will be the control of fibres between aprons leading to thin places in
the yarn. Narrower the cradle opening, greater will be the strain to the fibres
between the aprons, leading to increased fibre damage and resistance to
drafting which result in undrafted ends in the yarn. The recommended spacer
for different counts in ring frame is given in Table 8.21.
Table 8.21 Recommended spacer for different counts in ring frame
Count (Ne) Apron spacer (mm)
Upto 20s 4.0

21s to 40s 3.5
41s to 80s 3.0
Finer than 80s 2.5
8.5.6.5 Roving twist

There is a high degree of interaction between apron spacing, break draft
and roving twist. In general, it can be said that a closer spacing between the
aprons is to be attempted for improving yarn irregularity. But closer spacing
is not always achievable because it may lead to uneven drafting and hard
ends in certain cases. Under such circumstances, it will be useful to explore
the feasibility of increasing the break draft and reducing the twist in the input
roving. Higher twist level than the optimum is not preferable at roving because
of these considerations.
8.6 References
1. Bandyopadhyay, S., Garde, A.R., Subramanian, T.A. and Raj, B.S. (1972). Imperfections
in cotton yarns: assessment and causes, Journal of Textile Association, 33, p.65.
2. Bandyopadhyay, S., Garde, A.R, Subramanian, T.A. and Raj, B.S. (1971).
Imperfections in cotton yarns: Assessment and causes. Proceedings of the all India
3. Bar H.P., Furter R. and Harzenmoser I. (1990). Influence of autoleveling and on-line
quality control on the quality of ring yarns, Textil Praxis, 45, p.362.
4. Bhaduri, S.N. and Purohit, J.N. (1955). Effect of processing on neps: study in the
pattern of their incidence and a description of experiments in controlling them. Textile
Digest, 16, p.154.
5. Bhaduri, S.N. and Purohit, J.N. (1955). Effect of processing on neps: A study in
the pattern of their incidence and description of experiments in controlling them.
Proceedings of the all India textile conference.
6. Bragg, L.O. (1958). Effect of bottom front roll run out in spinning on yarn quality and
processing performance. Textile Research Journal, 28, p.520.
7. Caveny, B., Foster, G.A.R. and Anderson, S.I. (1955). Irregularity of materials drafted
on cotton spinning machinery and its dependence on draft, doubling and roller setting
Parts : I and II, Journal of Textile Institute, 46, p.529.
8. Chattopadhyay R. (2002). Advances in Technology of Yarn Production , New Delhi,
NCUTE Publications.
9. Chattopadhyay R., and Rengasamy, R.S. (1999). Spinning: Drawing, combing and
roving, New Delhi, NCUTE Publications.
10. Foster, G.A. (1950). Causes of the irregularity of cotton yarns, Journal of Textile
11. Foster, G.A.R. and Martindale, J.G. (1946). Form and length of the drafting waves in
cotton rovings, Journal Textile Institute, 37.
12. Foster, G.A.R. (1950). Causes of the irregularity of cotton yarns, Journal Textile
Manchester.
14. Further R. (1982). Evenness testing in yarn production: Part II, The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
15. Garde A. R. and Subramanian T. A. (1978). Process Control in Cotton Spinning, 2nd
16. Garde, A.R., Bandyopadhyay, S. and Subramanian, T.A. (1972). Influence of yarn
unevenness and thread density of fabric appearance: A quantitative assessment,
Journal of Textile Association, 33, p.197.
17. Gupta, A.K., Shah, P.H. and Subramanian, T.A. (1986). Blemishes in fine count yarns:
Raw material and process contributions. Proceedings of the ABNS joint technological
conference, p.15.
19. Martindale, J.G. (1945). New method of measuring the irregularity of yarns with
some observations on the origin of irregularities in worsted sliver and yarns, Journal
Textile Institute, 36, p.35.
20. Martindale, J.G. (1950). Review of causes of yarn irregularity, Journal of Textile
21. Martindale, J.G. (1950). Review of causes of yarn irregularity, Journal Textile
22. Nutter, W. (1958). Regularity and machines. Textile Mercury and Argus, 139, p.16.
23. Operation manual. Rieter spinning system, Drawframe RSB 851.
Coimbatore.
25. SITRA Focus, (1986). Control of short-term irregularity of draw frame sliver, 14,
No.2.
26. SITRA Focus, (1987). Roving unevenness – Contributing factors & control measures,
5, No. 4.
27. SITRA Focus (1988). How to control short-term irregularity of yarn, 5, No.5.
28. Souther, R.H. (1954). Influence of processing on nep formation, Textile Research
Journal, 24, p.495.
29. Temmerman, R. and Hermanne, L. (1950). Application of the index of irregularity to
the study of spinning on the cotton system, Journal of Textile Institute, 41, p.411.
9
Interpretation and analysis of diagram,
spectrogram and V-L curve
Abstract: This chapter provides an insight about the various irregularity charts
from the evenness testers such as normal diagram, spectrogram and V-L curves.
The basic principle, characteristics and application of these charts for the analysis
of yarn faults are discussed in detail with suitable examples. The basic concept
and application of deviation rate on evaluating the yarn and consequent fabric
appearance were also discussed in this section.
Key words: Diagram, spectrogram, variance-length curve, deviation rate
9.1 Introduction
Irregularity charts provide easy analysis possibilities as well as providing
more complete information than the numerical estimates. With graphical
representations, long-term trends of changes in mean value, sporadic
deviations, periodicities in faults, etc., can be easily identified. Also elaborate
statistical calculations are generally not required for interpreting graphical
representations.
The following irregularity charts are taken from the latest generation
evenness testers.
• Spectrogram
• 3D spectrogram
• Variance-length curve
• 3D variance-length curve
• Normal diagram
• Cut-length diagram
• Histogram
9.2 Measuring principle of mass evenness

The principle of measurement of mass variation in an evenness tester is shown
in Fig. 9.1. The sensor for measuring the evenness of slivers, rovings or yarns
is a capacitive measuring sensor. A high-frequency signal field is generated
in the sensor slot, between a pair of capacitor plates. If the amount of the
material between the capacitor plates changes, the high-frequency signal is
altered and the electrical output signal of the sensor changes, accordingly. The
result is an electrical signal variation proportional to the mass variation of the
test material passing through. That analog signal is then digitized (converted
to data bytes), stored and processed directly by the computer.
Figure 9.1 Capacitive measuring principle
9.3 Normal diagram

The mass diagram directly shows the mass variation of the test material in
graphical form. A normal diagram actually contains the entire information
from which the other mass test results (CV, Spectrogram, IPI, etc.) are derived.
The use of the mass diagram is to determine whether any random gross mass
deviations or increased variation occur along the tested material.
Figure 9.2 Normal diagram
The normal mass diagram obtained from evenness tester is shown in

Fig. 9.2. The vertical axis shows the (+) and (−) mass deviations of the test
material as it had passed through the sensor’s measuring field. The zero line
Interpretation and analysis of diagram, spectrogram and V-L curve 255
along the middle represents the average value of the material. This average
value has been determined over the first 15 seconds of material running
through the sensor. The horizontal axis represents the length of the material
(in meters or yards) which has been tested. The reference length for the mass
values is the basic measured length of 1 cm.
The following are some of the information which can be usefully applied
for process control from the normal diagram.
1. Seldom-occurring events
2. Long-term variations
3. Periodic mass variations with wavelengths which are longer than 100
m and therefore cannot be confirmed by the spectrogram
4. Extreme thick and thin places
5. Randomly occurring thick and thin places which tend to occur in
batches slow changes of the mean value
6. With periodic faults, it can be determined whether the fault is
permanently present or occurs only in batches
7. With measurements “within” a bobbin, seldom-occurring events can
be found and changes in the mean value taking place over a number
of kilometres can be confirmed.
9.3.1 Cut-length mass diagram

If a Cut length other than “normal” is selected, the diagram has a different
appearance. The short term variations and peaks vanish and the long term
variations become more noticeable. This is due to the % change is less when
cut length is increased. The use of the cut length diagram is to detect medium
and long mass deviations along the tested material. The principle of the cut
length diagram has been graphically explained in Fig. 9.3.
Figure 9.3 Principle of different cut-length diagram

A small balance continuously measuring short lengths of the material

passing over it would show more variations than a larger balance continuously
measuring longer lengths of material. It is the same case as the material passing
through an imaginary measuring slot of 1 cm length would show much more
variation than through an imaginary measuring slot of 10 cm length, where
the shorter variations would be averaged out. An example of different cut-
length diagrams of the same material are shown in Fig. 9.4.
(a) 10 m cut-length diagram
(b) 1 m cut-length diagram
(c) 1 cm cut-length diagram (= Normal diagram)
Figure 9.4 Difference in diagram of different cut-lengths of same material

9.3.1.1 Application of cut-length diagrams

(1) Checking the correct functioning of a finisher draw frame autoleveller
The method to check whether the draw frame is producing an output sliver
with variation less than 1 metre. If any mass deviations were detected over a
1m cut length, then the result would be the same magnitude of count deviation
in very long stretches of yarn produced from such a sliver.
(2) Forecasting yarn clearer cuts with the help of Normal Diagram
The yarn clearer settings in spinning mills are usually arrived at by testing
the yarn in an off-line instrument for objectionable faults. This testing would
also indicate the number of clearer cuts expected during winding which is a
valuable input in deciding the yarn clearer settings. In mills which do not have
such instruments, the information provided by the evenness testers could also
be used for determining the number of short thick places and consequently
the expected number of cuts. This is made possible by the option of choosing
a special scale (+400% / −100%) for the diagram. The short thick places are
easily seen as significant peaks in the diagram. A physical count of the number
of such peaks would provide an estimate of the number of short thick places.
9.4 Spectrogram
The mass variations present in a yarn are very serious if they are periodic in
nature. A fault is said to be periodic if it repeats continuously in a yarn at fixed
lengths. Such faults occur quite frequently in the spinning process either due
to mechanical deficiencies or due to improper process parameters.
The numerical values such as Um% or CVm% are not influenced by the
periodic variations. The normal diagram just plots the mass variations as they
are detected during the course of testing and any specific repetitions are not
identified. Hence, it is usually very difficult to detect the periodic variations
from any of the numerical values or the normal diagram.
9.4.1 Comparison of the diagram and spectrogram

Periodic variations are extremely frequent not only in the products prior to
spinning, but also in yarns, because defective card clothing, out-of-centre
running rollers in draw-boxes, defective aprons, etc., can all produce periodic
mass variations. It is unfortunately not possible in most cases that one can
recognize and analyze this type of fault from the diagram. For this purpose,
the spectrogram is available.
The spectrogram is a representation of the mass variation in the frequency
domain. In other words, a spectrogram shows how many times a mass
variation repeats itself in a tested length of yarn, whereas the diagram is a
representation in the time domain.
As seen from Fig. 9.5, whenever a periodic fault with a certain frequency
say f1 is detected, it is represented by means of an increased height of the
spectrogram at the particular frequency. In a textile mill, however, for fault
analysis purposes, the frequency spectrum is not convenient and hence,
the representation is usually made with reference to the wavelength. The
wavelength of a spectrogram directly indicates the distance over which the
periodic fault repeats.
Figure 9.5 Comparison of diagram and spectrogram
Figure 9.6 shows the plot of a yarn cross-section with periodic mass
variations along its length. The wavelength and the amplitude of the faults are
also represented therein.
Figure 9.6 Periodic variations in yarn cross-section

Between frequency and wavelength there is a simple relationship:

V
f=
l
f = Frequency (s–1)
λ = Wavelength (m)
v = Material speed (m/s)
9.4.2 Advantages of the spectrogram with respect to the

diagram
• In the diagram, various types of periodic faults can also be recognized,
but the proof of these is much more difficult without the spectrogram
• Two or more periodic faults in the same fibre assembly can hardly be
recognized in the diagram, whereas they are clearly evident in the
spectrogram
• The proof of periodic faults in the diagram requires, in many cases, a
drastic reduction of the testing speed, whereas the spectrogram can be
traced out with the highest testing speed.
9.4.3 Arrangement of the spectrogram

A typical spectrogram is given in Fig. 9.7. The x-axis represents the
wavelength. In order to cover a maximum range of wavelengths, a logarithmic
scale is used for the wavelength representation. The y-axis is without scale
but represents the amplitude of the faults in yarn. The wavelength spectrum
is theoretically a continuous curve. But technically, it is not possible, without
considerable costs to investigate each and every separate frequency (or
wavelength). Therefore a finite number of frequency ranges are chosen which
are determined by electronic filters. These filters can easily be recognized in
the form of separate steps in the spectrogram. As the numbers of filters are
increased, the smoothness of the spectrogram improves.
Figure 9.7 Spectrogram

A frequency range is determined by an electrical filter. The arrangements

of filters in the evenness tester are shown in Fig. 9.8.
Figure 9.8 Principle of spectrogram
The number of filters/channels for the various types of evenness testers is:
Conventional GGP: 35 channels
USTER® TESTER 1: 54 channels
USTER® TESTER 4 SE: 80 channels
USTER® TESTER 4 SX: 160 channels
The distance from filter to filter is 15%. With the USTER® TESTER 4
SX, the distance between the channels is only 7.5%. As each filter provides a
certain part of the spectrogram, the separate filters can also be recognized in
the spectrogram as separate steps.
9.4.4 The ‘significance’ zone

The spectrogram consists of shaded and non-shaded areas as shown in Fig.
9.9. These areas indicate the significance or otherwise of a periodic fault
detected during testing. The significance is decided by the number of repetitive
occurrences of a fault. For a periodic fault to be present in the shaded area,
such faults should have passed through the measuring head for a minimum of
25 times.
Figure 9.9 Significance zone in spectrogram
Wavelength ranges which are not statistically significant are not shaded.
In this range the faults are displayed but not hatched. This happens when a
fault repeats for about 6–25 times within the tested length of the material.
Faults which occur for less than 6 times are not drawn out at all.
When a series of faults are noticed in a spectrogram, it is recommended
that action is first taken on those faults in the significance zone. As far as those
faults in the unshaded area are concerned, it is recommended to first confirm
the seriousness of the fault before proceeding with the corrective action.
This can be done by testing a longer length of yarn (by increasing either the
evaluation time or the testing speed).
9.4.5 Three-dimensional spectrogram

Evenness testers also provide the possibility of viewing or printing out the
spectrograms of a number of tests simultaneously (Fig. 9.10).
Figure 9.10 3D spectrogram

This 3D spectrogram may be used to identify whether the fault is present

in a single output/delivery or common to all samples. If the samples are from
the same machine and all the spectrograms indicate the same fault, then it can
be concluded that the fault is due to a common problem such as main drive
elements.
9.4.6 Normal spectrogram and ideal spectrogram

If a fibre material should achieve the limiting irregularity, its spectrogram
would be ideal. Spectrograms of ideal fibre assemblies will be referred to
in the following as ideal spectra. Under normal spectra one understands,
on the other hand, spectrograms of fibre assemblies which can be realized
technically and are free of faults. The index I can be considered as the ratio
between the height of the normal spectrum and that of the ideal spectrum. The
spectrogram of a fault-free yarn consisting of natural or variable length fibres
has the following shape. The spectrogram of a fault-free yarn consisting of all
fibres with equal length (e.g. staple fibre yarn) will be as shown in Fig. 9.11.
The maximum amplitude in the fault-free spectrogram of cotton yarn lies at a
wavelength of 2.82 × Mean fibre length.
Figure 9.11 Spectrogram of fault-free cotton yarn
Figure 9.12 Spectrogram of fault-free synthetic yarn

The fault-free spectrogram of synthetic fibre yarns are shown in Fig. 9.12.
Here, the spectrogram maximum is at a wavelength of 2.7 × Mean Fibre Length.
At a wavelength equal to the fibre length, the spectrogram is at zero position.
Under practical conditions, such a case of perfectly equal fibre length will hardly
be found. Even in the case of yarns with constant cut length e.g. synthetic fibres;
there is a chance that fibre rupture during the spinning process results in fibres
with variable length. In such a case, although the length will be recognizable in
the spectrogram, no zero position will be indicated.
Depending on the fibre length and length distribution, different basic
spectrogram shapes will result after testing (for each type of material) as
shown in Figs. 9.13–9.16.
Figure 9.13 Combed cotton yarn, maximum at ~7 cm
Figure 9.14 OE cotton yarn, maximum at ~5 cm
Figure 9.15 Wool yarn, maximum at ~22 cm
Figure 9.16 Cut staple yarn, maximum at ~9 cm, dip at ~3.5 cm

9.4.7 Influence of periodic faults on the spectrogram

If a periodic mass variation with the wavelength λ appears in the fibre material,
a peak is recorded in the spectrogram at the position λ. The height of this peak
is a measure of the intensity of the periodic fault. In Fig. 9.17, the wavelength
λ is 20 m and the corresponding cut-length diagram is shown in Fig. 9.18.
Figure 9.17 Spectrogram with a 20 m chimney, i.e. 20 m periodic fault
Figure 9.18 Cut-length mass diagram of the same material as in the top spectrogram
Figure 9.19 Ideal base wave for the chimney at 20 m
The ideal base wave (Fig. 9.19) of the periodicity and an amplified
illustration of how the test materials corresponding mass variation would look
are drawn alongside the diagram. The spectrogram is used to check the test
material for any abnormally high periodic or systematic mass variations. In
most cases, those variations are due to dirty or defective cylinders or wrongly
set preparation and spinning machinery.
The source of the periodic fault can be located in a previous material
processing. In that case, the fault will be in a longer wavelength range, such
as in the above example.
9.4.8 Distinguishing disturbing periodic faults from

tolerable faults
Generally, the end use of a yarn or fibre compound has to be known in order to
predict which sizes and wavelengths of periodic yarn faults will be acceptable
and which disturbing. Nevertheless, there are some commonly used rules for
distinguishing severe or disturbing material faults from tolerable faults. An
example for analysis of seriousness of faults is shown in Fig. 9.20.
1. For wavelengths shorter than ~2 m: A peak 50% or more higher than
its surroundings can be regarded as disturbing.
2. For wavelengths longer than ~2 m: A peak double or more as high
than its surroundings can be regarded as disturbing.
Figure 9.20 Analysis of seriousness of periodic fault in spectrogram
If the height of the peak (P) above the basic spectrogram at any
wavelength equals or oversteps by 50% of the height of the basic spectrum at
that wavelength, then it can be considered to be sufficiently serious warranting
immediate corrective action i.e., in Fig. 9.20, if P > B/2 the fault is serious and
to be attended immediately. Other periodic faults may appear disturbing in
the spectrogram but will not affect the end product directly, such as chimneys
in card slivers. Nevertheless, it is important to pay attention to those cases
as well, since the faults can be a sign of deterioration of machinery. One
may save costs by intervening in time to avoid any damage to the respective
machinery parts.
9.4.9 Spectrograms with pronounced periodic faults

There are two types of spectrograms as far as the fault types are concerned.
They are chimney-type and hill-type spectrograms as shown in Fig. 9.21.
Figure 9.21 Types of spectrogram fault
A chimney-type spectrogram, consisting of one or more ‘peaks’ or

‘chimneys’, is normally due to a mechanical fault such as eccentric roller/
gear, improper meshing, missing of teeth in gear wheels etc. A hill-type
spectrogram, where several adjacent peaks are noticed, is normally due to
drafting waves caused by factors such as improper settings in the drafting
zone, improper pressure applied by the top rollers, too many short fibres in
the material, etc. The wavelength of the peak is specific in chimney. But in
hill-type fault the wavelength varies over a range.
Whenever there is an occurrence of a mechanical fault, it would result
in a shooting up of a particular channel in the spectrogram. However, not all
faults result in deterioration in the fabric quality. This is because, the extent
of influence of a periodic mass variation on the fabric quality is not only
dependent on the amplitude of the spectrogram peak but also on the width and
type of the woven fabric, type of fibre, yarn count, etc.
9.4.10 Neighbouring peaks in the spectrogram

The spectrogram consists of a limited number of channels. If a periodic fault
occurs at a wavelength which is exactly between two channels, then both the
channels will be actuated as shown in Fig. 9.22.
In such a case the height of the peaks are likely to be reduced. For analysis
on the seriousness of the fault, the heights of the individual peaks have to be
summed up and the total height should be taken into consideration.
Figure 9.22 Neighbouring peaks in a spectrogram
9.4.11 Shortening of the wavelengths of periodic faults

Defective and worn-out bearings at the spindles of ring spinning machines and
speed frames, eccentricities of such spindles, eccentricities between spindles
and flyers of the speed frame and eccentric running spinning bobbins lead to
periodic mass variations whose wavelengths correspond to the circumference
of the package produced. The peaks in the spectrogram move correspondingly
in the direction of the shorter wave-lengths, when the material is wound off
from the package. If, therefore, the peak moves to the “left” as material is
drawn-off from the package, this must refer to a fault as referred to above,
and cannot, for instance, have been produced by the drafting elements. Figure
9.23 shows a roving bobbin with a 12.5 cm outside diameter. The diameter of
the bobbin tube is 5 cm.
Figure 9.23 Effect of bobbin diameter on periodic fault
An eccentricity between the flyer and the bobbin has resulted in the fact
that, with a measurement of the full bobbin, a peak will appear at approx. 40
cm (12.5 × π = 40 cm), but with a measurement on a practically empty bobbin,
the peak will appear at approx. 16 cm (5 × π = 16 cm).
9.4.12 Effect of doubling on the height of spectrogram peaks

Two or more strands of material are combined to improve the regularity of the
mass along its length. Typical examples are the combing and drawing stages.
Any longitudinal strand of material is bound to have some mass variations
along its length. As a representation of the most popular situation and for
simplicity, let us assume that these variations are more or less sinusoidal in
nature. Consequently, every thick place is followed by a thin place and vice
versa. When such strands of material are combined, then one of the following
is likely to happen:
1. The thin places and the thick places of one strand may align perfectly
with the respective thin places and the thick places of the other
strands (Fig. 9.24); in such a case, the resulting periodic variation is
again sinusoidal but double in size. However, since the mass of the
sliver is also doubled, the spectrogram shows a periodic fault of the
same intensity and at the same wavelength as would be the case with
a single strand.
Figure 9.24 Effect of doubling on spectrogram when perfect matching of thick places
2. The thin and the thick places of the two strands are slightly offset
and as a result the periodic mass variations compensate each other;
in such a case, the resulting periodic variations become considerably
less significant when compared to those in the single strand
(Fig. 9.25).
Under normal practical situations, the probability of occurrence of the

first case is rare and the second case could be considered to be the normal
situation resulting in an improvement in the quality whenever doubling takes
place. The above aspect can be effectively applied in the combing process for
optimization of the parameters in order to achieve perfect staggering of the
piecing waves from the four or eight individual heads of the comber.
Figure 9.25 Effect of doubling on spectrogram when

compensation of thick and thin places
9.4.13 Influence of drafting on the wavelength of periodic

variations
A periodic fault which occurs at some stage in the spinning process is
lengthened by subsequent drafting in the next stage. The wavelength of the
periodic fault is multiplied by the total draft given from the source point to
the stage where the material is checked. This means that, if a fault is noticed
in the spectrogram at any stage, the source of the fault could either be in the
same machine or in the earlier stages and the exact source can be identified
with the help of the drafts in different stages. Let us consider an example
of a spinning process with the drawframe, speed frame and ring frame as
successive processing stages. The drafts these sudden stages are 8, 10 and 25,
respectively (Fig. 9.26).
Figure 9.26 Effect of drafting on periodic fault
In isolation, let us consider the situation of a periodic fault caused by the

eccentricity of front roller in a draw frame. If the diameter of the concerned
roller is 40 mm, then the eccentricity introduces a periodic fault with a
wavelength
λ1 = π × 4.0 = 12.56 cm
At the output of the fly frame, the wavelength of the above fault will be
increased by the draft at fly frames, i.e. the fault would occur at a wave length
λ2 = λ1 × 10 = 1.26 m
Similarly, to calculate the wavelength of this fault at the yarn stage, the
value is to be further multiplied by the draft given in the ring frames. Therefore
the fault would appear at a wavelength
λ3 = λ2 × 25 = 31.5 m
The resultant spectrograms at the three stages are represented in
Figs. 9.27–9.29.
Therefore, working backwards from the wavelength of faults at any
particular stage, the exact source of faults could be identified.
Figure 9.27 Spectrogram of draw frame sliver

Figure 9.28 Spectrogram of roving
Figure 9.29 Spectrogram of yarn
9.4.14 Effect of eccentric rollers
Figure 9.30 Effect of eccentric and oval rollers

A drafting roller which is eccentric affects the drafting process in a

known way. A periodic fault is introduced at the wavelength equal to the
circumference of the roller. So far, only eccentric-running rollers and spools
have been referred to where, for each full revolution, a periodic fault is
produced. Worn-out and badly ground rollers can also, however, be oval. In
this case, per full revolution of the roller, a faulty draft is produced twice.
Figure 9.30 shows the effect of an eccentric roller on the mass variation
of a fibre assembly. The eccentricity results in a sinusoidal mass variation
whereby one period L corresponds to a full circumference of the roller. With
one complete revolution of an oval roller, a sinusoidal mass variation also
results, but two periods occur.
Figure 9.31 Spectrogram of eccentric roller
Figure 9.32 Spectrogram of oval roller
If one assumes that this fault occurs at the front roller of a ring spinning
machine, then the following peaks will appear in the spectrogram. As can be
seen in Fig. 9.30, the rollers have a diameter of 25.4 mm. With an eccentric
roller (Fig. 9.31), the peak would appear in the spectrogram at a wavelength
equal to the circumference of the roller (2.54 × π = 8 cm), and with an oval
roller (Fig. 9.32) at half this circumference (½ × 2.54 × π = 4 cm).
9.4.15 Hill-type spectrogram

Unlike a true periodic defect, a drafting wave repeats over a range of several
wavelengths. Because of its nearly periodic nature, a drafting wave appears as
several wavelengths. A fault of this type leads to an increase in the spectrogram

at the corresponding wavelength range and not to a distinct peak.
Drafting waves can cause very serious thick and thin places that result
in poor yarn performance and unacceptable fabric appearance. In contrast
to the chimney-type periodic faults, which are caused mostly due to specific
mechanical defects of components, the hill-type faults are usually caused by
drafting waves which may result from raw material deficiencies or improperly
optimized draft zone parameters (swimming fibres) and in the range of
synthetic filament yarns, the nearly periodic vibration of the filaments in the
quench air duct (as a result of the cooling air). A spectrogram of this fault
group is shown in Fig. 9.33.
With staple fibres drafting waves are mostly known in cotton, as the short
fibres can only be guided inadequately in the draw box. Drafting waves do not
cause distinctive patterns in the end product, as shown for the periodic faults,
but produce more a “cloudy” appearance.
Figure 9.33 Hill-type of spectrogram
Depending on the origin of the faults, the wavelength varies. For a hill-
type fault, since the height of a number of channels increase simultaneously,
the channel with the maximum height (λmax) is taken for consideration for
identification of source. A defect in the drafting zone in any of the departments
introduces a hill-type fault with a λmax value equal to ‘K × Mean Fibre Length’.
The constant K varies depending on material type as given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Constant value drafting wave determination for different materials
Material K
Yarn 2.80
Roving 3.20
Sliver 3.50
For example, if λmax matches 3.5 times the mean fibre length, then the
problem is with the drafting zone in draw frames. The λmax of the hill-type
fault also gets extended by the drafts in subsequent stages as in the case of
chimney-type faults.
Example:
During the spinning process of carded cotton, drafting waves caused by
“swimming” fibres are produced in the main drafting area of both the speed
frame and the ring spinning machine. At which wavelength will these faults
be indicated in the spectrogram?
Overall draft at the ring spinning machine: 23.5
Mean fibre length lW = 2.2 cm
Wave length of the drafting waves coming from the ring spinning
machine:
λv1 = 2.8 × lW = 2.8 × 2.2 = 6 cm
Wavelength of the drafting waves which result from the drafting elements
of the speed frame:
λv2 = 3.2 × 2.2 × 23.5 = 1.65 m
These two drafting waves are shown schematically in Fig. 9.34.
Figure 9.34 Hill-type spectrogram of the resultant yarn
9.4.16 Influence of the sporadically occurring periodic

faults on the spectrogram
In the textile industry, various types of mass variations will occur which can
only be considered as periodic during a certain period of time. Faults of this
type are produced by vibrations transmitted through the machine supports
which appear from time to time and then disappear. Furthermore, with a given
speed and a certain number of windings (resonance), a non-circular rotation
of the package will also produce strong periodic mass variations. This type
of fault also results in a quite distinct peak in the spectrogram, whereby the
height of this peak is approx. the mean value of the periodic mass variation
with respect to the period of time being considered. A fault of this type can be
seen in Fig. 9.35.
Figure 9.35 Sporadically occurring periodic faults
The diagram begins with a normal irregularity. At about 200 m a periodic

mass variation occurs which disappears later on.
9.4.17 Harmonics
In many cases, a single periodic material fault produces multiple peaks.
Multiple peaks are the result of a periodic yarn mass variation which is not
evenly shaped, i.e. not sine-shaped. The reason for the appearance of multiple
chimneys lies in the behaviour of wave signals. Mathematically, it is complex
(Fourier transformation), but graphically, it becomes quite evident.
Figure 9.36 Behaviour of base sine waves for the formation of harmonics
Illustration of how a new wave shape (in this case a square wave) is
created by adding sine waves of the base wavelength λ and further shorter
wavelengths (harmonics of λ) of decreasing amplitudes is shown in Fig. 9.36.
But, the rectangular waveform is not actually prevalent in textile practice.
A multiple periodic fault consists of a base wavelength and of so-called
harmonic wavelengths. The harmonics are usually to be found at factor
1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc., of the base wavelength. Multiple periodic faults may be
difficult to recognize on the diagram chart, but they are easily visible on the
spectrogram.
When analyzing the periodic variation drawn with the bold line
(Fig. 9.37), besides the basic wave A1 (wavelength λ), there are upper
harmonics A2 and A3 (λ/2, A λ/3). Thus, there are upper harmonics in the
spectrogram which will be in an integral relationship to the basic wave
(Fig. 9.38).
Figure 9.37 Periodic variation with harmonics in yarn assembly
Figure 9.38 Harmonics and corresponding yarn appearance

Whenever harmonics are shown in the spectrogram, if the action is taken

for the fundamental wavelength then the harmonics also will be taken care of.
9.4.18 Common periodic fault types in textile practice

The signal shape of each of the above examples is contained in the mass
diagram, but most often the shape is hardly visible or not visible at all. In
a normal diagram, the length scale is too large to see short variations. Also,
the high amount of random diagram peaks covers up the wave shape of the
periodic fault. In some cases, such as with very short periodic pulses, the fault
would be visible in the diagram as high signal peaks, and the material itself
would contain regularly appearing thick places which would clearly stand
out. The periodic faults commonly occurring in textile materials are given in
Fig. 9.39.
Figure 9.39 Common periodic faults in textile materials

9.4.19 Influence of periodic mass variations on woven

and knitted fabric
In each case according to the width of the woven or knitted material and
according to the wavelength of the periodic fault, thick or thin places can
appear at regular intervals in woven and knitted fabrics. These result in an
unacceptable patterning and, in many cases, downgraded finished fabric. In
warp it gives streaky appearance and in weft diamond and block bars can arise
in case of shuttle weaving machines. The conditions for diamond bars:
W = (R + x) × λ
Where, λ = Wave length of periodic variation
R = An integral multiple of ½
x = Value less than ¼
This means, to cause a “diamond bar” a weft must have a periodic
variation whose wave length is less than twice the fabric width.
λ < 2W
Figure 9.40 Effect of periodic variation in shuttle loom fabric

For example, if the effective cloth width of a certain fabric is 15” and
that the weft has a periodic variation with a wavelength of 18” i.e. 9” sections
of thick and thin places. Figures 9.40 and 9.41 are the representation of the
way in which weft could position itself in the fabric in case of shuttle and
shuttleless loom fabrics respectively.
Figure 9.41 Effect of periodic variation in shuttleless loom fabric
Figure 9.42 shows three possible fault patterns in a woven or knitted

material caused by periodic mass variations.
Figure 9.42 Fault patterns in fabric due to periodic variation in yarn

The fault patterning referred to as Moiré is the most frequent, whereas

the other two patterns are exceptional cases. Nearly periodic faults result
in an uneven appearance in the finished fabric. One speaks in this case of
“cloudiness”. The type of disturbance, whether in a woven or knitted fabric,
is dependent primarily on the wavelength λ of the fault; in this respect,
one differentiates between short-, medium- and long-term periodic mass
variations.
9.4.19.1 Short-term periodic mass variations (λ = 1–50 cm)
Periodic mass variations in the range of 1–50 cm are normally repeated a
number of times within the woven or knitted fabric width, which results in
the fact that periodic thick places or thin places will lie near to each other.
This produces, in most cases, a Moiré effect as shown in figure. This effect is
particularly intensive for the naked eye if the finished product is observed at a
distance of approx. 50 cm to 1 m.
9.4.19.2 Medium-term periodic mass variations (λ = 50 cm to 5 m)
Periodic mass variations in the range 50 cm to 5 m are not recognizable in
every case. Faults in this range are particularly effective if the single of double
weave width, or the length of the stretched out yarn for one circumference
of the knitted fabric, is an integral number of wavelengths of the periodic
fault, or is near to an integral number of wavelengths. In such cases, it is to
be expected that weft stripes will appear in the woven fabric or “rings” in the
knitted fabric.
9.4.19.3 Long-term periodic mass variations (λ = longer than 5 m)
Periodic mass variations with wavelengths longer than 5 m can result in quite
distinct cross-stripes in woven and knitted fabrics, because the wavelength of
the periodic fault is longer than the weave width or the circumference of the
knitted fabric.
9.4.20 Finding the source of periodic faults in spectrogram

Every genuine periodic fault (chimney) visible in the spectrogram has its
origin in the production machinery. An exception to that rule can be a periodic
fault due to material handling, for example the scraping of a roving bobbin
surface, etc. When searching the origin of the periodicity, the first step is
to remember that the fault is caused by a moving machine part, usually a
rotating one. It can be directly touching the material (rollers, coiling, etc.)
or in the machine drive (gears, pulleys, etc.). If the part is running smooth
and perfectly uniform, it will not cause any periodic faults, of course. If it is
running irregularly and/or has an uneven surface, the same uneven points of
the rotating part will periodically produce a fault in the material passing out
of it once per revolution, i.e. once per its circumference.
Example (Fig. 9.43):
Figure 9.43 Periodic fault in yarn due to eccentric front roller
In the above example, the circumference of the top roller would have to
be approximately 7.7 cm ÷ π = 7.7 cm ÷ 3.14 = 2.45 cm = 24.5 mm. Normally,
a top roller in a cotton drafting system has an initial diameter of around 27
mm. Probably, the spinning contraction and/or repeated grinding of the roller
surface are responsible for the slight difference between the theoretical and
the actual roller diameter.
9.4.20.1 Systematic fault search
A good method to find the faulty part causing a periodic mass variation, visible
as one chimney or an array of chimneys in the spectrogram, is following
procedure:
1. Divide the chimney’s wavelength (λ) by π.
If there are multiple chimneys, check if they belong together by looking for
ratios of λ/2, λ/3, λ/4, etc. Then divide the main wavelength λ, the furthermost
right one, by π.
2. Check if the result corresponds to any diameter of a moving part touching

the material directly at the output of the machine.
If there is a part with such a diameter, then it is probably the faulty element. If
the result of λ/π is much larger than any diameter at the output, continue with
step 3. If λ/π is smaller or only slightly larger than any diameter at the output,
go to step 4.
3. Divide the result λ/π by the drafting ratios present in the machine(s) until
finding the diameter of a part touching the material further back in the
machine or in a previous passage.
If there is a part with such a diameter, then it is probably the faulty element. If
no such part can be found, continue with step 4.
4. Look for a possibly faulty part in the machine’s drive: Using the correct
gear plan, calculate the gear ratios backwards from the delivery cylinder of
the machine.
When a gear ratio is found that, when multiplied by λ/π, results in the diameter
of the delivery cylinder, then one has probably found the faulty area in the
machine drive. In a machine with several deliveries or spindles, gear faults
will usually produce the same chimney height on all samples taken from a
machine at the same time.
λchimney = Diameter × π × Draft ratio
λchimney
or Diamter =
π × Draft ratio
For gear faults: λchimney = Diameter × π × Gear ratio
For certain types of machines such as cards or very complex gear boxes,
it can be necessary to use an auxiliary method to find the fault source:
A faulty (rotating) part can be searched in a machine while it is running,
by flashing onto the suspected fault source with a stroboscope. This auxiliary
method is not generally recommended because of the danger involved when
searching a fault on a running machine!
Instead, where available, the RPM (rotations per minute) displays of the
machine should be read.
Out speed [m/min]
Auxiliary general formal: λchimney =
RPMfaulty element [1/min]
9.4.20.2 Calculation examples of periodic faults originating in drafting

systems (Fig. 9.44)
Figure 9.44 Example for analysis of spectrogram
(1) Yarn Spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 8.2 cm (Fig. 9.45):
Figure 9.45 Yarn spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 8.2 cm
Diameter d = λ ÷ π = 8.2 cm ÷ 3.14

= 2.61 cm ≈ 26 mm
= Diameter of exit top roller of ring frame
(2) Yarn Spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 3.6 m (Fig. 9.46)
Figure 9.46 Yarn spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 3.6 m

Diameter d = λ ÷ π ÷ draft factor

= 360 cm ÷ 3.14 ÷ main draft (30) = 3.82 cm
• No such part exists in the middle of the ring frame’s drafting system.
3.82 cm ÷ break draft (1.2) = 3.18 cm
• No such part exists at the entry of the ring frame’s drafting system or
the exit of the roving frame’s drafting system.
Solution: 360 cm ÷ main draft (30) = 12 cm
= apron length L of cracked apron (the apron length is already a
circumference).
(a) Diameter d = λ ÷ π ÷ draft factor

= 290 cm ÷ 3.14 ÷ main draft (30) = 3.08 cm
(b) 3.08 cm ÷ break draft = 3.08 cm ÷ 1.2 = 2.57 cm ≈ 26 mm
= diameter of top input roller of ring frame
(a) Diameter d = λ ÷ π ÷ draft factor = 340 cm ÷ 3.14 ÷ main draft (30) =

3.61 cm
(b) 3.61 cm ÷ break draft = 3.61 cm ÷ 1.2 = 3.01 cm ≈ 30 mm = diameter
of top exit roller of roving frame
(5) Yarn Spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 32 m (Fig. 9.49)
Figure 9.49 Yarn spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 32 m
(a) Diameter d = λ ÷ π ÷ draft factor

= 3200 cm ÷ 3.14 ÷ total draft ring frame (36) = 28.31 cm
• No such part exists at the entry of the ring frame’s drafting system
or the exit of the roving frame’s drafting system.
(b) 28.31 cm ÷ total draft roving frame (8) = 3.54 cm ≈ 35 mm
= diameter of top exit roller of drawframe
9.4.20.3 Calculation example of a periodic fault caused in the

machine’s gear sector (Fig. 9.50)
Figure 9.50 Gearing diagram of machine

(1) Spectrogram with chimney at λ = 3 cm (Fig. 9.51)
Figure 9.51 Yarn Spectrogram chimney at λ ≈ 3 cm
Calculation:
(1) Diameter λ1 = πd = 2.54 cm × 3.14 = 7.97 cm
• The wavelength produced by the gear 85T is also 0.96 cm. since it
is fixed in the shaft of the roller.
(2) Wavelength corresponding to 160T gear wheel
No. of teeth in driving gear ( or wheel diameter of driving roller )
λ2 = × Wavelength
No. of teeth in driven gear ( or wheel diameter of driven roller )
160
× 7.97 λ2 =
85
= 15 cm
(3) Wavelength corresponding to 32T and 140T gear wheel
32
× 15 λ3 =
160
= 3 cm
(4) Wavelength corresponding to 100T and 35T gear wheel
100
×3 λ4 =
140
= 2.14 cm
Solution: The fault’s origin is the 32-tooth gear or it is on the same axis
than that gear.
Note: If a yarn spectrogram periodicity such as above is at a very short
wavelength, it is quite possible that the fault is generated in the machine’s gear
sector. The fault would then be apparent on all samples tested from the same
machine side. Of course, gear faults can also be of longer wavelengths than
the shaft diameter × π.
9.4.20.4 Drafting faults

Another type of irregularity which is clearly visible in spectrograms is a
drafting fault. It is an exaggerated crest (hill) which results from poor fibre
control in a drafting zone.
Example of the origin of drafting faults (Fig. 9.52):
Figure 9.52 Yarn Spectrogram hill-type fault
Spectrogram of a ring-spun yarn with typical pointed crests resulting

from both bad pre- and main draft settings. The main draft factor is the ratio
of the 2 wavelengths at the hill crests: 1 m 15 cm: 6.5 cm ≈ draft factor 17.7
Drafting faults are created and influenced by non-optimal settings of one
or several of the following factors:
• Gauge distance between the drafting rollers (Nip)
• Roller pressure
• State of the roller’s surfaces
• Humidity of material and surrounding climate
When searching to eliminate drafting faults, one would look for the main
cause in one of those factors first. In many cases though, a compromise has to
be found, since certain materials are more critical. Example: Combed cotton
drawframe slivers, where the fibres are highly parallel and thus slippery and
difficult to draft optimally at a reasonable speed.
A drafting fault hill is to be found at a wavelength of about 2.8 × Average

fibre length. If the drafting fault hill does not lie around 2.8 × Average fibre
length, one has to divide the wavelength λ of the hill crest by 2.8 × Average
fibre length in order to get the approximate draft factor back to the origin of
the fault.
λ hill crest
Draft ratio =
2.8 × Average fiber length
Examples of drafting faults originating in different process stages

(Fig. 9.53)
Figure 9.53 Example for analyses of hill-type faults
Drafting faults originating in (1) the main draft zone of the ring frame
(pressure set too low) and (2) the break draft zone of the finisher drawframe
(gauge open too wide)
1. Yarn Spectrogram showing a drafting fault at λ ≈ 6 cm (Fig. 9.54)
Figure 9.54 Yarn spectrogram with hill at λ ≈ 6 cm
Average fibre length ≈ 6 cm ÷ 2.8 ≈ 2.14 cm = 21.4 mm. In this case,

the draft factor is 1, since the main draft of the ring frame output is
bad.
2. (a) Sliver Spectrogram of the same material lot as the yarn with
drafting fault at λ ≈ 32 cm (Fig. 9.55)
Figure 9.55 Yarn spectrogram with hill at λ ≈ 32 cm
Draft from faulty zone to sliver:

Draft factor ≈ λ ÷ (2.8 × average fibre length)
= 2 cm ÷ (2.8 × 22 mm)
= 32 cm ÷ 6.16 cm = 5.19 ≈ 5.22
• The calculated draft nearly coincides with the draw frame’s
main draft; therefore the fault lies in the break draft zone.
2. (b) Yarn Spectrogram showing a drafting fault at λ ≈ 90 m
(Fig. 9.56)
Figure 9.56 Yarn spectrogram with hill at λ ≈ 90 m
Draft from faulty zone to sliver:

Draft factor ≈ λ ÷ (2.8 × average fibre length)
= 90 m ÷ (2.8 × 22 mm) = 9000 cm ÷ 6.16 cm
= 1460 ≈ [36 × 8 × 5.22 = 1503]
The calculated draft nearly coincides with the draft factor from the ring
frame output back to the middle of the draw frame’s drafting system. The
factor is [Total draft ring frame × Total draft roving frame × Main draft
drawframe]. Therefore, the fault lies in the finisher draw frame’s break draft
zone.
9.4.21 Special spectrogram faults

In some cases, there are chimneys and hills in the spectrogram which come
from causes other than the classical ones described in the previous pages. The
following cases are some of the most common types of additional faults found
in staple spinning:
9.4.21.1 Coiler periodicity
When the sliver is led into the can, it is wound like a coil. At the part of
the lay toward the centre of the can, the sliver is twisted by overturning
(Fig. 9.57). This twist shortens the sliver and increases the cross section
temporarily. The longer the sliver is fed into a can, the greater the pressure
becomes. In this way, the twist is retained and remains in the sliver even
after it is taken away from the can. Periodic thick places thus produced
are detected with the spectrograph and are drawn as a strong peak in the
spectrogram. Such variations are not sinusoidal and so the second and third
upper harmonics will appear in many cases. The can effect is reduced in the
subsequent process and the fault will disappear. A fault like this, therefore,
is a false periodic variation.
Figure 9.57 Periodic fault due to sliver coiling
If a faulty coiler head rotation is provided, a periodic fault whose

periodicity corresponds to the circumference of a coil is produced as shown
in Fig. 9.58. The fault thus produced is a real periodic variation. In order to
obtain correct measured results, it is recommended that the sliver be directly
taken from the machine for testing, without feeding into the can, or carryout
the test after the subsequent process to give drafts in those areas.
Example:
A coiler period in a sliver is often not regarded as a serious fault, since
in most cases it will vanish after the next processing stage, i.e. roving (or
finishing). Often, the coiler period is due to a moisture difference between the
material exposed to air in the middle of the can and the stacked layers of sliver
windings which cover each other.
If that is the case, it is recommended to test a can directly from the machine
with as little delay as possible. Bad coiler periods however, which are due to
truly defective sliver coilers, will be visible as long wavelength periods in the
spectrograms of the subsequent processing stages.
Figure 9.58 Sliver spectrogram with a coiler periodicity chimney;

λ = each winding of the can sliver
9.4.21.2 Protection twist periodicity

In a roving frame, a certain twist is given to the roving in order to protect the
fibres from slipping apart. If the twist is too hard, the material becomes harder
to draft evenly, and the above twist periodicity can occur. If the twist is too
soft, the fibres fray open easily and tend to form more fly in ring spinning and
laps on rollers.
Even when the roving twist is optimal, certain machine settings can
worsen the twist periodicity, such as the roving frame twisting tension, the
ring frame roller pressure and apron pressure, the type of apron distance
plates, etc. These settings can also influence the amount of long thick and thin
places in the yarn.
Example: (Figs. 9.59 and 9.60)
Figure 9.59 Yarn spectrogram with roving periodicity chimney at λ ≈ 44 cm

Figure 9.60 Roving with a twist length of 1.2 cm
λ roving period = Roving twist length [cm] × Total draft ring frame
= 1.2 cm × 36 = 43.2 cm ≈ 44 cm (Fig. 9.43)
Where twist length [cm] = 100 ÷ twist /m or 2.54 ÷ twist/inch
9.4.21.3 Faults caused by autolevellers (Figs. 9.61 and 9.62)
Figure 9.61 Autoleveller in draw frame
Figure 9.62 Drawframe sliver spectrogram with draft-type fault at λ ≈ 35 cm

Often, spectrogram faults due to a badly adjusted autoleveller have

a nearly identical shape and wavelength range as draft faults as shown in
Fig. 9.62.
9.4.21.4 Comber periodicity
In combing machines, the fibres are soldered, i.e. joined together periodically
at a certain length interval. If the adjustments at each combing position and
on the machine table are not optimal, a strong periodic fault can arise due to
the soldering.
Example (Figs. 9.63 and 9.64):
Qty. of laps = 8
Lap = 64.0 kTex
Soldering = 4.0 mm
Table sliver = 4.0 kTex
Output sliver = 4.5 kTex
Figure 9.63 Comber machine parameters
Figure 9.64 Comber spectrogram with a chimney at λ ≈ 45 cm

Calculation example:
λ combing period = S
oldering length × Draft lap to table × Draft table to
output sliver
= 0.4 cm × (64 kTex ÷ 4 kTex) × (4 kTex × 8 ÷ 4.5 kTex)
= 45.51 cm ≈ 45 cm
9.4.21.5 Card faults

In a modern short-staple or worsted spinning mill, card spectrogram faults
will not be visible anymore at the end of the preparation line, i.e. after the
output of autoleveler draw frames. Nevertheless, it is important to search the
source of any chimneys or high areas in those spectrograms, which can be
due to mechanical misalignment or dirty elements. In such cases, secondary
negative effects such as fibre damage or an increased amount of neps and
impurities in the output sliver can be the result.
When searching spectrogram faults in cards, it is not necessary to search
the diameters and draft ratios of the carding elements in the calculation. The
cylinder, doffer, etc., which run with different surface speeds and fibre material
density on them, do not actually draft the material in the conventional sense.
Out speed [m/min]
The formula used in this case is: λcard chimney =
RPMfaulty element [1/min]
In modern cards, the output speed and RPM indication of the important
carding elements can be read off a display.
Output speed = 80 m/min
Doffer RPM = 1300 1/min
Cylinder RPM = 450 1/min
Licker-in RPM = 850 1/min
Example (Figs. 9.65 and 9.66):
Figure 9.65 Carding machine parameters

Figure 9.66 Card sliver spectrogram with periodic fault at λ ≈ 18 cm
λ = Output speed ÷ RPM

= 80 m/min ÷ 450 m/min
= 0.177 m
= 17.7 cm ≈ 18 cm
• The cylinder drum is the cause of the spectrogram chimney and would
have to be checked.
9.5 Variance-length curve

The coefficient of variation at different cut lengths provided by the evenness
testers provides invaluable information with regard to the variations prevalent
at the specific cut lengths. Therefore independently, the short-, medium- and
long-term variations could be studied by estimating the coefficient of variation
of the required cut length. However, such numerical values cannot directly
provide complete information on the source of faults. The spectrogram
provides a possibility of localizing the source of fault but with a spectrogram,
only faults of periodic nature could be identified and that too, in most cases,
only if proceeded by some other means of identifying the machine/processing
stage responsible for the fault.
When the variations prevailing at different cut lengths are simultaneously
represented graphically, it provides the possibility of segregating cut lengths
at which abnormal variations occur and consequently identify the process
stage which is most likely to be responsible. This is made possible by the
‘variance-length curve’ which is a standard feature of most evenness testers.
9.5.1 The variance-length curve

In simple terms, a ‘variance-length curve’ is a graphical representation
of the coefficient of variation (CV%) against the reference cut length. The
representation is explained with a simple hypothetical example as shown in
Fig. 9.67.
Figure 9.67 Representation of different cut lengths
Consider a longitudinal strand of fibres cut up into several equal segments

of length l1. For purposes of explanation let us further assume that the length of
the segment corresponds to the measuring field length of the evenness tester.
Ideally, for obtaining mass variations at different cut lengths, the measuring
field length should be increased. For construction reasons, it is not possible to
physically lengthen the measuring field of the evenness tester beyond a certain
length. Therefore, the extension of the measuring field has to be simulated by
the instrument according to electronic means. For constructing the variance-
length curve, the measuring field length is taken as the basic cut length at
which the CV is calculated and plotted. For variations at other cut lengths, the
mass of successive portion of material are added up and the CV calculated.
Figure 9.68 A typical variance-length curve
Accordingly, referring to Fig. 9.67, the variations of mass at cut length

l2 is estimated by summing up the mass values of two successive portions of
material with length l1 and calculating the coefficient of variation. Similarly
CV of mass at cut length l3 would be estimated by summing up the mass

values of 4 successive l1 lengths of material or 2 successive l2 lengths of
material and calculating the CV. When all these CV values are plotted against
their respective cut lengths, we get the variance-length curve as in Fig. 9.68.
9.5.2 The shape of a variance-length curve

The shape of a typical variance-length curve can be explained as follows. A
typical yarn exhibits variations in mass from the mean value. Such deviations
will be present both on the positive as well as the negative side of the average
mass value. These variations are more intensive at shorter cut lengths when
compared to longer cut lengths. At longer cut lengths, the variations on the
positive and the negative side tend to even out to a certain extent resulting in
lower values for the CV%. The decreasing trend when drawn out on double
logarithmic paper results in a straight line.
A variance-length curve can be set out in quite a simple manner by cutting
a fibre assembly into pieces and determining gravimetrically the mass of these
pieces. The CV value is then calculated from each of these separate values. If
this procedure is repeated for various cut lengths and the CV value drawn out,
one obtains the variance-length curve.
Figure 9.69 Variance-length curve as determined by cutting and weighing (draw)
The figure shows the variance-length curve of a good yarn, when printed
out on a double logarithmic scale, results in a straight line (Fig. 9.69). One can
easily comprehend that the curve for the same raw material and same ideal
processing conditions will always be a straight line with an unchanged angle
φ of inclination. Deviations from the straight lines must therefore indicate
problems caused by the machine or the raw material.
Strictly speaking, the variance-length curve is a straight line on double

logarithmic paper only in the medium length range of approx. 1 cm to 100 m.
For cut lengths longer than 100 m, the variance-length curve tends to become
flatter. This is because, as the cut length becomes longer and longer, the short-
term variations compensate each other more and more, and the difference
between successive lengths will be dependant only on the intensity of long-
term variations.
9.5.3 Identification of a faulty yarn

The explanation given in the earlier sections makes it clear that the variance-
length curve for an ideal fault-free yarn would be a straight line. When a yarn
becomes faulty either due to an inferior raw material or due to improperly
optimized process or due to faulty machinery then the coefficient of variation
becomes higher at cut lengths corresponding to the source of the fault.
Therefore the variance-length curve of a yarn with faults always lies above
the curve for the ideal fault-free yarn (Fig. 9.70).
Figure 9.70 Ideal and faulty V-L curve
The point of maximum deviation from the ideal yarn represents the most
serious fault, and the source of such faults can be detected from the cut lengths
at which the maximum deviation occurs.
9.5.4 Three-dimensional variance-length curves

Different levels of long-term mass variation, which are also clearly visible
in the corresponding cut-length diagrams, appear as different inclinations of
the variance-length curves. In a variance-length curve array it is very easy to

spot exceptional samples. In the case of normal diagrams, such differences are
hardly visible. In spectrograms, faults such as in the above example are also
not visible because the origins are non-periodic mass variations.
With the evenness tester, a three-dimensional variance-length curve of a
whole measuring series can be presented (Fig. 9.71). This makes it possible to
compare all variance-length curves of one measuring series with each other.
Bobbins, which are differ from each other, like for example bobbin 1/3 in
figure, are thus quite easy to recognize.
Figure 9.71 Three-dimensional variance-length curve (grey image)
9.5.5 Location of sources of deviation

A fault created at any process stage creates higher CV values at longer cut
lengths. The cut length at which the maximum deviation occurs depends on
the stage at which the fault originates since subsequent drafting increases
the cut length at which the deviations are noticed. This provides us with the
possibility of identifying the process stage creating the variations.
For this purpose, the cut length ranges corresponding to the various
departments should be identified. This is done by the following procedure.
First, an initial cut length needs to be calculated. This is done by using the
following formula:
Initial Cut Length l (cm) = Mean fibre length × K
where K is given by 1 + CV2 (where CV – Coefficient of variation of fibre
length) and approximates to 1.18 for Cotton and 1.27 for wool and 1.00 for
synthetic fibres.
If the mean fibre length is not available, it can be estimated from the
spectrogram, since the highest point of a spectrogram is given by
λmax = l × 2.82 (where, l – Mean Fibre Length)
lmax
Consequently l =
2.82
Now, once the initial cut length l is calculated, the cut length range of the
various process stages can be easily calculated. Let us assume that, in a cotton
spinning mill, yarn is produced with draft D in different processing stages as
per the following Fig. 9.72.
Figure 9.72 Draft distribution in a spinning mill
Assuming a mean fibre length of 2.5 cm,

Initial cut length l (cm) = 2.5´1.18 = 2.95 cm
Cut Length range of the speed frame = l × D4 = 2.95 × 30 = 88.50 cm
Cut Length range of the 2nd draw frame = l × D4 × D3
= 2.95 × 30 × 10 = 8.85 m
Cut Length range of the 1st draw frame = l × D4 × D3 × D2
= 2.95 × 30 × 10 × 6 = 53.1 m
Cut Length range of the card = l × D4 × D3 × D2 × D1
= 2.95 × 30 × 10 × 6 × 8 = 424.8 m
Figure 9.73 Variance-length curve showing a faulty roving process

Now all these cut length ranges can be located on the V-L curve to
indicate the cut length range of the individual process. When a deviation in
the variance-length curve is noticed, by identifying the cut length at which the
maximum deviation occurs, the department responsible for the variation can
be identified. The variance-length curve corresponding to the example given
above is shown in Fig. 9.73.
It is quite clearly recognizable that the variance-length curve deviates
from an ideal curve in the cut length ranges of the speed frame. Having
identified the department, the next step is to locate the actual cause of the fault
by analyzing the numerical and graphical results at the speed frame stage.
9.6 Deviation rate

The deviation rate was developed in Japan by the Japan Spinner’s Inspecting
Foundation. Especially spinners supplying Japanese mills are often forced
to provide the deviation rate in their reports. The DR describes by what
percentage a mass deviation exceeds or falls below a certain limit. The cut
length factor (in m) averages out the shorter, higher deviations.
9.6.1 Definition of deviation rate (DR)

DR= total relative length in (%) of all deviations of the mass signal which
surpass the limit ± x% over a total test length of L meters, with the cut length
of the curve being y meters (Fig. 9.74).
The standard DR used for yarns is 1.5 m cut length t a ±5% limit. The
application of the DR is similar to that of the CVm values. One has to take
into consideration that the DR is based on threshold values and changes more
significantly than CV values when higher mass deviations over long stretches
of test material arise.
Figure 9.74 Determination of deviation rate

Formula:
(L1 + L 2 + .... + L n ) ×100
DR(xy) =
Llot
DR(x, y) = ∑ i × 100%
l

L tot
The Deviation Rate is calculated by comparing all the deviations of

the positive range with the whole test length Ltot. The same is valid for all
deviations in the negative range. As the zero-line corresponds to the median,
the Deviation Rate can reach a maximum of 50%.
9.6.2 DR curves (Fig. 9.75)

The DR curves are actually mass histograms with a single-logarithmic scale.
If the scale were linear, the outermost curve would have the same bell-shape
as a normal mass histogram. The logarithmic scale permits a closer look at the
larger deviations. The outermost curve always represents the deviations of the
cut length 1 cm. The cut lengths of the inner curves, which are the cut lengths
set in the Uster Tester.
At 0% mass deviation (horizontal scale) the deviation rate is always 50%
(vertical scale), since 50% of the entire measured material length is below and
50% above the average value.
Figure 9.75 DR Curves of cut lengths “-“(=normal)/ 0.1 m / 1.5 m / 10 m
The vertical extent of the inner curves depends on the tested yarn length:
Within a yarn test of 1000 m, there are a maximum of 100 pieces of 10 m
samples. That means that the resolution of the cut length 10 m (the innermost
curve in the above example) can be maximum 1/100 = 1% on the vertical

scale.
With the normal cut length of 1 cm (outermost curve) 1% of the total
yarn length (vertical length) surpasses +40% mass increase (horizontal scale).
In other words: 1% of all 1 cm pieces are 40% heavier than the average yarn
weight.
With a cut length of 1.5 m (2nd curve from inside), 2% of the total yarn
length (vertical scale) surpasses +9% mass increase (horizontal scale), i.e. 2%
of all 1.5 m pieces are 9% heavier than the average yarn weight.
9.6.2.1 Interpretation of the DR curves
Just as in the histogram, the narrower and more symmetrical the DR curves,
the evener the material. The angle between the outer and inner DR curves
changes in accordance with the degree of long-term irregularity.
The DR curves can be regarded as an alternative report to the LVC (length-
variance curves), since both curve types indicate the degree of the material’s
variations over greater lengths. For comparisons between sub-samples, it is
advisable to use the LVC curve reports (combined graph of all sub-samples),
since exceptions are more clearly visible there.
9.6.2.2 Achievable level of DR ratio as per SITRA
DR% = (3.56 × Micronaire + 2.79 × SFC(w) % + 0.43 × Ring Frame Draft +

0.744 × Spindle Speed (RPM) + 0.218 × Count(Ne)) – 47.3
9.6.3 Influencing factors of DR ratio

1. Higher SFC(w) in combed Sliver, higher DR ratio
2. In coarser count, the effect of SFC(w) is more than finer count
3. Finer the fibres, lesser DR ratio
4. Higher the draft, higher DR ratio in all counts
5. Higher spindle speed, higher DR ratio
9.6.4 Significance of DR ratio%

Higher the DR ratio, poorer is the fabric appearance.
9.6.5 Guidelines for DR% as per SITRA Norms (Table 9.2)
Table 9.2 Guideline for DR%
Count 5% Level 25% Level 50% Level

20’S 11.5 13.0 16.0
30’S 13.0 16.0 17.5
40’S 14.0 18.0 19.0
60’S 14.5 18.0 19.5
80’S 16.0 18.5 21.0
100’S 17.0 19.5 21.5
9.7 Histogram of mass variations

The histogram is a distribution diagram of the mass variation. It shows in
condensed graphical form information on all measured mass deviations over
the whole test length. Graphic illustration of the relation between diagram and
histogram is shown in Fig. 9.76.
Figure 9.76 Relationship between histogram and diagram

Each measuring point on the diagram is one value which is transferred

horizontally to the histogram. Each individual scan point in the diagram
represents one value in the histogram, at the same deviation relative to the
average value 0% on the diagram.
9.7.1 Application
Mass deviations are approximately normally distributed. Deviations of the
histograms compared to normal distribution indicate disturbances in the
manufacturing process (asymmetrical distributions, two-peaked distributions,
etc.) especially in the production of filament yarns, histograms react very
quickly to changes in the production process.
9.8 References
1. Amin A. E., El-Geheni A. S. and El-Hawary I. A., El-Beali R. A. (2007). Detecting
the fault from spectrograms by using genetic algorithm techniques, AUTEX Research
Journal, 7, p.81.
2. Application handbook for evenness testers of the Uster type; Determination of
periodic mass variations (spectrum).
3. Balasubramanian, N. (1963). Contribution to the Study of the B−L Curve of Cotton
Yarns, Textile Research Journal, 33, p.697.
4. Balasubramanian, N. (1969). A Study of the Irregularities Added in Apron Drafting,
Textile Research Journal, 39, p.155.
5. Bandyopodhyay, S.B., Guha, S.R., and Bhattacharji, S.S. (1956). Variance-Length
Curves for Jute Yarns, Fibres, 17, p.198.
6. Booth, J.E. (1996). Principle of Textile Testing, A Butterworths Publication.
7. Foster, G.A (1950). Causes of the irregularity of cotton yarns, Journal of Textile
Manchester.
9. Further R (1982). Evenness testing in yarn production: Part II, The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
10. Garde A. R. and Subramanian T. A. (1978). Process Control in Cotton Spinning, 2nd
11. Jain, A.K., Das, D.K. and Ray, P.K. (1985). A Microprocessor-Based System for
Obtaining Variance-Length Curves of Jute Yarns, Textile Research Journal, 55, p.372.
12. John D. Tallant and Myles A. Patureau (1968). Harmonic Response of the Uster
Spectrograph, Textile Research Journal, 38, p.208.
14. Mishu I. Zeidman, Moon W. Suh and Subhash K. Batra. (1990). A New Perspective
on Yarn Unevenness: Components and Determinants of General unevenness, Textile
15. Nienhuis, W. A. (1963). A Simple Method for Determining the CB(L) Curve by
Cutting and Weighing, Journal of Textile Institute, 54, p.353.
16. Nute, M. E., Pelton, W. R., and Slater, K. (1972). The Variance Between Ultra-short
Lengths of Yams, Journal of Textile Institute, 63, 212.
17. Operation manual, Rieter spinning system, Drawframe RSB 851.
18. Pelton, W.R., and Slater, K. (1973). A comparison of Variance-Length curves derived
by different methods, Journal of Textile Institute, 64, p.454.
19. Premier-Evolvics, Evenness Testing- Application handbook, Premier Publication,
2002.
Coimbatore.
21. Robert Williams and Donald W. Lyons (1977). Dynamic Response Characteristics of
the Uster Evenness Transducer, Textile Research Journal, 47, p.9
22. Slater, K. (1986). Yarn Evenness, Textile Progress, 14, No. 3/4.
23. Tottman, J.A., ans Slater, K. (1981). The use of microcomputers in deriving variance
–length curves, Journal of Textile Institute, 72, p.103.
24. Uster Application hand book, Evenness Testing, Uster publication, Zellweger Uster.
25. Van Zwet, C. J. (1955). A Method for the Calculation of the CB(1) Curve, Journal of
Textile Institute, 46, p.794.
26. Vitor Carvalho, Jose G. Pinto, Joao, L. Monteriro, Rosa M. Vasconcclos, Filomena O.
Soares (2004). Yarn parametrization based on mass analysis, Sensors and actuators,
115, p.540.
27. Chellamani, K.P., Ravindran, M.P.S. and Vittopa, M.K. (2008). Variance-length
curves and deviation rate curves, Spinning Textiles, p.12.
10
Control of yarn hairiness in spun yarns
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the control of yarn hairiness, effect of
raw material, various process and machine parameters in preparatory and ring
frame on yarn hairiness. The influence of yarn hairiness on fabric appearance and
further processes are also discussed in detail.
Key words: Hairiness, Zweigle hairiness distribution, ring frame, spindle speed,
traveller
10.1 Introduction
Yarn hairiness is a complex concept, which generally cannot be completely
defined by a single figure. The yarn hairiness depends on the fibres from the
outer layer of the yarn that do not directly adhere to the body of the yarn. Some
of the fibres have an end in the core of the yarn gripped by the other fibres,
whereas others, because of the mechanical properties of the fibre (rigidity,
shape, etc.) emerge to the surface. During the twisting of the yarn, other fibres
are further displaced from their central position to the yarn surface, their ends
being nipped in the core. The fibre spiral and the yarn twist can affect the
dimensions of the loop that is formed. The majority of the emergent fibres
belong to the peripheral layers.
The wild fibres are those for which the head alone is taken by the twist
while the tail is gripped by the front drafting rollers. They are the marginal
fibres that originate from the edges of the bundle of fibres (edge of the
spinning triangle) submitted to drafting in the spinning frame, particularly
if some of the fibres have been separated slightly from the body of the
fibre bundle. In such circumstances, the bottom front rollers prevent the
migration of the fibres and produces yarn hairiness. If the width of the fibre
web in the drafting field is large, the contact and friction with the bottom
rollers reduces the ability of the fibres to concentrate themselves (inward
migration) and hairiness occurs. This effect is more accentuated in coarse
yarns with low twist.
Hairiness is generally regarded as undesirable because of the following
reasons.
• It adversely affects the appearance of yarns and fabrics. Hairiness is

one of the factors that determine the appearance grade of the yarn.
Higher hairiness downgrades the appearance grade. Hairiness in yarns
leads to fuzzy and hazy appearance of fabric. According to Uster, 15%
of fabric defects and quality problems stem from hairiness. Warp way
streaks and weft bars are caused by high hairiness and variation in
hairiness. Periodic variation in hairiness has been traced to be a cause
for alternate thin and thick bands in fabrics
• It affects performance of yarn in subsequent stages. Adjoining warp
threads cling together in the loom shed because of long hairs in yarn,
which in turn resist separation of sheet during shedding. This leads to
more warp breaks and fabric defects like stitches and floats.
• Excessive lint droppings in sizing, loom shed and during knitting are
encountered with hairy yarns because of shedding of hairs and broken
hairs.
• In printed goods, prints will be hazy and lack sharpness if yarn is
hairy.
• In sewing, breakages will be high with hairy yarns and removal of
hairiness by singeing is invariably practiced.
• Pilling tendency will be more with higher hairiness. Pilling is a major
problem with knitted goods, polyester blend fabrics.
• Increases air drag on rotating packages and balloon.
Four conditions of fibre have been specified in the spinning zone:
(i) The leading end is grasped by the convergence point.
(ii) The leading end is free and has no tension.
(iii) The trailing end is under control of lateral friction with the
fibres around it.
(iv) The trailing end is free.
A fibre satisfying condition (i) and (iii) would migrate towards the core of
the yarn. A fibre satisfying condition (ii) and (iii) would form a leading hair.
If the fibre satisfies condition (i) and (iv), it will appear as trailing end. A fibre
satisfying the condition (ii) and (iv) is likely to become a wild hair, wrapped
around the yarn.
In a Z-twist yarn, most of the trailing hairs are from the left-hand
fringe in the spinning triangle. For a Z-twisted yarn, fibres in the right hand
fringe of the ribbon can fold-over freely towards the left at the point of
yarn formation. But fibres in the left hand fringe are not similarly free to
fold-under towards the right because of obstruction by the top breast of
the bottom drafting rollers; thus they are likely to be concentrated in the
outer zone of the yarn. Lack of fibre tension as a fibre leaves the front roller
nip, insufficient fibre length to build up tension in short fibres and dynamic
Control of yarn hairiness in spun yarns 309
buckling of fibres in the spinning triangle are the main reasons for the
formation of trailing hairs.
When a fibre emerges from the front roller, it needs enough radial force
from the surrounding fibres to collect and transport it into the yarn formation
point. Otherwise it moves straight ahead and misses the convergence point.
In a Z-twisted yarn, if the said fibre is from the left hand-fringe of fibres, the
rotating action of the yarn may manage to catch it and wrap most of them
around itself, and possibly the tip of the fibre would not be tucked into the
body of the yarn. Thus a leading hair is formed. If a fibre is stiff, it tends to
spring up on emerging from the front roller and project out of the plane of the
spinning triangle and ends up as leading hair.
Fibres that are not grasped at both ends would become wild fibres. This
situation happened mostly to very short fibres. The percentage of wild fibres
is very small considering the small percentage of very short fibres.
According to Klein, when the spinning triangle is short, the fibres from
the edges must be strongly deflected to get bound in the yarn structure.
This results in more fly and hairiness. However it is pointed out that longer
the spinning triangle, further the distance the fibres have to travel before
they are bound into the body of the yarn and therefore the easier it is for
them to escape. When the spinning triangle gets smaller with increasing
spinning tension, the hairiness is less. The ratios of the height to the base
of the spinning triangle and the base of the spinning triangle to the width
of the fibre in the main draft zone, the area of the spinning triangle with
respect to the number of fibres and the absolute values of the base and
height of spinning triangle in relation to fibre length have to be considered
in analysing the results.
10.2 Parameters influencing the generation of yarn

hairiness
Parameters at ring frame, preparatory processes and post-spinning operation
have marginal to profound influence on the generation of hairiness of ring
spun yarns. There are discrepancies on the outcome of the results possibly due
to the conditions of the machine parts in their experiments and the method and
accuracy of the evaluation of hairiness.
10.2.1 Fibre parameters

Various studies have shown the influence of fibre parameters on the yarn
hairiness values. The influence of fibre parameters on the yarn hairiness with
their correlation signs is listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Influence of fibre properties on yarn hairiness
Fibre parameters Effect

Fibre length Shorter the length, higher the hairiness – Major
Short fiber content Higher SFC, higher hairiness – Major
Micronaire Coarser micronaire, higher the hairiness
Length uniformity Lower the uniformity ratio, higher the hairiness
Stickiness Lower the stickiness, higher the hairiness
Fibre length, short fibre content, fineness and rigidity are the most
important properties of fibre that influence hairiness. A significant correlation
is found between hairiness and fibre length and uniformity ratio. Number of
fibre ends per unit length increases as fibre length reduces and as each fibre
end is a potential source of hairiness, yarns from shorter and variable cottons
are more hairy. As a result any process from picking to ginning to opening
of cotton those results in fibre breakages will increase hairiness in yarns.
Hairiness increases with coarseness of fibre, because of higher resistance
to twisting. For the same reason yarns from fibres with higher flexural and
torsional rigidity have higher hairiness. Surface fibres in the yarn mostly
contribute to hairiness. In blends made on ring spinning, shorter and coarser
fibre constituent occupies preferentially the surface and so will contribute
more to hairiness.
10.2.2 Yarn parameters

The yarn parameters influencing the hairiness are listed in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Influence of yarn properties on yarn hairiness
Yarn parameters Correlation sign with

respect to yarn hairiness
Linear density Positive
Twist level Negative
Diameter Positive
No. of fibres in yarn cross-section Positive
Count and twist have considerable influence on hairiness. Coarser yarns

have more hairiness than finer yarns because of higher number of fibres
in cross-section in the former as shown in Fig. 10.1. Yarn count has the
maximum influence on hairiness. Yarn hairiness chart therefore bears a close
correspondence with irregularity chart, with coarser regions having more
hairiness than finer portions.
Figure 10.1 Relationship between the yarn count and hairiness
Hairiness reduces with increase in twist because of shorter spinning

triangle and more effective twisting in of surface fibres into yarn as shown
in Fig. 10.2. With firmly bound fibres chances of release due to abrasion at
traveller/ring junction is minimized. Hairiness is therefore more in hosiery
yarns, which have low twist.
Figure 10.2 Relationship between the twist level and hairiness
10.3 Influence of ring frame parameters on yarn

hairiness
Hairiness is produced at two zones in ring spinning.
1. At the delivery point of front roller
2. In the ring/traveller junction. A small amount of hairiness is also
made at lappet and separator.
Selvedge fibres in the strand do not get fully integrated into yarn, as twist
does not flow right up to the nip because of spinning triangle. The effect is
more for the trailing portion of fibre, as the tension in the fibre drops to zero,
the moment trailing end leaves front roller nip. Trailing portion of majority
of selvedge fibres therefore show up as hairs. The leading portion of fibres at
the extreme end of selvedge may also project as hair, because of their non-
integration into strand. Some of the loosely bound leading as well as trailing
portion of fibres will develop into hairs because of abrasion at traveller/ring
junction.
10.3.1 Roving linear density/main draft at ring frame

For a constant linear density of yarn, hairiness increases with the increase in
roving linear density or the main draft at ring frame due to high fibre spread at
front roller nip. Yarn spun from double roving will have more hairiness than
the yarn spun from single roving. This is due to the increased number of fibres
in the web and due to higher draft required to spin the same count.
Drafting waves increase hairiness. Irregularity arising from drafting
waves increases with increasing draft. Yarn hairiness also may be accepted
to increase with yarn irregularity, because fibres protruding from the yarn
surface are more numerous at the thickest and least twisted parts of the yarn.
10.3.2 Presence of condenser at the drafting and pre-

drafting fields
The use of correct size of condensers in the drafting fields in relation to the
volume of fibres processed would reduce the ribbon width of fibres, thereby
reducing the hairiness substantially. Research workers have found that the
insertion of condenser in the pre-drafting zone had only a slight influence on
the hairiness of yarn. A decisive improvement in hairiness has been observed,
when the condensers were placed in the drafting field. The use of mechanical
condensers in the main draft region of ring frame is highly effective in
condensing the fibre flow. However, the action of these condensers is very
harsh, cause excessive frictional forces among fibres, which result in drafting
irregularities. The pneumatic condensers used in compact ring spinning systems
are very effective in reducing the width of fibre flow in the main draft field, yet
they are found to be gentle in their action, thus fewer disturbances to fibre flow.
10.3.3 Spindle speed

Higher spindle speed is generally found to increase hairiness. This is because
of the larger balloon at higher speed as shown in Fig. 10.3. With larger balloon,
traveller tilt will be more and this will reduce the space available for yarn
passage and there will be chafing and abrasion of yarn. Twist flow at lappet
will also be reduced.
Figure 10.3 Relationship between the spindle speed and hairiness
When yarns are spun at different spindle speed, the centrifugal force
acting on fibres in the spinning zone will increase in proportion to the square
of the spindle speed, causing the fibres ends as they are emerging from the
front rollers to be deflected from the yarn surface to a greater extent. Further,
at high spindle speed, the shearing action of the traveller on the yarn is likely
to become great enough to partially detach or raise the fibres from the body
of the yarn. As against the above factors, at higher spindle speeds the tension
in the yarn will increase in proportion to the square of the spindle speed, and
consequently more twist will run back to the roller nip, so that it is natural to
expect that better binding of the fibres will be achieved.
10.3.4 Doff position

Doff position and chase positions have a significant influence on hairiness.
When comparing the hairiness of yarns at different doff positions in mill
and it was found that hairiness is higher at cop bottom position as shown in
Fig. 10.4. This is because of larger balloon found at cop bottom, which
increases traveller tilt and causes dashing of yarn against separator. The
increased balloon size, more residence time of the yarn in the balloon region
and the associated increase in the intensity and duration of rubbing of the
yarn against the separators while winding the yarn at the base of the cop are
responsible for the increase in the yarn hairiness.
Figure 10.4 Relationship between the yarn position and hairiness
10.3.5 Chase position

Hairiness is more at the shoulder and reduces progressively towards the
nose of the chase. The balloon is bigger at shoulder and traveller tilt is more.
Yarn also dashes against separator. Both these factors increase hairiness. The
periodic variation in hairiness in the chase, thus caused, is sometimes a source
of hairiness.
10.3.6 Traveller
Weight, profile and type of cross-section of traveller have critical influence
on hairiness.
10.3.6.1 Weight
Heavier traveller up to a limit reduces hairiness because of improved flow
of twist to front roller nip. As a result pilling of knitted material reduces.
Higher tension associated with heavier traveller will also help to firmly twist
the surface fibres into yarn. It is shown that with increasing spinning tension
from 2 to 4 cN/tex for 60s Ne cotton yarn, the hairiness (2 mm) decreases
by 50%, whereas the thin places and elongation of the yarn deteriorates. It
is to be noted that a high spinning tension tends to increase the length and
reduce the width of spinning triangle (long triangle), which may help in better
consolidation of edge fibres.
10.3.6.2 Wire profile
Elliptical traveller has a low bow size and as a result limited space is available
for passage of yarn. Chafing of yarn will therefore be more resulting in
increased hairiness. ‘C’ shape traveller has a high bow size, which provides
ample space for passage of yarn. Hairiness will be least with this traveller. But
as centre of gravity is higher with ‘C’, it results in unstable flight and traveller
fly especially at higher speeds.
10.3.6.3 Cross-section
Traveller with round cross-section compared with cross-sections with sharp
edges (square, half round and rectangular) and traveller with a matching
profile to the contact region of ring are better in avoiding the generation of
hairiness because of reduced frictional resistance to yarn movement by the
former.
10.3.6.4 Lubrication of traveller

Application of specially developed lubricant to the traveller has been found
helpful in reducing hairiness by 20–30%. The reduction is more prominent
immediately after application of lubricant and gradually reduces with passage
of time.
10.3.6.5 Coated travellers

Travellers with coatings, such as silver and ceramic coating and chromium
plating, are available for reducing traveller wear and for extending traveller-
changing frequency. Because of their smooth finish, friction between yarn and
traveller is reduced, which brings down hairiness.
10.3.6.6 Traveller changing frequency

Hairiness is found to increase over the traveller replacement cycle because of
traveller wear. With traveller wear traveller flutter occurs during flight, which
leads to increased abrasion. For hosiery, sewing threads and P/C blends, where
low hairiness is desired, traveller replacement frequency has to be kept low.
10.3.7 Ring
Flange number, type and wear influence hairiness considerably.
10.3.7.1 Flange number

Higher flange no. gives more space for passage of yarn and will reduce
hairiness. But traveller wear will be more and higher speeds cannot be
achieved in finer counts. Normally No. 2 flange should be used up to 20s
count and No. 1 flange should be used for counts 30s and above. For bringing
down the hairiness No. 2 flange may be used in counts of border range.
10.3.7.2 Wear and tear

Worn out ring is a major cause of hairiness and variation in hairiness in mills
as shown in Fig. 10.5. When wear is pronounced, the bobbins are highly
hairy and exhibit whisker-like defects. When rings are more than 3-year
old, hairiness starts increasing. Replacement of rings will bring significant
reduction in hairiness.
Figure 10.5 Relationship between life of ring traveller and hairiness
10.3.8 Spindle eccentricity

An increase in spindle eccentricity increases the hairiness. Small eccentricity
influences hairiness relatively lower, but from 0.5 mm onwards, the hairiness
increases almost exponentially with eccentricity. The impact of spindle
eccentricity on hairiness is also influenced by the diameter of the ring and of
the bobbin, the shape of the traveller, the yarn tension, the balloon etc.
On spindles, where centering is disturbed hairiness is found to be higher
and upon accurate centering, hairiness comes down significantly. When spindle
is not centred, traveller movement is not smooth because of peak tensions
in yarn. With spindle eccentricity, the amplitude of spinning/yarn tensions is
magnified. At very low spinning tension, consolidation of peripheral fibres of
spinning triangle would be difficult. At very high yarn tension, the tucking out
of surface fibres of yarn by the traveller would be high.
10.3.9 Eccentricity of lappet

Abrasion against lappet is a source of hairiness. This gets aggravated when
lappet is grooved or is worn out. Height of lappet above the ring bobbin has
to be optimized to reduce not only end breaks but also hairiness. If lappet to
bobbin tip distance is high, balloon will be longer. This will reduce twist flow
and also increase area of contact between yarn and lappet. As a result hairiness
will be higher.
Hairiness increases with the thread guide eccentricity. The eccentricity
of lappet influences the variation of spinning tension for every revolution of
the traveller. In addition, the amplitude of movement of yarn over the inner
surface of the lappet increases and this beating action dislodges the surface
fibres.
10.3.10 Balloon control ring

The presence of balloon control ring reduces the balloon size (diameter). This
in effect reduces the air drag and centrifugal forces acting on the yarn. Due to
these, the dislodging intensity of surface fibres from the yarn core decreases
and hence lower hairiness.
10.3.11 Balloon separators

At high spindle speeds, the intensity of rubbing of the yarn over the separators
would be severe, increasing the yarn hairiness. Plastic separators will increase
hairiness because of static generation. Disturbed, slanting and bent separators
generate hairiness because of excessive dashing of balloon on separator.
10.3.12 Life of ring and traveller

The progressive increase of hairiness with the running time of the travellers
has been well proved. Hairiness increases substantially with the working life
of a ring. Rings not replaced for a long time, develops more wear and tear and
micro welding from traveller. The chances of fibre dislodging from the yarn
surface would be higher when yarn passes over this ring.
10.3.13 Relative humidity/static generation

Recommended humidity in ring frame department is 55–60%. Hairiness
increases in a dry atmosphere of ring frame department. At higher humidity
levels, fibres tend to stick to drafting rollers resulting in protruding hairs and
loops. At low humidity levels static generation causes repulsion of fibres,
particularly with P/V and P/C blends, leading to more hairiness. RH% between
46 and 86 influences hairiness slightly.
10.4 Influence of preparatory process on yarn

hairiness
10.4.1 Number of draw frame passages
It is reported that the greater the number of passages, lesser the yarn hairiness.
The reason attributed to this was reduction in the number of hooks due to
better parallelization of fibres.
10.4.2 Combing
The combed yarns have more protruding ends of 3 mm, than the carded yarns.
Further it is reported that the combed yarns are less hairy than the carded
ones. However, hairiness of combed yarn is less with higher noil extraction as
shown in Fig. 10.6.
Figure 10.6 Relationship between comber noil % and yarn hairiness
10.4.3 Roving twist/compactness of roving

The more the roving twists, the less is the yarn hairiness. Roving produced
with a high false twist level at fly frame is more compact. A compact roving by
use of front zone floating condenser at speed frame will bring down hairiness,
as this will reduce strand width at ring frame. Floating condenser can be used
behind front roller at speed frame without any working problems in hanks
1.4Ne and finer but with coarser hanks from short staple cottons choke up of
condenser is encountered.
10.5 Effect of Post Spinning Operations on

hairiness
Each operation increases the yarn hairiness due to the rubbing action of yarn
surface over various machine elements. The rate of increase in yarn hairiness
is initially high, and then reduces as the number of operation goes up. The
percentage increase in the number of hairs, for hairs of 1 mm and 3 mm after
first winding are 63 and 149 respectively for a cotton yarn. For a polyester
yarn, these values are 129 and 373. Yarn wound at two-for-one twister seems
to have high hairiness values either the feed package is too small or too big.
With a small package, the yarn takes a sharp bend around the flyer and for a
large package, the chances of outgoing yarn touching the inner surface of the
protection pot increases. These may be the reasons for the high hairiness of
yarns.
10.5.1 Winding
Hairiness increases in winding. This is because of abrasion of yarn against
tension disc, guide eyes, balloon breakers and winding drum. Extent of
increase varies from 50% to 150%. Extent of increase in hairiness increases
with winding speed as shown in Fig. 10.7. A very interesting finding of practical
significance is that initial level of hairiness in ring yarn has considerable
influence on the extent of increase in hairiness in winding. Short length hairs
increase by 4–4.5 times with winding with ‘less hairy’ yarns. But with ‘more
hairy’ yarns, short length hairs do not increase with winding. Long length
hairs however show an increase with winding with both ‘less hairy’ and ‘more
hairy’ bobbins.
Figure 10.7 Relationship between the winding speed and hairiness

Longer hairs being on the surface of yarn more likely to come in contact
with tension disc and also get pulled out because of frictional resistance.
This is the reason why they increase with both type of yarns. With ‘more
hairy yarns’ the surface of yarn body and short length hairs are well buried
under long length hairs and therefore do not come into contact with the
tension disc. There is therefore no generation of short length hairs at tension
disc and short length hairs therefore do not show an increase with winding
with such yarns.
10.6 Control of hairiness of ring spun yarns

The control of hairiness of ring spun yarns through proper selection of fibre
parameters is in line with the requirement of fibre properties to get good
uniformity characteristics and strength for yarns. A mill producing yarns that
are good in the above-mentioned properties does not have much scope in
reducing the hairiness, as fibre parameters are already optimized.
Regarding the yarn parameters, the selection of twist level should be
based on maximum yarn strength. It should be noted that the number of
protruding hairs is independent of twist and the number of loops decreases
with the increase in the yarn twist. Selecting a twist level that is more than
optimum (based on yarn strength) would increase the snarling tendency of the
yarns, which is highly undesirable. The consideration of having more number
of fibres in the yarn cross-section is appropriate for getting high yarn strength,
rather than having less number of fibres to minimize the hairiness.
Lowering the draft at ring frame using finer roving involves installation of
many speed frames, which would be uneconomical. The selection of spindle
speed is always based on getting higher production, subject to the end breaks
and traveller burnt-out.
The selection of ring size should be based on the critical parameter
viz., end-breaks and power consumption rather than the hairiness. With the
prevailing high tariff for power, controlling of power consumption is assuming
great significance. With introduction of splicing technology and high-speed
winders, it is more economical to go for smaller rings at ring frames. The
latest trend is to go for smaller ring.
Balloon separators cannot be dispensed with coarser yarns. The relative
humidity at the ring frame department has only marginal influence on yarn
hairiness, but has greater effect on the end breaks.
Roving produced form the latest speed frames is already compact as
a result of high degree of false twist imparted to it while twisting at speed
frame. Further increase in the compactness of roving with high roving twist
introduces more drafting irregularity while drafting the roving at the ring
frame. Extraction of more waste at comber would reduce the yarn hairiness,
but, it is highly uneconomical and the trade largely dictates it.
Monitoring of hairiness in relation to the life of the ring and replacing the
ring at appropriate time would help in controlling the hairiness. The selection
of right mass of traveller in relation to hairiness and end breaks, and right
combination of traveller and ring would be useful to some extent in controlling
the yarn hairiness.
There are only limited options available to the spinners in reducing the
yarn hairiness by controlling the above-mentioned parameters. In a good
spinning mill, all these parameters are well taken care off. Even after all the
necessary measures taken right from fibre selection to ring frame parameters,
the hairiness of ring spun yarn increases considerably (particularly the
long hairs) during winding operation. These lead to a conclusion that new
approaches have to be thought off and techniques have to be evolved to reduce
the hairiness of ring spun yarns.
Traditionally, either sizing or singeing in the short staple sector or two-
folding in the long staple sector has reduced yarn hairiness. Of late, several
technologies have been explored to reduce the hairiness. These methods can
be classified in to the following:
(a) Using air-nozzles below the spinning triangle on a ring frame
(b) Pneumatic condensation of fibre flow in the front drafting field of ring
frame using compact spinning technology
(c) Winding the spun yarn with an air-jet attachment or false twisting
rollers
The first two methods are found to be reducing the hairiness of as-
spun yarns. The behaviour of these spun yarns in winding and in generating
hairiness is not studied yet. But these methods may be better than the limited
options envisaged earlier, solely from the point of reducing the hairiness and
not on the basis of the technological complications.
10.6.1 Use of air-jets below the spinning triangle of a ring

frame
Studies have revealed the effect of a converging nozzle placed 4 cm below
the front roller nip of a ring frame, under various spinning conditions and air
pressure supplied to the nozzle. The design indicates that the airflow from
the nozzle is upward, i.e. towards the front roller nip. The number of hairs
3 mm was measured using Shirley Yarn Hairiness Tester. The hairiness was
found to be lowest around an air pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2. The above study has
shown that the hairiness of as-spun yarn can be reduced by 9–55%, depending
on the yarn count and spindle speeds. The yarn (while taking the twist) is
compressed by the pressure of the air inside the nozzle and it is likely that the
protruding hairs are folded back into the regular structure of the yarn.
Similar works done elsewhere using Jet Ring Spinning has shown that
hairiness can be considerably reduced with nozzles positioned below the twist
triangle. They argued that the reduction in hairiness might be most efficient
if the air vortex induces an axial air flow that suppresses the majority of
protruding fibre ends, as there is a majority of trailing ends for ring spun
yarn during spinning. This technology has the drawback of piecing the threads
when an end break occurs.
10.7 Influence of hairiness on subsequent

processing
10.7.1 Fabric appearance
Yarns with varying hairiness values, when woven into a fabric, could cause
stripiness which is generally clearly visible in the case of dyed fabrics. The
reason for this is that the protruding fibres take up more dye and consequently
look darker.
10.7.2 Pilling tendency

A fabric woven with yarns having severe hairiness has a greater pilling
tendency than a fabric woven with less hairy yarn.
10.7.3 Processing problems

Since a yarn is required to pass through a variety of narrow machinery
components in the subsequent processing stages like heald wires, knitting
needles, weft insertion devices, etc, a greater number of protruding fibres in
the yarn naturally means processing problems such as jamming of warp and
weft threads in modern high speed weaving machinery.
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29. Tang, Z., Wang, X., Wang, L. and Fraser, W.B. (2006). The effect of yarn hairiness on
air drag in ring spinning, Textile Research J., 76, p.559.
30. Tyagi, G.K. (1999). Hairiness of viscose OE rotor spun yarns in relation to test speed
and process parameters, Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research, 29, p.35.
31. Usta, F. and Canoglu, S. (2002). Influence of traveller weight and coating on hairiness
of acrylic yarns, Fibres & Textiles of Eastern Europe, p.20.
32. Wang, X. and Chang, L. (1999). An experimental study on effect of test speed on yarn
hairiness, Textile Research Journal, 69, p.25.
33. Wang, X. and Chang, L. (2003). Reducing yarn hairiness with a modified path in
worsted spinning, Textile Research Journal, 73, p.327.
34. Wang, X., Huang, W and X. Huang (1999). A study on the formation of yarn hairiness,
Journal of Textile Institute, 90, p.555.
35. Wang, X., Miao, M. and How, Y.L. (1997). Studies in jet ring spinning Part I Reducing
hairiness with jet ring, Textile Research Journal, 67, p.253.
36. Zeng, Y. and Yu, C.W. (2004). Numerical and experimental study on reducing yarn
hairiness with jet ring and jet wind, Textile Research Journal, p.74.
37. Zhu, R.Y. and Ethridge, M.D. (1997). Predicting hairiness of ring and rotor spun yarns
and analyzing impact of fibre properties, Textile Research Journal, 67, p.694.
11
Yarn faults
Abstract: This chapter provides information about the various types of yarn
faults created by the raw material, preparatory process and ring frame. The
classification and analysis of seldom occurring faults and the effect of various
processing stages on classimat faults are also discussed in detail. The common
ring yarn faults with their causes and remedial measures are also provided in
this section.
Key words: Yarn faults, classimat faults, seldom occurring faults, ring yarn faults
11.1 Introduction
Despite the progress and many years of experience in spinning technology,
it is still not possible to produce a fault-free yarn. Depending on the raw
material and state of the machinery park, there are about 20–100 events over
a length of 100 km yarn, which do not correspond to the desired appearance
of the yarn. These kinds of yarn faults are places, which are too thick or too
thin (Fig. 11.1). Foreign fibres or dirty places in the yarn are also counted as
yarn faults.
Figure 11.1 Yarn faults

Yarn faults cause disruptions in the subsequent process stages, which

affect production and quality. Yarn faults, which get in the woven or knitted
fabric, can only be removed at very high costs or not at all. Therefore, the
yarn processing industry demands a fault-free yarn from the yarn producer.
The spinner has to fulfil these demands; otherwise he could not sell the yarn
covering his costs.
The spinner can fulfil these demands by a combination of two measures:
1. Prevent the origin of yarn faults by adequate measures
2. Remove yarn faults by the aid of yarn clearers
The measures to avoid the origin of yarn faults are numerous, mainly the
choice of the raw material, the maintenance of the machines, and cleanliness
in the spinning mill.
During the spinning process, a card sliver with about 20,000 to 40,000
fibres in the cross-section is drawn to a yarn with about 40–100 fibres in the
cross-section. During the spinning process, it is not possible to keep the number
of fibres in the cross-section constant at every moment. This leads to random
variations of the mass. Only spinning mills with a permanent improvement
process are able to keep these random variations within close limits.
These variations are measured by the evenness tester in the laboratory.
They are a measure for the unevenness of the yarn and are called imperfections.
They occur so frequently that they are not eliminated from the yarn
(Fig. 11.2). Their number is generally given per 1000 m. In contrast to the
frequent yarn faults, there are also the seldom-occurring yarn faults. The
difference between the frequent yarn faults and the seldom-occurring yarn
faults is mainly given by the larger mass or diameter deviation and size. As
these faults occur only seldom, their number is given per 100,000 (Fig. 11.2).
These faults are monitored by the yarn clearer installation on the winding.
Figure 11.2 Frequently occurring vs. seldom-occurring faults

Yarn faults 327
Seldom-occurring yarn faults are classified in the classification matrix

of the USTER® CLASSIMAT. Up to a length of 8 cm seldom-occurring
yarn faults are counted and/or eliminated if they exceed the limit of 100%.
Table 11.1 shows the classification matrix and the related definitions and
terminologies.
Table 11.1 Uster classimat faults
Characteristics Description
Fault classification
Fault lengths A: Shorter than 1 cm

B+TB: 1–2 cm
C+TC: 2–4 cm
D+TD: 4–8 cm
E: Longer than 8 cm
F+H: 8–32 cm
G+I: Longer than 32 cm
Fault sizes 0: +45 to +100%
1: +100 to +150%
2: +150 to +250%
3: +250 to +400%
4: Over +400%
E: Over +100%
F+G: +45 to 100%
TB1/TC1/TD1/H1/I1: −30% to −45%
TB2/TC2/TD2/H2/I2: −45 to −75%
Contd...
Contd...
Characteristics Description
Fault channels of N channel for very short thick places
the clearer S channel for short thick places
L channel for long thick places
T channel for long thin places
C channel for count deviations
Sensitivity Reference length
N channel: +100% to +500%
S channel: +50% to +300% 1 to 10 cm
L channel: +10% to +200% 1 to 200 cm
T channel: −10% to −80% 10 to 200 cm
C channel: ±5% to ±80% 12.8 m
11.2 Distinction between frequent and seldom-

occurring yarn faults
Figure 11.3 Positions of the frequent versus the seldom-occurring yarn faults
Figure 11.3 shows the position of the frequent yarn faults (imperfections)
in comparison to the position of the seldom-occurring yarn faults in the
classification matrix. It becomes clear that both types of yarn faults differ
Yarn faults 329
from each other clearly by their size, and thus cannot be compared with each
other. In addition, the areas of the clearer settings N, S, L, T, CCp and CCm
are indicated in Fig. 11.3. This shows where the settings are effective.
11.3 Causes for seldom-occurring yarn faults

The causes for seldom-occurring yarn faults can be divided in three groups:
1. Caused by raw material and card
2. Caused by the processes before spinning
3. Caused by the spinning process
The distribution of the faults can be found in the classification matrix
(Fig. 11.4) as follows:
Figure 11.4 Causes for seldom-occurring yarn faults in the classification matrix
11.3.1 Yarn faults caused by raw material and card

These faults depend on the quality of the raw material. For natural fibres,
they depend mainly on the physical properties such as fibre fineness, length
and short fibre content. For synthetic fibres, the faults depend mainly on
the disentanglement of single fibres. Insufficient disentanglement can lead
to felted single fibres, which might be caused by softeners, oil additives,
lubricants or climatic conditions.
11.3.2 Yarn faults caused by processes prior to spinning

These faults are characterized by extreme diameter variations or poor friction
of the fibres. Often, it is a matter of fibre packages, which are not caught in the
draw-box of prior processes and were not drawn apart. Therefore, they show
a big increase of the mass or diameter in the yarn.
11.3.3. Yarn faults caused in spinning

Most yarn faults are caused by spun-in fly in the area of the spinning machine
and by fibre residues, which cling to the draw-box or other parts of the spinning
machine and which are swept away from time to time and are spun into the
yarn. Furthermore, it is possible that different setting possibilities of the ring
spinning machine, as e.g. draft or distance settings of the draw-box, have an
influence on the number of seldom-occurring yarn faults.
11.4 Standard settings in classimat

The following standard settings should assist when setting of clearer for short
staple yarns and their blends.
11.4.1 Standard settings for the capacitive clearer

11.4.1.1 Thick and thin place settings (Fig. 11.5)
Figure 11.5 Standard settings for thick and thin places

Yarn faults 331
11.4.1.2 Standard settings for yarn count deviations and pearl chain
(Fig. 11.6)
Figure 11.6 Standard settings for yarn count deviations
11.5 Analysis of classimat faults

Figure 11.7 shows the typical scatter diagram from Uster Classimat Quantum.
Figure 11.7 Scatter diagram of classimat faults in Uster Quantum

The factors influencing the Classimat Faults in the different departments

are given in Tables 11.2–11.7.
Table 11.2 Causes of classimat faults in blow room
High influence
Can influence
MachineInfluencing Effect A B C D E,F,G H,I Overall

factors Classimat
Blow room Beating point Increase in one beating point can
influence up to 30%, if there is a
rupture

Beater speed Higher speed, if rupture is there, will
influence the faults
Beater type 10/10 wire will lead to higher fiber
rupture
Traverse bar Closer than 10% of the fiber length,
to beater will lead higher faults
RH and Higher RH will lead to more faults
temperature
Lower suction Lower pressure will make the fibre
pressure stay in the beating zone and will
create A1
Higher suction Will not allow the fibres to open in the
pressure due beating zone
to higher fan
speed
Table 11.3 Causes of classimat faults in carding

Influencing Effect A B C D E, F, H, I Overall
factors G Classimat
Higher card Higher the productivity,

productivity higher Classimat
Flat to Wider the setting, higher

cylinder Classimat
setting
Flat to More the variation higher

flat height Classimat
variation
SFD Wider the setting, higher

the Classimat
Too close SFL Closer the SFL setting,

due to fiber rupture, higher
faults
Cylinder If there is no fiber rupture,

speed higher cylinder speed , low
Classimat
Trash / neps Direct impact on faults

in sliver
Wire type & File No.: P Cardnep File 16

Condition
Yarn faults 333
Table 11.4 Causes of classimat faults in comber

Machine Influencing factors Effect A B C D E,F,G H,I Overall
Classimat
Comber Top comb 0.5mm Depth reduction can
penetration influence up to 15%
Top comb type Can influence up to 20%
Unicomb to nipper More the gap, higher the Neps
setting
Brush height Lesser the height, higher IPI
High coiler calendar Influences up to 10%

roller load
Web cut Influences up to 15%
Head to head noil Higher the variation, higher the

Variation IPI. Up to 25%
Drafting draft Higher the draft, higher the
distribution clearer cuts
Width of the fleece Influences 15%
guide
Table 11.5 Causes of classimat faults in draw frame

Machine Influencing Effect A B C D E,F,G H,I Overall
factors Classimat
Draw Roller setting Closer setting by 2 mm can create
frame up to 40%
Wider setting by 2 mm
Break draft If the hexagonal nut for fixing the
belt slippage break draft tensioner is loose

Delivery speed More than 350, for combed counts,

the Classimat will go up
Web tension 10% effect

draft
Auto leveller If CP setting is set with wide variation,
timing it can totally damage the yarn quality
No of doubling
Table 11.6 Causes of classimat faults in speed frame

factors Classimat
Speed Roving stretch Will influence thin
frame
Top arm load Will have effect thin faults as
well as A1
Creel draft Higher the draft will give higher

thin

Wrong selection of Higher tension will lead to higher
winding wheel and long thin
tension wheel
Floating This can influence 10% of A1
condensers quality faults
Uniformity in top Setting variation in the front zone
roller setting top roller can influence 10%
Table 11.7 Causes of classimat faults in ring frame

factors Classimat
Ring Front top roller Setting disturbance and wider by 0.5
frame setting mm can affect the Classimat by 10%

Higher roving Higher roving TM can create slubs in

TM the yarn

Lower TM
Higher BD
Lower BD
Department Higher the temp will create more fly in
Fly and the department. Lesser the no. of air
Department changes will create A1
Temperature
Closer spacer
Ring condition
11.6 Common yarn faults in ring yarn

11.6.1 Slub yarn
It is an abnormal thick place of length 1–4 cm and about 5–8 times larger
than average yarn diameter showing less twist at that place of the yarn
(Fig. 11.8). The various causes and remedial measures for the same are given in
Table 11.8.
Figure 11.8 Slub yarn
Table 11.8 Causes and remedial measures for slub yarn
Effects Causes Remedies

• More end breaks in • Poor individualization of • Better opening and
the ensuing process fibers in the card cleaning in BR and Carding
• Damaged fabric • Lack of adequate fiber • Replace defective aprons
appearance control in the rafting region • Optimum top roller
• Shade variation in • Accumulation of fly and pressure and back
dyed fabrics fluff on machine parts zone setting at RF to be
• Improperly clothed top maintained
roller clearers • Excessive roving twist
• Defective RF drafting and • Broken teeth in gear wheel
bad piecing to be avoided and proper
• Too close roller setting meshing to be ensured
Yarn faults 335
11.6.2 Soft yarn

Yarn which is weak indicating lesser twist (Fig. 11.9). The various causes and
remedial measures for the same are given in Table 11.9.
Figure 11.9 Soft yarn
Table 11.9 Causes and remedial measures for soft yarn
• More end breaks in • Cord slippage on • Vibration of bobbin on

subsequent processes spindle wharves the spindle should be
• Shade variation in dyed • Improper bobbin feed avoided
fabrics on the spindles • Proper yarn clearing
• Less twist in the yarn should be ensured
• Bad clearing at the • Periodic replacement

traveller of worn rings and
travellers
11.6.3 Oily slub

Slub in the yarn stained with oil (Fig. 11.10). The various causes and remedial
measures for the same are given in Table 11.10.
Figure 11.10 Oily slub

Table 11.10 Causes and remedial measures for oily slub yarn
• More end breaks in the • Accumulation of oily fluff • Yarn contact surfaces
subsequent processes on machine parts to be kept clean
• Damaged fabric • Improper lubrication • Proper lubrication and
appearance • Negligence in segregation
• Shade variation in dyed segregating the oily
fabrics waste from process
waste
11.6.4 Kitty yarn

Presence of black specs of broken seeds, leaf bits and trash in yarn
(Fig. 11.11). The various causes and remedial measures for the same are given
in Table 11.11.
Figure 11.11 Kitty yarn (grey colour image)
Table 11.11 Causes and remedial measures for kitty yarn

• Damaged fabric • Improper ginning i.e. • Good ginning practices
appearance seeds broken during • Cleaning efficiency of
• Production of specks ginning BR and cards should be
during dyeing • Ineffective cleaning in improved
• Needle breaks during blow room and cards • Optimum humidity in the
knitting • Use of cotton with high departments should be
• Poor performance during trash and too many seed ensured
winding coat fragments
11.6.5 Foreign matters

Metallic parts, jute flannel and other similar foreign matter spun along with
the yarn (Fig. 11.12). The various causes and remedial measures for the same
are given in Table 11.12.
Yarn faults 337
Figure 11.12 Foreign matters (grey colour image)
Table 11.12 Causes and remedial measures for foreign matters
• Breaks during winding • Improper handling of • Removal of foreign

• Formation of holes and travelers matters should be
stains in the cloth • Improper preparation of ensured during
mixing preparation of mixing
• Damaged fabric
appearance • Installation of
permanent magnets
at proper places in BR
lines
11.6.6 Cork screw yarn

Double yarn in which one yarn is straight and the other is coiled over it
in Table 11.13.
Figure 11.13 Cork screw yarn
Table 11.13 Causes and remedial measures for corkscrew yarn
• Breaks during winding • Feeding of two ends in • Tenters are to be trained

• Causes streaks in the the RF in piecing practice
fabric • Lashing in of ends in • Pneumafil ducts to be
RF kept clean and properly
set.
11.6.7 Snarl/over twisted yarn

Yarn with kinks (twisted onto itself) due to insufficient tension after twisting
in Table 11.14.
Figure 11.14 Snarl yarn
Table 11.14 Causes and remedial measures for snarl yarn

• Entanglement with • Wrong selection if twist • Optimum twist to be used for
adjacent ends wheel the type of cotton processed
causing a break • Wrong selection of • Drafting parameters to
• Damaged fabric spindle driving pulley minimize thin places in yarn to
appearance • Presence of too many be adopted
• Shade variation in long thin places in the • Yarn should be conditioned
dyed fabrics yarn • Correct tension weights and
slub catcher settings should
be employed at winding
11.6.8 Oil stained yarn

Oil or stain marks present on the yarn (Fig. 11.15). The various causes and
Figure 11.15 Oil-stained yarn
Table 11.15 Causes and remedial measures for oil-stained yarn

• Damaged fabric • Over flowing of oil from • Proper oiling and
appearance spindle bolster greasing
• Occurrence of black • Excessive oil on ring • Proper material storage
spots in the fabric with intention of running and handling
the traveller smoothly
• Improper material
storage and handling
• Piecing made with oily or
dirty fingers
Yarn faults 339
11.6.9 Spun-in fly

Fly or fluff either spun along with the yarn or loosely embedded on the yarn
in Table 11.16.
Figure 11.16 Spun-in Fly (grey colour image)
Table 11.16 Causes and remedial measures for spun-in-fly yarn

• More breaks • Accumulation of fluff over • Machinery surfaces is to be
in winding machine parts (captured kept clean by use of roller
between front drafting rollers pickers
and pigtail guide) • Fanning by workers is to be
• Fanning by workers avoided
• Failure of over head cleaners • Performance of overhead
• Malfunctioning if humidification cleaners and humidification
plant plants should be closely
monitored
11.6.10 Bad piecing

Unduly thick piecing in the yarn caused by over end piecing (Fig. 11.17). The
various causes and remedial measures for the same are given in Table 11.17.
Figure 11.17 Bad piecing
Table 11.17 Causes and remedial measures for bad-piecing

• More end breakages in • Wrong method of piecing • Proper piecing
subsequent processes and over end piecing •S eparators should be
• Increase in hard waste • Twisting the ends provided
instead of knotting • Excessive end
• Too close roller setting breakages in spinning
should be avoided
11.6.11 Crackers
Very small snarl like places in yarn which disappear when pulled with enough
tension or yarn with spring like shape (Fig. 11.18). The various causes and
Figure 11.18 Crackers
Table 11.18 Causes and remedial measures for crackers

• More end breaks in • Mixing of cotton of widely • Optimum top roller
winding differing staple lengths pressure
• More noticeable in • Closer roller settings • Optimum roller setting
P/C blended yarns • Eccentric top and bottom • Use of properly buffed
rollers rollers free from
• Over spinning of cottons eccentricity to be
• Non optimum temperature ensured
and RH in the spinning shed • Mixing of cottons varying
• Long fibers (bridge the nip widely in fine length to
line in drafting system and be avoided
disrupt the process)
11.6.12 Neppy yarn

Very short fault of more than 200% of the yarn diameter (Fig. 11.19). The
various causes and remedial measures for the same are given in Table 11.19.
Figure 11.19 Neppy yarn (grey colour image)
Table 11.19 Causes and remedial measures for neppy yarn

• Damaged fabric • Ginning • Correct settings and speeds
appearance • Improper opening in BR in BR and cards to be
• End breaks in • Poor carding due to maintained
subsequent process improper settings • Grinding schedules to be
• Use of low micronaire maintained strictly
cottons • Avoid immature cotton
• Use of long cotton
Yarn faults 341
11.6.13 Hairiness
Protrusion of fibre ends from the main yarn structure (Fig. 11.20). The various
causes and remedial measures for the same are given in Table 11.20.
Figure 11.20 Hairiness in yarn
Table 11.20 Causes and remedial measures for hairiness

• More end breaks in • Use of cottons differing • Traveler of correct size and
winding widely in the properties in shape
• Uneven fabric the same mixing • Use of rings in good
surface • Worn rings and lighter conditions
• Beads formation traveler • Periodic replacement of
in the fabric in the • Low RH traveler
case of P/C blends • Closer roller settings • Correct roller settings
• Very high spindle speeds • Maintaining optimum RH
• Wide cotton mixing should
be avoided
11.7 References
1. Application handbook for Uster Quantum; Determination of periodic mass variations
(spectrum).
2. Booth, J.E. (1996). Principle of Textile Testing, A Butterworths Publication.
3. Classification of yarn faults & optical yarn clearing, Loepfe Brothers Ltd, Switzerland.
5. Garde, A.R. (1980). Faults in polyester blended yarns, Proceedings of the all India
6. Grover, J.M., Bhargava, A.M., Purandare, M.J. and Subramanian, T.A. (1974). Some
causes of slubs in polyester cotton yarns, Proceedings of the ABS joint technological
conference, p.10.
7. Grover, J.M., Bhargava, A.M., Purandare, M.J. and Subramanian, T.A. (1973). Some
causes of slubs in polyester cotton yarns. Proceedings of the ATIRA technological
conference, p.23.
8. Kumaraswamy, K. and Sharieff, I. (1979). Infrequent yarn faults: their incidence,

causes and removal. Journal of Textile Association, 40, p.213.
9. Origin and frequency of thick places in yarn (1973). International textile bulletin,
spinning, 4, p.429.
10. Pillay, K.P.R. and Hariharan, R. (1983). Effect of processing factors on incidence of
yarn faults in spinning (sitra) 28.
11. Pillay, K.P.R. (1983). Influence of yarn faults on knitting performance and properties
of knitted fabrics, (sitra) 28.
Coimbatore.
13. Sharieff, I. and Garde, A.R. (1980). Mechanism of formation of yarn faults.
Proceedings of the abs joint technological conference, p.27.
14. Uster Application hand book, Uster quantum: Analysis of yarn by a sophisticated
classifying system, Uster publication, Zellweger Uster.
15. Yarn faults and package defects, (1995). SITRA publications, India
12
Productivity of a spinning mill
Abstract: This chapter deals with the various factors influencing the productivity
of the ring spinning. The various productivity indices with their definition and
application for finding out the mills productivity for comparison are also provided
in this section. The mechanism of end breakage, types of end breaks in ring
spinning and the control of end breakage in ring frame are also discussed. The
effects of atmospheric conditions and process parameters on end breakage rate
are also provided.
Key words: Productivity, HOK, OHS, SH, end-breaks
12.1 Introduction
All spinners wish that the spinning productivity of their mill (ring frame
production in grams/spindle shift) has the optimum level of efficiency. Though
there are many aspects that limit the actual production like ring diameter and
its life, lift, life and make of the ring frame, its maximum mechanical speed,
type of spindle drive, lot size, fluctuating production program, poor control on
RH, lower HP of main driving motor, greater percentage of untrained workers,
impoverished technical knowledge of subordinates, etc.
Today, there is a pressure from the management to decrease the conversion
cost to its lowest possible level because of cut throat competition in both the
local and export markets. Ring spinning contributes approximately 70% to the
total conversion cost. Hence it is possible to speed up the ring frames to its
maximum speed mechanically possible considering that spinning preparatory
can feed ring frames at high speed. Also, neither the spinning performance
nor the yarn quality is adversely affected by such speeding up of the ring
frames. Currently many spinning mills in India are capable of managing their
ring frames at actual great speeds quite successfully counts 30s to 40s at
20,000–22,000 rpm and finer counts – 60s to 76s at up to 24,500 rpm and yet
maintaining identical breakage rate of 2–3 breaks per l00 spindle hours that
they were earlier performing at 15,000–16,000 rpm. Also, the yarn quality has
not been affected.
12.2 Productivity indices

The definitions of the various productivity parameters are given in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Productivity parameters in spinning
Parameter Definition
HOK Operatives hours to produce 100 kg of yarn
Adjusted HOK The HOK (that is, the operative hours engaged to produce 100
kg of yarn) is adjusted to a common count of 40s by multiplying
the actual production in ring frame in different counts be relevant
conversion factors. The production so converted is termed as
“Standardized Production”. Thus the adjusted HOK is calculated
from:
Operative hours
= × 100
∑ Count-wise standardized ring spinning production in kg
Conversion The conversion factors are the ratios of the HOKs of individual
factors for counts to that of 40s count under given conditions:
HOK • HOK for a given count
• HOK for 40s count
The count-wise HOKs are estimated taking into account count-
wise production rates, work assignments, etc., that correspond
to those of standard mill. The conversion factors are different for
different departments, and for the count of 40s, it is unity for all
departments. Another major practical advantage of the method
is that it is not required to obtain a break-up of the operatives
according to each count.
Standard HOK HOK for 40s count under the specified conditions. Standard HOKs
for different categories of operatives are given in Table 12.2 and
the conditions under which they can be attained are given in the
footnote to this table. As can be seen, the total standard HOK up
to ring frames is 12.
Composite A measure of productivity calculated by expressing the standard

Productivity total HOK of 12 as a percentage of the mill’s total actual HOK
Index (CPI) adjusted to 40s count and reflects the effect of both labor and
machines.
P Production per spindle per 8 hours shift adjusted to 40s count in

grams. The overall production per spindle in ring frames, adjusted
40s count, can be obtained by using the conversion factors.
∑ Count-wise standardized ring frame production in kg
= × 1000
Total spindle shifts (of 8 hours each) corresponding to
the above production
Contd...
Productivity of a spinning mill 345
Contd...
Parameter Definition
Conversion These conversion factors are the ratios of the standard production
Factor for P per spindles in 40s count to the standard production per spindle in
the given count. That is:
110 g
Std. production per spl per 8 hour (g) in the given count
OHS Number of operatives employed per 1000 spindles adjusted to 40s

count.
P × HOK
= , where HOK and P are adjusted to 40s count
800
OHSAM OHS modified to allow for a valid comparison of a mill’s OHS with
the standard OHS of 1.65 taking into account the deviation of the
mill’s production per spindle from the standard production per
spindle.
165 × OHS
=
[1.65 – 0.0065 (110 – P)]
SH A measure of spindle utilization expressed in terms of number of

hours worked per spindle per day. It is calculated by dividing the
total spindle hours worked per day by the installed spindles. The
spindle utilization is also expressed as percentage, i.e.
SH
× 100
24
MPI A combined measure of production per spindle and spindle

utilization. It is calculated by expressing the product of production
per spindle (P) adjusted to 40s count and spindle utilization (SH)
as a percentage of 2640 (110 × 24). The index would be reduced
by one-seventh if the mill works for only 6 days a week.
P ×SH
= × 100
110 × 24
The norms for HOK and OHS in different departments are given in
Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Norms for HOK and OHS in different departments
Categories of operatives HOK OHS
Mixing attendant 0.6 0.08

Blow room tenter 0.2 0.03
Card tenter (chute feed) 0.2 0.03
Draw frame tenter 0.3 0.04
Fly frame tenter 0.4 0.06
Fly frame doffer 0.5 0.07
Ring frame tenter 3.1 0.42
Ring frame doffer 2.7 0.37
Ancillary operatives* 4.0 0.55
Total 12.0 1.65
Production per spindle per 8 hours

110
adjusted to 40s (g)
Note:
1. Level of modernization assumed is as follows: Chute feed blow
room line, cards fitted with automatic can changer, automatic waste
evacuation system and auto leveller, draw frames fitted with automatic
can changer for 1st passage, draw frames fitted with automatic can
changer and autoleveller for 2nd passage, high speed fly frames and
long length ring frames.
2. For work assignments, ancillary operatives as well as production rates
assumed in various departments, reference may be made to SITRA
publication ‘Norms for Spinning Mills’, 2010 edition.
3. HOK for combers and preparatory tenters and maintenance operatives
may be taken as 1.0 (40s count).
4. 40s or 40s count always refer to 40s cotton carded yarn, unless
otherwise qualified. Also, the phrase ‘adjusted to’ or ‘conversion to’
or ‘standardized’ or ‘conversion’ are used interchangeably
12.3 Control of end-breakage rate in ring spinning

One basic way to increase profit and quality in the ring spinning process is
to keep the end breakage rate to a minimum level. The end breakage rate
is a critical spinning parameter that not only affects the maximum spindle
speed but may also indicate the quality of yarn, the mechanical condition of
the machine and the quality of raw materials. Therefore, it is an important
parameter which determines the overall working of a spinning mill.
12.3.1 End breakage mechanism in ring spinning

The mechanism of end breakage in the ring frame is significantly different
from the failure mechanism of yarn in a tensile tester. In ring spinning, the
end breakage occurs due to the imbalance in the tension imposed on the yarn
and the yarn strength at the weakest portion. It is an observed fact that almost
all end breaks in the ring frame take place just after the delivery from the
front nip in the spinning zone, i.e. between the front rollers’ nip and the thread
guide. Therefore, an end will break when the spinning tension exceeds the
strength of the weakest portion of the yarn in the spinning zone. The end
breakage phenomenon in ring spinning is absolutely slippage-dominated, i.e.
there is no evidence of fibre breakage. The strength of yarn at the spinning
zone is significantly less than the yarn strength obtained by a tensile tester.
In general, the spinning tension is considerably greater than one-third of the
single thread strength. In fact, a very thin portion of yarn just after the delivery
from the front nip causes an end breakage in ring spinning.
12.3.2 Classification of end breaks

The end breaks can be classified into four categories in respect of their causes:
catastrophic end breaks, end breaks due to gross faults, end breaks due to
avoidable imbalance in the strength–tension interaction in spinning and end
breaks due to unavoidable imbalance in strength–tension interaction.
The occurrences of catastrophic breaks are due to the traveller flying off,
collision between the balloons, floating fluff, failure of suction clearers, and
so on. Torn aprons, faulty cradles, etc., which seriously disturb the drafting
are examples of gross faults in spinning that causes end breaks. End breaks
can also occur, when the yarn strength is not adequate to withstand the
prevalent tension. The occurrence of such end breaks would depend upon the
instantaneous tension and twist in the yarn as well as on the distribution of
mass along the length of yarn.
Some of the occurrences of the strength–tension imbalances are avoidable
and are caused by mechanical faults in the machinery or by incorrect choice
of spinning parameters which give rise to unfavorable levels of tension or to a
markedly irregular yarn. Examples of these deficiencies are: vibrating or out-
centre spindles and vibrating bobbins which result in frequent occurrences
of peak tensions; or an improper choice of traveller weight or interval for
traveller replacement or of the ratio of bare bobbin diameter to ring diameter
which give rise to a high level of tension or twist; or eccentric rollers or
inappropriate drafting parameters which results in numerous potential weak
places in the yarn.
Obviously, even in the absence of these deficiencies in the drafting

system, there will always be a certain minimum number of places of potential
break in the yarn. Such places are the result of unavoidable irregularities
introduced during drafting. In most situations, the incidence of catastrophic
breaks accounts for only a small fraction of the total breaks. More attention,
therefore, needs to be paid to causes which lead to end breakages due to gross
faults and avoidable imbalances in strength–tension.
An end will fail in spinning when the tension in the balloon exceeds the
strength at the weakest point in the yarn. The yarn is at its weakest at the point
of twist insertion, before the fibres are fully twisted together. When a very weak
place or a gross fault, such as a slub, occurs in the yarn, the balloon tension may
be, or may become, greater than the strength at the twist triangle. In a well-made
roving there should be no slubs, nor the potential for slubs to form in the spinning
operation, although slubs can arise from poorly made joins in the slivers fed
to the roving frame, for example. Very weak places, however, can occur when
even the best spinning practice is followed, because of the random distribution of
fibres and the quasi-periodic variations induced by drafting; these are the major
cause of end breaks. These very weak places are generally very thin places.
12.3.3 Balloon tension and end breaks in spinning

The primary factors determining the tension in the spinning balloon are
spindle speed, balloon diameter, yarn linear density and traveller weight.
The balloon tension defines the maximum strength of a weak place that will
break in spinning. The maximum local linear density of a thin place at a break
could be estimated if the instantaneous strength of the yarn at the point of
twist insertion could be related to the instantaneous linear density. Although
yarn strength at the point of twist insertion cannot be measured directly, the
maximum linear density of a thin place which might break during spinning
can be estimated from actual measurements of the spinning performance.
12.3.4 Effect of atmospheric conditions on end breakage

The atmospheric conditions with respect to temperature and humidity play
very important part in the manufacturing process of textile yarns and fabrics.
The properties like dimensions, weight, tensile strength etc. of almost all textile
fibres whether natural or synthetic are influenced by climatic conditions.
The importance of atmospheric conditions in the processing and testing
of cotton textiles is well known. There is evidence that the ability of cottons to
resist damage during mechanical treatment is directly related to the moisture
content of the cotton. Any level of RH within the range 46–55% is adequate to
ensure low-end breakage rate. There will be a rapid increase in end breaks with
increase in temperature of the spinning room 70°F to 90°F at below 48% RH.
At 70°F and RH% above 62% caused difficulties by way of end breaks, roller
lappings, etc., due to mechanical adhesion of fibres to the film of water on the
rollers. At these levels, the number of end breaks significantly decreased when
the temperature of the spinning room was increased from 70° to 77°F.
The combinations of (1) high temperatures with low humidities and (2)
low temperatures with high humidities adversely influence the end breaks. The
difficulty under the first condition may be the lack of good cohesion between
the fibres in the drafted rovings, and their consequent rupture at the spinning
zone under the influence of spinning tension. On the other hand, in the second
case, trouble might arise from the particles of water deposited on the rovings,
rollers, and other machine parts. Under these conditions, the Pneumafil system
of the spinning frame becomes less effective, and there is mechanical adhesion
of fibres to the film of water on the rollers. Further, at high humidities, the
friction between rings and travelers also increases, with a consequent increase
in spinning tension. The adverse effects of extreme conditions can be avoided
by employing a sufficiently low temperature and relative humidity in the
spinning room. For attaining the optimum temperature and relative humidity,
air conditioning of the spinning room might be necessary.
12.3.5 Effect of spinning process parameters on end

breakage rate
The number of end breaks systematically increased with increase in spindle
speed, the rate of increase being higher for higher speed levels.
It is well known that twist in yarn has a significant influence on the
number of end breaks during spinning. On an average, there will be decrease
in end breaks with increase in TM from 4.2 to 4.8.
An increase in count would be expected to increase the number of breaks
due to the smaller number of fibres in the cross section of the yarn and the
greater draft required to for spinning the yarns.
The percent changes in end breaks due to these parameters are sometimes
influenced by changes in temperature and relative humidity of the spinning
room. It may be that high temperatures, combined with low TPI, reduce the
cohesion between fibres and increase the number of end breaks at the spinning
zone. The lack of cohesion between fibres at high temperatures may also be
contributing to the higher number of end breaks with increase in spindle speed.
There will be an increase in end breaks due to increase in spinning draft.
There is a consistent decrease in the percent change of breaks due to draft
with increasing relative humidity at all temperature levels. On an average,
the percent increase in breaks decreases rapidly for a change in RH% from
lower (35%) to higher (70%). This implies that high relative humidity levels
permit the use of higher spinning drafts. Low drafts and high humidities
lead to unsatisfactory drafting conditions. It may be that at high humidities
the cohesion between fibres is great and the surface friction between fibres
increases, thereby requiring a higher draft to draft the roving evenly.
12.3.6 Effect of mechanical condition of machine on end

breakage
The cleanliness and mechanical condition of the machinery play a major factor
on end breakage rate in ring spinning. Eccentric rollers, worn-out arbors,
inadequate pressure on rollers, worn-out cradles, grooved aprons, under-size cots
and such other deficiencies in the drafting system; and vibrating bobbins and
spindles, eccentric spindles, worn-out and tilted rings and such other deficiencies
in the twisting-winding mechanism were often seen to account for a considerable
proportion of end breaks. The mechanical condition of machinery at carding and
combing was also a contributing factor for end breaks in ring spinning.
12.3.7 Possibilities of reducing end breaks in ring

spinning
To reduce end breaks, the following aspects should be taken into consideration:
• Since end breakage in ring spinning is related to slippage of fibres
at the spinning triangle as a result of peaks occurring in the spinning
tension fibre, the grip at the front drafting rollers should be increased
by having a higher top roller pressure. The use of softer cots also
enhances the grip at the front rollers. If the total pressure on the rollers
cannot be increased, the grip at the front rollers’ nip can be improved
by reducing the width of the cots.
• A reduction in friction between ring and traveller could reduce the
peak tension during the rotation of the traveller.
• Measures should be taken to reduce the mass irregularity of yarn
straight after carding.
• The width of the drafted ribbon at the front roller nip should be reduced.
12.4 Control of end breaks in ring spinning

12.4.1 Carding
• Proper feeding of material and chute filling
• Proper working of chute photo cell sensors
• Wire condition of cylinder and doffer
• Proper air cleaning of machine

• Teflon coated tongue and R.D. roller under cover should be cleaned
regularly
• RH% should be maintained 50–55% to avoid web falling and web
transfer problems
• Under casing should be smooth and clean
• There should not be any side-fly in the card
• All timing belt tension and chain tension has to be ensured
• Proper seating of stripper in the crush roller. There should not be any
gap between the stripper and crush roller which leads to crush roller
lapping
• Web doffing unit should be kept clean and smooth. During piecing the
sider has to clean the lay down sheet and clean crush roller strippers
• Delivery and feed sensor calibration should be done as per schedule
to avoid unnecessary stoppage of machine
• Coiler calendar roller area and friction ring area should be clean
• The condition of condenser, scanning roller and coiler calendar roller
should be ensured
• Proper selection of tension draft
12.4.2 Drawing
• Proper selection of trumpet size and web guide tube is to be ensured
• Web guide tube setting should be proper
• Free rotation of creel rollers is to be ensured
• The strippers should be cleaned periodically
• Correct sliver path in drafting
• Optimum top roller pressure should be maintained
• Quality of piecing should be good in creel
• Top rollers should be cleaned and interchanged with periodic intervals
• Top roller cots changing and buffing should be done as per schedules
• Proper suction at draft zone to be maintained
• All the belts and running parts condition should be good
12.4.3 Comber
• Ensure uniform web
• Detaching roller pressure to be maintained as per recommendation
• Stripper setting in draw box should be correct
• Suction in draw box should be maintained
• Detaching and draw box top roller cots changing/buffing should be
done as per recommended schedule
• RH% should be maintained in the range of 50–55%. Detaching roller

lapping should be avoided
• Correct size of trumpet to be selected
• Periodic cleaning of the draw box, detaching top roller cots to be
ensured
• Proper brush setting to be ensured
• Periodic cleaning of the top comb to be ensured
• Top comb, Unicomb, brush changing should be done as per
recommendation
• Use of top combs and clearer rollers
12.4.4 Simplex
• Proper stop motions in creel area
• Optimum roving tension
• Adequate TPI
• Condition of false twister has to be ensured
• Optimum break draft, roller settings and spacer
• Condition of top and bottom aprons
• Ensuring proper working and condition of the clearer cloth
• Top arm load to be checked and corrected as per recommendation
• Drafting zone cleanliness is to be ensured
• Flyers should be cleaned with air regularly
• Minimum variation in bare bobbin diameter
12.4.5 Ring frame

The types of breaks in ring frame and the reasons for the same are given below:
Un-drafting:
• Higher roving TM
• Lesser Break draft
• Improper spacer size
• Low top arm load
• Cots buffing frequency
• Higher RH%
• Shore hardness of cots / cots diameter
• Top roller setting
• Old bottom aprons
• Low total draft
• Worn out gears / bearing failure
Creel breaks:
• Free rotation of bobbin holders
• Low roving TM
• Bigger bobbins
Traveller fly:
• Lighter traveller
• High clearance traveller/wrong traveller profile
• Ring life
• Mix-up of travellers
Yarn accumulation in lappet hook:
• Indication of balloon collapse/low tension
• Lighter traveller
• Improper lappet setting/squaring
• Improper traveller profile
Fluff accumulation inside the traveller:
• Higher cop diameter
• Improper ring centering
• Improper ring rail play
• Fluff accumulation in department
• Traveller burning
Fluff accumulation outside the traveller:
• Traveller clearer setting
Fluff accumulation in eyelet:
• Undrafting
• Over head clearer wastes falling on eyelets
• Blowing points in OHTC
• Reserve bobbin roving falling over eyelet
Tension breaks:
• Heavier/lighter traveller
• Ring rail jerking /ring centering
• Lappet height setting
• Higher chase length
• Higher winding length
Repeat breaks:
• Rogue spindles
• Defective bobbins
Thin yarn:
• Low spindle tape tension
• Less TPI
12.5 Effect of climatic conditions on spinning

process
12.5.1 Blow room
For the cotton process, excessive humidity impairs trash extraction particularly
the micro dust. There is less risk of fibre damage. Rayons display opposite
behavior. On the other hand, with too low humidity severe dust incidents fly
liberation and fibre damage results. Also too dry atmosphere generates more
static electricity. For the synthetic process, higher relative humidity is more
useful than low humidity. Low humidity causes bulky laps, split and licking
laps and too much static electricity.
12.5.2 Carding
The cleaning efficiency of carding with cotton process goes down with higher
RH%. Sticking web, cylinder loading, etc. are noticed with high RH%. With
too low RH% fiber damage, more fly liberation, web splitting, etc are observed.
With high RH% the tinted and dyed synthetic material may lead to sticking
problems due to deposition of tint or dye material on card surface. Too low
humidity causes generation of static electricity leading to web splitting and
uncontrolled fibres.
12.5.3 Preparatory and spinning

The effect of high RH% with cotton process in drafting is reflected in roller
lapping and difficulty in drafting. Drafting requires more fleece, wider settings
and higher drafts. Too low RH% on the other hand leads to more fly liberation,
uncontrolled fibres and loss of twist. For processing synthetics, higher RH%
is more useful than low RH% because of static electricity problems.
12.5.4 Winding
Higher RH values of about 60% are required for processing the yarn in winding
department. The higher rate of winding speed requires more strength in yarn
and minimum fly generation to avoid breakages. With the above information
it is clear that the climatic conditions have complex effect on textile material
and therefore, optimum levels have to be maintained.
12.5.5 Recommended levels of conditions (Table 12.3)
Table 12.3 Norms for atmospheric conditions in various departments
Department Temperature °C RH%

Blow room 28–30°C 45–60%
Carding 28–30°C 50–55%
Preparatory 25–30°C 50–55%
Ring spinning 25–30°C 50–60%
Winding 25–35°C 60–65%
12.6 References
1. Bhaduri, S.N., Paltwal, M.C., Sharma, R.S. and Subramanian, T.A. (1967). Towards
increased productivity: The need for quantitative thinking. Proceedings of the All
India Textile Conference, p.11.
2. Bhaduri, S.N., Subramanian, T.A., Sharma, R.S., Ghosh, G.C. and Raj, B.S. (1967).
Scope for improving productivity and quality in spinning with existing machinery,
Proceedings of the ATIRA Technological Conference, p.1.
3. ATIRA, AHMEDABAD (1971). Break spinning: Part II—Techno-economic studies
of drum spinning, Monograph.
4. Srikantaiah, G. and Ramachandran, N. (1973). Conditions for high productivity in
spinning. Proceedings of the ABS Joint Technological Conference, p.147.
5. Owalekar, R.G. and Nerukar, S.K. (1974). Getting higher productivity with high
speed ring frames: Parts I and II. Journal of Textile Association, 35.
6. Mahajan, S.D. and Krishnaswamy, R. (1976). Study of some of the factors controlling
end breaks on speed frames, Proceedings of the ABS Joint Technological Conference,
p.35.
7. Garde, A.R. (1976). Scope for improving productivity in spinning and weaving,
Proceedings of the ABS Joint Technological Conference, p.89.
8. How to assess spinning mill’s productivity? (2010). The South India Textile Research
Association, 55, p.1.
10. Ratnam, T.V. and K.P. Chellamani, (1999). Quality Control in Spinning, SITRA,
Coimbatore.
11. Nilesh P Patil, (2011). Improving productivity of ring frames, Indian Textile Journal,
p.22.
12. Steiger, J.U. (1947). Some factors affecting end breakage in ring spinning, Journal of
the Textile Institute Proceedings, 38, p.561.
13
Yarn quality requirements for high-speed machines
Abstract: The yarn quality requirements for hosiery, shuttleless weaving and for
export are discussed in this section. The yarn quality requirements for hosiery
applications like elongation, lint shedding, hairiness and other properties are
given in this section. Further, the yarn qualities required for the application in
shuttleless weaving and for export are also provided in this section.
Key words: Hosiery, shuttleless weaving, export, lint shedding, warping, sizing
13.1 Yarn quality requirements for hosiery yarns

In high speed circular knitting, the occurrence of sudden loads are very
common. Yarns with good recovery from stretch are ideal for high speed
knitting. Among other things, the elastic recovery of yarns is influenced by
the breaking elongation. Higher the breaking elongation of yarns better will
be the elastic recovery and vice versa. Yarns with breaking elongation >5%
will be good for high speed knitting.
The tendency of a yarn to shed fly or lint during any mechanical process
is termed as lint shedding. It is more predominant in knitting as the yarns are
not sized. Staple yarns have a characteristic hairiness that consists of fibre
ends and loops protruding from the surface. During knitting many of these
fibre ends and loops are either pulled or sheared from the yarn and accumulate
around the knitting elements, guides and other machine parts.
These fibre accumulations are picked up by the incoming yarn; they jam
the needles, break the yarn or the needles and deteriorate the fabric appearance.
Around 25% of all the faults occurring during knitting process can be traced
directly back to the incidence of lint/fibre fly. This excludes faults such as
needle stripes and dropped stitches.
Hence, the lint shedding propensity (LSP) of yarns used for knitting must
be as low as possible to avoid the attendant problems. Among other things, the
fibre and yarn parameters which influence the LSP of cotton yarns are:
1. Short fibre content in cotton
2. Yarn hairiness and
3. Twist employed in spinning
Yarn quality requirements for high-speed machines 357
An important aspect of fabric quality that determines its visual rating is

the uniformity of cover between small areas of the order of 5 sq. cm. A lack of
this uniformity gives rise to what is commonly called a “patchy” fabric. It is
a common practice for the textile mills to assess the variation in mass per unit
length of the yarns by capacitance type evenness tester. Besides the CV% of
mass, the extent of variation is expressed by imperfections, which consists of
thin places, thick places and neps.
The imperfections are measured at the following sensitivity levels:
1. Thin places: −50%
2. Thick places: +50%
3. Neps: +200% (+280% for O.E. Yarns)
However, the studies have shown that, extra sensitive imperfections
i.e. thin places measured at (−40%) and (−30%) sensitivity levels, thick
places measured at (+35%) sensitivity level and neps measured at (+140%)
sensitivity level have a better correlation with yarn appearance as well as
fabric appearance, as compared to that of normal imperfections. Hence, extra
sensitive imperfections need to be maintained as low as possible to produce
fabrics with good consumer appeal.
Random periodic hairiness variation in the yarn results in a cloudy
appearance of the knitted fabric after dyeing/finishing. Twist variation in yarn
is another important factor having a significant influence on fabric barre (visual
phenomenon and any yarn property which makes the yarn look different from
the adjacent yarn in a fabric cause this defect.).
In a study on performance related characterization of cotton yarns for high
speed knitting, it was found that objectionable faults (A3, A4, B3, B4, C2,
C3, C4 and D2, D3 and D4), long thick faults and long thin faults measured
by classimat system affect breaks on high speed weft knitting machines
significantly.
In contrast to weaving yarns, the strength requirement of hosiery yarns, is
secondary as the loading placed on the yarn during knitting is lower than that
with a high speed loom. The ability of the yarn to be guided easily through
various elements of the knitting machine is important for a hosiery yarn.
This would call for low co-efficient of friction (yarn to metal). The friction
coefficient (µ) for a hosiery yarn should be around 0.15. The moisture content
in the yarn should be evenly distributed. Yarns in a c1imatised condition
provide better running properties and a better appearance of the finished
fabric. Requirement profile of different counts of 100% cotton combed yarns
for knitwear is given in Tables 13.1–13.7.
Table 13.1 Yarn quality requirements for hosiery yarns
Count (Ne) (cone yarn)

Quality parameter
30s CH 40s CH 60s CH
Unevenness U% 9.5 10.5 11.5
Yarn count CV (%) 1.0 1.2 1.4
Rkm (gms/tex) 17.0 17.5 19.0
CV of tenacity (%) 3.0 3.5 4.5
Elongation (%) 5.0 4.8 4.5
CV of elongation (%) 8 8 8
A1/B1/C1/D1 per 100 km Mean 50 Mean 50 Mean 100
A3/B3/C2/D2 per 100 km Mean 2 Mean 2 Mean 3
E per 100 km Max 0.2 Max 0. 2 Max 1.0
H2/I2 per 100 km Max 1.0 Max 1.0 Max 2.0
Table 13.2 Norms for normal imperfections/km (cone yarns)
Normal imperfections per km

Count (Ne) Thin places Thick places Neps Total
(−50%) (+50%) (+200%)
20s KH 0 55 100 155
30s KH 1 125 224 350
40s KH 4 200 500 704
30s CH 1 18 40 59
40s CH 2 30 60 92
60s CH 7 50 90 147
Table 13.3 Norms for extra sensitive imperfections/km (cop yarns)
Extra sensitive imperfections per km

Count (Ne) Thin places Thick places Neps Total
(−40%) (+35%) (+140%)
30s KH 150 650 750 1550
40s KH 300 1300 1400 3000
30s CH 30 250 300 580
40s CH 100 350 350 800
60s CH 200 500 750 1450
Table 13.4 Norms for Uster Hairiness Index (H) (cone yarns)
Count (Ne) Uster Hairiness Index (H)

Carded
30s H 6.5
40s H 6.0
Combed
30s H 5.5
40s H 5.0
60s H 4.0
Table 13.5 Norms for Zweigle hairiness (S3 values) (cop yarns)
Count (Ne) Zweigle hairiness (S3 values)

Carded
30s H 400
40s H 500
Combed
30s H 20
40s H 250
60s H 500
Table 13.6 Guideline values for foreign fibre cuts/1 00 km in auto winders
Count (Ne) 20s KH 30s KH 40s KH 20s CH 30s CH 40s CH 60s CH

Clearer
10 15 15 20 15 20 30
cuts/100 km
Table 13.7 Guideline values for lint shedding of cotton yarns
Count (Ne) Lint shedding (mg/g of yarn)

20s KH 300
20s CH 200
30s CH 150
40s CH 275
50s CH 300
60s CH 200
100s CH 850
Lint Shedding is measured by using Constant Tension Transport (CTT)

instrument by Lawson Hemphill Inc., USA. For hosiery yarns, lint shedding
is about 20% higher as compared to warp yarns.
13.1.1 Yarn faults influencing some of the knitted fabric

defects (Table 13.8)
Table 13.8 Knitted fabric fault caused by yarn fault
Type of yarn fault Knitted fabric defect

Relatively low strength Holes and cracks
High mass unevenness Cloudy fabric
Insufficiently waxed yarn Drop stitches and cloth fall out
Improper dyeing Horizontal stripes
High level of hairiness Diffused stitch appearance and fluff build-up
Periodic faults Fabric with stripes
13.1.2 Polyester/viscose blended yarns for hosiery

applications (few considerations)
Hosiery fabrics from 100% cotton as well as P/C and C/V are quite common
as nightwear garments, T-shirts and other inner and outer garments. P/V
fabrics are more comfortable when compared with P/C due to higher moisture
regain of viscose.
Studies have shown that the “non-acceptability” of P/V knitted fabrics
by the consumers is due to “high level of pilling” in these fabrics. Pilling
propensity of a fibre is influenced, among other things, by the flexural
rigidity. The specific flexural rigidity of some of the popular fibres is given in
Table 13.9.
Table 13.9 Flexural rigidity of various fibres
Fiber type Specific flexural rigidity (mN.mm2/tex2)

Silk 0.6
Cotton 0.53
Polyester 0.30
Wool 0.24
Acrylic 0.45
Viscose 0.35
Nylon 0.20
As compared to cotton, viscose has low flexural rigidity to the extent of

about 35%. Lower the flexural rigidity, higher will be the pilling propensity
and vice versa. The higher pilling tendency of viscose is the main reason
behind the poor acceptance of P/V knits as compared to P/C knits. “Low Pill”
viscose fibres (similar to low pill polyester fibres that are already available
in the market) need to be developed if P/V knitted fabrics is to be acceptable
in the market. The low pilling tendency of acrylic which is attributed to the
relatively high flexural rigidity is responsible for 100% acrylic knitted fabrics
being quite popular in the market.
13.2 Yarn quality requirements for export

Requirement profile of different counts of 100% cotton combed yarns for
export is given in Table 13.10.
Table 13.10 Yarn quality requirements for 100% combed yarn for export
RKM (cN/Tex) Contamination / kg

Count Count Total Rkm
(Ne) CV% Imp. Hosiery Warp CV% White
Obj Total Others
guaranteed
20s 1.2 <25 >14 >17 <8.5 <0.5 <50 <1.0 <3.0
30s 1.3 <40 >15 >17.5 <9 <0.5 <60 <1.0 <3.0
40s 1.3 <80 >16 >18 <9 <0.5 <80 <1.0 <3.0
50s 1.4 <100 >16 >18.5 <9 <0.5 <90 <1.0 <3.0
60s 1.4 <150 >16.5 >18.5 <9.5 <1.0 <110 <1.0 <3.0
80s 1.6 <300 >16.5 >18.5 <9.5 <1.0 <180 <1.0 <3.0
13.3 Yarn quality characteristics of sewing threads

Some of the important yarn quality requirement profiles for sewing threads
are given in Table 13.11.
Table 13.11 Yarn quality for sewing threads
S. no. Type of yarn Tenacity (g/tex) Elongation at break (%)

1 Cotton 23–28* 5–8
2 Spun polyester 25–38* 12–20
3 Core spun polyester 30–43 14–24
4 Polyester filament 45–55 15–30
• Depends upon the yarn count and number of plies in the thread
structure. Higher number of plies in the thread structure will yield
higher yarn strength and vice versa.
13.4 Yarn quality requirements for shuttleless

weaving
Modern weaving machines stand out as an expensive class compared to
conventional machines in terms of capital investment. This basic difference
requires certain pre-requisites to be considered while planning to venture into
modern weaving machines. The quality of yarn used on shuttleless looms is
the prime criteria considered for quality weaving.
For the successful installation of shuttleless looms, it becomes inevitable
to go for quality yarn and optimization of the preparatory operations prior to
weaving. A better quality yarn leads to a quality warp and sized beam which
consequentially gives an efficient weaving operation both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
When considering yarns for weaving, particularly with warp yarns, the
strength of the yarn to withstand all the stages of subsequent processing is of
extreme importance because tension on the warp on a high speed shuttleless
weaving machine is higher than that on a conventional loom. On some Rapier
looms, interference by rapiers, at the initial points of entry and terminal point
of shed exit, can cause bending of the top yarn sheet around the rapier head
producing excessive warp strain on the selvedge region of warp.
Table 13.12 Yarn quality requirements for shuttleless weaving
Yarn quality 40s C 60s C 80s C

Yarn count CV (%) 1.4 1.5 1.7
Tenacity (g/tex) 20.0 21.0 22.0
CV (%) of tenacity 7.5 8.0 9.5
Evenness CV (%) 13.0 13.5 15.0
Breaking elongation (%) 5.50 5.00 4.75
Hairiness Index (H) 3.8 3.0 2.8
Zweigle Hairiness (S3 value) 575 920 530
Normal imperfections per km 80 150 300
Extra sensitive imperfections per km
Thin place (−40%) 50 150 350
Thick place (+35%) 200 350 450
Neps (+140%) 175 300 400
Total imperfections 425 800 1200
Classimat – Objectionable faults
(A3, A4, B3, B4, C2, C3, C4, D2, D3, D4) ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.0
Long thick place (E, F, G) ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.0
Long thin place (H1, H2, I1, I2) 10.0 15.0 22.0
More than the average strength, it is the minimum strength of yarns

which determines the breakage rate during high speed warping and high
speed weaving. Minimum strength of yarn should not be lower than 70–75%
of average strength. Consistency of single end strength, CV of count and
elongation is essential. Yarn should be more even and the certain parameters
of yarn are to be critically reviewed. They are CV of count, single thread
strength, CV of single thread strength, imperfections per 1,000 meters
such as thick places, thin places, and neps. Hairy yarn will not be suitable
in air jet weaving as it misdirect the weft insertion. Table 13.12 gives the
recommendation for the yarn quality for shuttleless weaving machines.
13.4.1 Warp and weft preparation

It is absolutely necessary that machine stoppage rate per 10,000 warp ends
and 1, 00,000 picks should be considerably reduced for successful installation
of shuttleless looms. Because of much smaller shed size, reed sweep and
abrasion time, the warp preparation standards acceptable for automatic looms
will lead to less warp breakages if the same yarn is used on high speed looms.
Yarn imperfections which would pass into the cloth on an automatic
loom fail to do so on a machine like projectile loom because of the following
reasons:
• The reed is less flexible.
• The characteristics of beat-up are considered to be more detrimental
than those with conventional sley.
• When the movement of adjacent shed is impeded due to some
projection hanging in the form of wild yarn, fluff, scissoring action of
the knots, etc, hindrance in the path of the yarn will be chopped off to
cause a multiple break.
• Number of abrasion cycles is more because of high speed.
13.4.2 Winding
All medium and fine counts and all blended yarns with polyester components
should be wound on automatic winding machines like Autoconer, Murata, etc.
In choosing optimum clearing settings, indiscriminate removal of thick places
is not desirable since removal of each fault is replaced by another fault namely
a knot. Knots act as sharp instruments on the adjacent threads, besides being
responsible for peak tensions generated during weaving. Tail ends of knots
come in the way of clear shed formation and can be a cause of multiple breaks.
Hence, each thick place is to be assessed with respect to its length, and only
objectionable faults may be removed. The size of the tail ends of knots should
be small. The knotter is to be selected based upon the yarn number. A spliced
yarn gives good results. It would be desirable that a splicer is provided instead
of a knotter on the winding machine to give good results and to get rid of all
the disadvantages of knots. A large number of automatic winding machines
are equipped with knot/ splice tester which ensure 90–95% perfect joints.
13.4.3 Warping
At warping, the goal should be to avoid missing ends. Number of thread
breakages should not exceed seven per 10 million meters. This can be achieved
by ensuring a top quality yarn package and by following the warping process
parameters mentioned below:
• Precise creel alignment
• Reliable stop motion on creel and on warping drum, so that broken
ends are traceable for knotting
• Minimum wobbling of warping beams
• Uniform selvedge with good flanges
• Yarns should be preferably warped on spindle driven machines to
avoid thermal damage due to abrasion
The guidelines for end breaks during high speed warping are given in
Table 13.13.
Table 13.13 Guideline for end breaks in warping machine
End breaks per million meters of yarn beamed

Rating
Carded yarn Combed yarn
Good 5 3
Average 7 5
Poor 10 7
13.4.4 Sizing
The process of sizing greatly influences the performance of the shuttleless
weaving machine. The concept of single end sizing is more ideal for yarn
prepared for all shuttleless weaving machines particularly wider width
machines with a large number of ends. Single end sizing facilitates proper
encapsulation of size on the yarn and reduces hairiness particularly of blended
yarns resulting in a very clear shed formation which is a must for shuttleless
weaving. Double size beams are recommended to avoid overcrowding.
An optimum number of ends in the size box is given by optimum ends
= 0.5 × (width of nip of size box) diameter of yarn.
13.4.5 Weft preparation

Weft insertion rate is high and unwinding is intermittent on shuttleless
weaving machines. Hence, it is necessary to have a hard wound packages. It
is essential to have anti patterning device to prevent slough off on the fabrics.
For spun yarns, parallel wound package with core diameter of package of 95
mm and a traverse of 90 mm give a good performance. Smaller core diameter
of package increases the unwinding tension and enhances the possibility of
high weft breakage. Weft accumulators are to be used on high speed weaving
machines when the weft insertion rate is above 1000 m/min.
The number of short stops in weaving is an important quality attribute of
the “weavability” of a yarn. For 100% combed cotton yarn reference values
for the number of short stops of the weaving machine as a result of weft
breaks are given in Table 13.14.
Table 13.14 Guideline for weft breaks in weaving machine
Rating Short stops / 1,00,000 meter of yarn due to weft breaks

Good 1.5
Average 2.0
Poor 2.5
13.5 Measures to produce better yarns

Better yarn properties do not necessarily result in increasing costs, but in the
long-term they usually provide a reduction in costs. The measures to produce
better quality yarns are follows:
• Detection of raw material variation and its reduction (a basic and
fundamental requirement)
• Reduction in the coefficient of variation values of the yarn quality
characteristics (and this primarily)
• Elimination of rare yarn faults (weak places), which is becoming
more and more important
• Increase of the yarn breaking force and elongation at break
• Application of high-quality preparation machines and spinning units
(or improvement of those available)
• Supervision and control at all the spinning processes (also a basic
requirement)
• Obtaining optimum conditions with all machines
• Use of automation (according to existing mill conditions)
• Elimination of any negative ambient influences
13.6 References
1. Hisham, A. Azzam, Sayed T. Mohamed (2005). Adapting and tuning quality
management in spinning Industry, Autex research journal, 5(4), p.246.
2. Chellamani, K. P. and Vittopa, M. K. (2009). Quality Requirements for Hosiery Yarns,
Textile Review, p.13.
3. Sajid Ahmed Qureshi (2004). Requisites in preparatory operations for shuttleless
weaving, Textile Magazine, 45, p.33.
4. SITRA Focus (2005). Yarn quality requirements for shuttleless looms – Part I & II, 22,
p.1.
5. SITRA Focus (2012). Improving yarn quality towards reducing knitted fabric defects
– A case study, 30, p.1.
6. SITRA Focus (2003). Yarn quality requirements for high speed knitting and weaving,
21, p.1.
Annexure:
Basic conversion charts
Classification of cotton
Length [Inch] /16” to 5/16”
13
Short staple
/32” to 11/8”
31
Medium staple
1 /32” to 11/4”
5
Medium to long staple
19/32” to 13/8” Long staple
113/32” to 13/4” Extra long staple
Fineness below 3.0 Very fine
[Microgram/inch = µg/ 3.0–3.9 Fine
in] = Micronaire 4.0–4.9 Average
5.0 – 5.9 Rather coarse
6.0 and higher Coarse
Breaking strength 93 and higher 87–92 Excellent
[Pressley 1000 lbs/ 81–86 Very strong
inch2] 75–80 Strong
70–74 Average
below 70 Weak
Maturity 82% and higher Mature
[% Causticaire] 76% to 81% Medium-mature
70% to 75% Immature
below 70% Very immature
Uster Statistics 5% to 10% Very good
10% to 25% Good
25% to 50% Average
50% to 75% below average
75% - 95% much below average
Shirley-Analyzer −1.2% Trash Very clean
[Rieter Standard] 1.21% to 2.0% Clean
2.01% to 4.0% Average
4.01% - 7.0% dirty
7.01% and more very dirty
Spinning limits
Spinning limit Yarn tex
Number of fibres Ø =
Fibre tex
Long staple material (wool and blends) staple 40 Fibres Ø 55 Fibres Ø 70 Fibres
fibre 3.3dtex / 50–60–80 mm staple fibre Ø 70–80 Fibres Ø 120–150 Fibres Ø
1.3–1.7 dtex / 38–40 mm Cotton – Ring yarn
Cotton – Rotor yarn
Yarn break standards
Yarn breaks / 100 Spd/h or R/h

Yarn − break × 1000
Yarn break /100 h =
Run − time / h × No. Spd / h
CO combed CO carded Long staple

Rotor yarn Rating
ring yarn ring yarn 100%
12 14 38 20 Good
23 28 75 30 Average
48 58 150 55 Poor
Quality values
A% Mean deviation of the count from the set value as determined
with reference to a defined duration (almost shift)
U% Count variation = out-of-date

CV% =1.25.U%
CV% Coefficient of variation of evenness

CV = S/ X
s = Standard deviation
X = Mean value
CVL × m Coefficient of variation of count for the set cut length ×

x = 1 m, 3 m, 10 m, 100 m, or yards
Sliver count Graphic depiction of periodically occurring unevenness (Peak)

spectrogram = Poisson distribution
Range or wavelength, which the data system can measure: a
few cm to several 100m
Basic conversion
Name of the unit Symbol Metric unit
1 inch 2.54 cm
in.
1 foot (=12 in.) 0.3048 m
Length unit ft
1 yard (=3 ft) 0.9144 m
yd
1 mile 1609.344 m
1 square inch sq in. 6.4516 cm2

Area units 1 square foot sq ft 929.030 cm2
1 square yard sq yd 0.836127 m2
1 grain Gr 0.064799 g
Mass units 1 ounce oz 28.3495 g
1 pound (=10 oz) lb 0.453592 kg
1 ounce-force ozf 0.278014 N

Force units
1 pound-force (=16 ozf) lbf 4.44822 N
Pressure 1 pound-force per square inch lbf/in2 6894.76 N/m2

units 1 pound-force per square foot lbf/ft2 47.8803 N/m2
1 kilogram-force. Nec 1 kgf.Nec 0.579 cN/tex

Tenacity
1 gram-force per denier 1 gf/den 8.838 cN/tex
Conversion for temperature

°F – 32 [°C]
Temperature 1° Fahrenheit °F
1.8
1° Celsius °C 1.8x °C + 32[°F]
°F 50 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
°C 10 16 18 21 24 27 29 32 38
Sliver weight from metric to imperial units

g/m 20 30 40 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
gr/yd 282 423 564 706 776 847 917 988 1058 1129 1199 1270 1411
Yarn count system

The weight m The unit tex reveals how many
system tex = (g/km) Grams per 1000 m, a product
1
weighs.
dtex for fibres tex for yarn
ktex for slivers
The length m i.e. Nm 10 defines, that 10 m

system Nm = (m/g, mm/mg, km/ Material weigh 1 Gram.
1
kg)
Hank (840 yd) i.e. Nec 60 defines, that 60

Nec = Hank ( 840 yd) weigh 1 Pound
Pound (lb)
(lb)
Conversion 590.541
1000
Nm = Ne =
tex tex
Ne = 0.590541 x Nm Nm = 1.69336 x Ne
dtex = µg/in x 0.394 (µg/in = micronaire)
Conversion for twist factor
Twist Twist Multiplier
With Ne T/in = αe × √Ne

With Nm T/m = αm × √Nm T / in
With Ne α e =
√ Ne
With tex T/m = αtex/ √tex
T /m
T/m = T/in × 39.4; T/in = T/m × 0.0254 With Nm αm =
√ Nm
Weft twist = Warp × 0.9
With tex αtex = T/m × √tex
Knit twist = Warp × 0.8
from
αtex αm αe
to
αtex – 31.6 × αm 957 × αe
αm αtex 31.6 – 30.3 × αe
αm
αe αtex 957 –
30.3
Conversion of count systems
from to Tex dtex den grains yard µg inch Nm Necotton NeL New Y.S.W.
den × grains µg/inch 1000 590.5 1653.5 885.8 1937.7

tex – dtex × 0.1 x 70.86
0.111 yard 25.4 Nm Necotton NeL NeW Y.S.W.
den grains µg/inch 10000 5905.4 16535 8858 19377

dtex tex × 10 – x 708.6
×1.11 yard 2.54 Nm Necotton NeL NeW Y.S.W.
grains µg/inch 9000 5314.9 14882 7972.3 17439

den tex × 9 dtex × 0.9 – x 637.7
yard 2.82 Nm Necotton NeL NeW Y.S.W.
grains tex dtex den µg/inch 14.1 8.33 12.5 27.34

– 23.33 NeL
yard 70.86 708.6 637.7 1801.4 Nm Necotton NeW Y.S.W.
tex × dtex × den × grains/yard 25400 15000 42000 22500 49218

µg inch –
25.4 2.54 2.82 ×1801.4 Nm Necotton NeL NeW Y.S.W.
1000 10000 9000 14.1 25400 Necotton NeL × Y.S.W.×

Nm – NeW ×1.13
Tex dtex den grains/yards µg inch ×1.693 0.605 0.516
590.5 5905.4 5314.9 8.33 15000 Nm NeW Y.S.W.

Necotton – NeL 2.8
Tex dtex den grain/yards µg inch 1.693 1.5 3.28
1653.5 16535 14882 23.33 42000 Nm Necotton × Y.S.W.

NeL – NeW ×1.87
Tex dtex den grains/yards µg inch 0.605 2.8 1.1172
885.5 8858 7972.3 12.5 22500 Nm Necotton Y.S.W.

New NeL 1.87 –
Annexure: Basic conversion charts
Tex dtex den grains/yards µg inch 1.13 ×1.5 2.187
1937.7 19377 17439 27.34 49218 Nm Necotton × NeL × NeW

Y.S.W. –
Tex dtex den grains/yards µg inch 0.516 3.28 1.172 ×2.187
371
AFIS results
Characteristics Unit Description
Nep Count/Gm Entangled fibers are called as nep
Nep Size micron
Fragment of cotton seed with some fiber

Seed Coat neps Count/Gm
attached
Seed Coat neps

micron
Size
SFC(W) % Fibres lesser than 12.7 mm (by weight)
SFC(n) Fibres lesser than 12.7 mm (by number)
Upper Quadrant length, length which all 25% of

UQL mm
the fibers by weight exceed in a cotton sample
5% Length (n) mm 5% of the fibres are longer than that length
Length (w) mm Mean length of fiber by weight
Length (n) mm Mean length of fiber by number
Calculated value of fineness, not taken for any

Fibre Fineness mtex
reference
Calculated value of maturity, not taken for any

Maturity Ratio
reference
Percentage of all fibers that have a cell wall

Immature Fibre
% thickness covering less than 25% of the full
content
area
AFIS report
HVI results
Characteristics Unit Description
Length (2.5% or 2.5% - 2.5% of the fibres are longer than that
mm
UHML) length. UHML – Upper Half Mean Length (file 1)
Micronaire Microgram/inch (µg/inch)
Breaking strength of fiber. If the same fibre is

tested on stelometer, it will be lowest. If tested on
Strength Gm/Tex
HVI (ICC mode) it will be bit high. If tested in HVI
in HVI mode, it will be highest among three.
Mean length /UHML, it is an indication of

Uniformity Index %
distribution of fibers within the fibrogram.
It is an indication of amount of fiber less than 12.7

Short Fibre Index
mm.
It is a measurement of elastic behavior of fibers

Elongation % % in a bundle. Yarn elongation of 80% depends on
fiber elongation.
Reflectance on hunters
%
Scale (Rd Value) It is an indicator of shade of the cotton. If both
are measured, we will get a value in the chart. In
a mixing we can mix only nearest value cotton to
Degree of Yellowness avoid shade variation

on hunters Scale (+b)
Trash Count on surface Number
Indication of content of trash. Not considered for

any decision.
Percentage of sample
%
area covered by trash
Indicative of maturity. Shell wall thickness. A

Maturity Index
calculated value.
Amount of moisture constant in material. Normally

Moisture content in
% 5 to 8 will be there in cotton. For yarn realization
material
of yarn this has to be taken for calculation.
It is a calculation for predicting for the spinability

Spinning Consistency
of the fibers. Especially consistency in spinning
Index (SCI)
like strength and end breaks.
HVI Report
Sampling in different departments

Sample Test to be Sample size Testing Remarks
conducted instrument
for
Sliver Hank, 5 m 20 Samples Wrap reel Can from delivery to
(Card, D/F, CV, 1 meter be taken from Card /
Comber) CV (D/F) Drawframe/ comber
Sliver (Card, Evenness, Min 125 Evenness Sliver to be collected
Comber, Spectrogram, meters tester in separate can
D/F) Mass ( 2 samples ) arrangement without
diagram, VL spring force upwards.
curve ( free fall sliver to be
collected )
Sliver (Card, Neps, fibre 0.5 g in AFIS – Sample to be collected
Comber) length , SFC, Uster AFIS, Uster at
Trash 5 g Premier Accura – different portion of a
ACCURA 5 Premier single delivery can
tests
Roving Hank , CV% 15 yards Warp reel Ensure no stretch
10 Bobbins in wrap reel during
unwinding
Roving Evenness, Min 125 m Evenness Ambient conditions
Spectrogram, 5 samples tester
Mass
diagram, VL
curve
Yarn Count , 120 yards Wrap reel Ambient conditions

Count CV% 10 samples
Yarn Evenness, 10 cops Evenness Ambient conditions
Diagram, Min 1000 m tester
Spectrogram,
IPI,
Hairiness,
Diameter,
Density,
Trash
Yarn Tenacity, 20 tests / Tensorapid Ambient conditions
Elongation bobbin – Tensojet
Tensorapid
1000 tests/
bobbin –
Tensojet
Yarn Classimat 1000 km Uster Ambient conditions
Classimat
Fibre properties – Process variables – Yarn quality

mapping to produce high quality yarns
F.Q. – P.V. – Y.Q. Mapping in 30s CH

Mixing S4 Mech 1 M&LR Yarn Properties
Fibre Properties (By HVI-ICC Mode) Count CV 1.1 1.3 1.2
(%) (5&25) (25&50) (25)
2.5% SL (mm) 27.1 26.8 26.9 Str. CV 4.0 4.5 3.5
(%)
Misc. value (µg/inch) 4.0 3.8 4.0 Rkm (g/ 17.5 17.4 17.1
tex) (25&50) (25&50) (25&50)
Bundle strength (g/ 21.1 21.0 20.8 Rkm CV 7.2 7.3 7.3
tex) (%) (25&50) (25&50) (25&50)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 28.2 28.0 28.1 Br.Elong. 5.4 5.0 4.9
(%) (50) (75&95) (75&95)
Major Process Parameters Yarn U%- 9.9 9.8 9.8
Cop (25&50) (25&50) (25&50)
Card D.S. 120 155 135 Yarn U% - 10.1 10.1 10.1
(mpm) 5.5 6.5 6.5 Cone
Waste (%)
Comber Spd(n/min) 350 250 400 Y.Imp./Km 70 75 78
Waste (%) 17.0 20.0 19.0 – Cop (25&50) (25&50) (25&50)
Draw D.S.(mpm) 400 350 500 Y/Imp/ 85 90 90
Frame Km. –
Cone
Fly F.S.(rpm) 900 1100 960 Hair.Index 5.3 5.2 5.2

Frame TM 1.40 1.24 1.3 – Cop (75&95) (75&95) (75&95)
Ring Spd (rpm) 16000 16700 16500 Hair.Index 6.2 6.3
Frame T.P.I. 19.2 20.3 19.2 - Cone 6.1
R.Dia. 42 40 40
(mm)
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1300 1400 1500 TPI 17.8 17.1 16.9
Winder CV (%) 4.00 3.98 4.60
D.F.SI. 13 15 15
SFC (n)
%
D.F.SI. 4.9 5.2 3.8
SFC (w)
%
F.Q. – P.V. – Y.Q. Mapping in 40s CH

Mixing MCU5, MCH, W.Af Yarn Properties
S6 S6
Fibre Properties (By HVI-ICC Mode) Count CV(%) 1.2 1.3 1.4
(5&25) (5&25) (5&25)
2.5% SL (mm) 31.5 30.0 29.0 Str. CV (%) 5.1 5.1 4.7
Mic.Value (µg/inch) 3.9 3.8 4.3 Rkm (g/tex) 18.2 17.5 16.0
(25&50) (25&50) (75)
Bundle Strength (g/tex) 26.0 25.2 26.5 Rkm CV (%) 9.0 8.8 8.8
(75) (75) (75)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 24.0 24.5 24.0 Br.Elong. (%) 4.64 4.5 4.6
(75&95) (75&95) (75&95)
Major Process Parameters Yarn U% - 9.9 10.0 10.2
Cop (25) (25) (25)
Card D.S.(mpm) 71 105 14 0 Yarn U% - 10.1 10.3 10.4
Waste (%) 7.0 6.5 6.0 Cone
Comber Spd(n/min) 200 350 240 Y.Imp./Km – 95 101 107
Waste (%) 20.0 21.0 22.0 Cop (5&25) (25) (25)
Draw D.S.(mpm) 230 500 400 Y/Imp/Km. – 110 120 130
Frame Cone
Fly Frame F.S.(rpm) 950 950 1000 Hair.Index – 4.5 4.7 4.8
TM 1.15 1.3 1.14 Cop (50&75) (75&95) (75&95)
Ring Spd (rpm) 16000 16500 16000 Hair.Index - 5.9 6.0

Frame T.P.I. 21.6 22.1 23.8 Cone 5.61
R.Dia.(mm) 38 38 38
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1200 1200 1300 TPI 22.0 19.8 21.4
Winder CV (%) 4.90 5.00 4.80
D.F.SI.SFC 12.4 12.9 12.4
(n) %
D . F. S I . S F C 4.20 4.70 4.30
(w) %
F.Q. – P.V. – Y.Q. Mapping in 40s CW

Mixing MCU5 S6 BOLA Yarn Properties
Fibre Properties (By HVI-ICC Mode) Count CV (%) 1.1 1.1 1.7
(5&25) (5&25) (50)
2.5% SL (mm) 32.0 29.5 30.0 Str. CV (%) 4.1 3.7 3.9
(5&25) (5&25) (5&25)
(50&75) (50&75) (50&75)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 24.0 24.5 24.5 Br.Elong. (%) 4.7 4.6 4.4
(75&95) (75&95) (75&95)
Major Process Parameters Yarn U%-Cop 9.9 10.0 10.2
(5) (5) (5)
Card D.S.(mpm) 110 95 66 Yarn U% – 10.0 10.1 10.4
Waste (%) 6.5 7.0 7.0 Cone
Waste (%) 18.0 20.0 20.0 Cop (5&25) (5&25) (5&25)
Frame Cone
TM 1.1 1.1 1.2 Cop (25) (25&50) (25)
Frame T.P.I. 26 26.3 26.0 Cone 4.8
R.Dia.(mm) 38 38 38
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1150 1150 1150 TPI 24.1 25.8 24.2
Winder CV (%) 4.1 5.0 5.1
D.F.SI.SFC 11.0 13.5 13.9
(n) %
D.F.SI.SFC 4.8 5.1 5.2
(w) %

Mixing PIMA/ DCH/ MCU5 Yarn Properties
GIZA BR
(25) (25) (25)
2.5% SL (mm) 35.2 32.9 31.5 Str. CV (%) 3.9 4.1 4.0
(5&25) (5&25) (50&75)
(5&25) (25) (25)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 18.0 20.0 23.0 Br.Elong. (%) 5.3 5.0 4.7
(50) (75) (75&95)
(5&25) (5&25) (5&25)
Card D.S.(mpm) 90 23 80 Yarn U% - Cone 11.0 11.1 11.1
Waste (%) 6.0 6.0 7.0
Comber Spd(n/min) 350 240 400 Y.Imp./Km – Cop 130 142 155
Waste (%) 20.0 21.0 19.0 (25&50) (25&50) (25&50)
Frame Cone
Fly Frame F.S.(rpm) 1000 950 1100 Hair.Index – Cop 3.3 3.5 3.5
TM 1.3 1.0 1.1 (25) (50) (50)

Frame T.P.I. 28.3 31.9 32.1 Cone 4.0
R.Dia. 36 40 38
(mm)
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1200 1100 1100 TPI 28.7 29.4 29.1
Winder CV (%) 5.0 4.5 4.2
D.F.SI.SFC (n) % 8.0 10.5 10.5
D.F.SI.SFC (w) % 2.5 3.1 3.6

Mixing DCH,Pi DCH/ DCH/ Yarn Properties
Pi MCU5
(50) (25&50) (50&75)
2.5% SL (mm) 33.0 32.5 31.5 Str. CV (%) 4.2 5.3 5.5
(25&50) (25&50) (75&90)
(5&25) (50&75) (25&50)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 18.5 28.9 32.5 Br.Elong. (%) 4.7 4.9 4.7
(75&95) (50&75) (75&95)
(5&25) (50) (50)
Card D.S.(mpm) 40 40 50 Yarn U% - 12.2 12.9 13.1
Waste (%) 7.5 6.0 5.0 Cone
Waste (%) 23.0 21.0 18.0 Cop (5&25) (50&75) (75&95)
Frame Cone
TM 1.10 1.10 1.20 Cop (5&25) (25&50) (50&75)
Ring Spd (rpm) 18500 18500 16500 Hair.Index – 3.6 3.7 3.9
Frame T.P.I. 33.2 36.5 36.0 Cone
R.Dia.(mm) 36 38 40
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1200 1100 600 TPI 30.6 38.5 34.9
Winder CV (%) 5.1 5.1 5.5
D.F.SI.SFC 6.5 13.7 17.4
(n) %
D.F.SI.SFC 1.7 4.3 4.5
(w) %

Mixing PIMA PI / Pi/ Yarn Properties
DCH DCH
Fibre Properties (By HVI-ICC Mode) Count 1.7 1.4 1.4
CV(%) (25&50) (5&25) (5&25)
2.5% SL (mm) 34.5 33.5 33.0 Str. CV (%) 5.5 5.5 4.9
Mic.Value (µg/inch) 3.3 3.2 3.2 Rkm (g/ 21.0 20.1 19.7
tex) (50) (50&75) (75&95)
Bundle Strength (g/tex) 30.1 27.5 27.5 Rkm CV 12.1 11.5 13.6
(%) (25&50) (25) (50&75)
S.F.C. (n) (%) 26.0 31.0 29.0 Br.Elong. 4.9 5.0 4.6
(%) (25&50) (25) (75)
Major Process Parameters Yarn U%- 13.3 12.9 13.5
Cop (25&50) (25&50) (50)
Card D.S.(mpm) 81 70 40 Yarn U% - 13.7 13.5 14.2
Waste (%) 6.5 10.5 5.5 Cone
Comber Spd(n/min) 200 180 18 Y.Imp./Km 624 683 752
Waste (%) 20.0 23.0 18.0 – Cop
Draw D.S.(mpm) 300 300 250 Y/Imp/Km. 829 900 1100
Frame – Cone
Fly Frame F.S.(rpm) 1100 1100 850 Hair.Index 2.8 2.8 3.0
TM 1.10 1.10 1.00 – Cop (25) (25) (50&75)
Ring Spd (rpm) 18000 19000 17500 Hair.Index 3.4 3.4 3.5
Frame T.P.I. 41.4 40.4 41.6 - Cone
R.Dia.(mm) 36 36 38
Cone D.S.(mpm) 1000 1000 1000 TPI 36.8 34.5 38.9
Winder CV (%) 5.0 5.5 5.4
D.F.SI.SFC 12.0 11.9 17.0
(n) %
D.F.SI.SFC 3.6 3.2 4.5
(w) %
Uster standards for nep counts per grams (Neps/gm)

Combed spinning 5% 25% 50% 75% 95%
A – Bale 80 150 175 220 300
B – Card Material 200 300 400 450 500

C – Card Sliver 22 40 60 80 110
D – Ribbon Lap 20 40 55 80 105
E – Combed Sliver 10 20 30 45 80
F – Finisher Sliver 10 20 30 45 80
G – Roving 10 20 30 45 80
Uster standards for short fibre content SFC (n)

Combed spinning 5% 25% 50% 75% 95%
A – Bale 16.0 20.0 22.5 26.0 31.0
B – Card Material 17.5 22.0 25.0 27.5 32.5
C – Card Sliver 16.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 28.0
D – Ribbon Lap 15.5 18.0 21.0 24.0 26.0
E – Combed Sliver 6.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 19.0
F – Finisher Sliver 6.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 19.0
G – Roving 6.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 19.0
Uster Classimat
Elimination of Disturbing Yarn Faults
Subject Quality Abbrevia- Sensiti- Refer- Options Comment
character- tion vity ence needed
istics length
Elimination Neps N 100...500% < 1 cm The clearing

of disturbing curve can
thick and thin Short thick S 50...300% 1...10 cm be optimized
places places by means of
6 auxiliary
Long thick L 20...200% 10...200 cm setting
places points for the
S, L, T.
Thin places T –12... 10...200 cm
–90%
Elimination of Wrong Cp Cm +1...80% 20...
wrong counts bobbin (count –1... –80% 10000cm
variation
during start
up)
Long thick CCp CCm +1...+150% 1...10000cm Monitoring

and thin –1... – 80% of uneven
place (count long thin-and
variation thick places
during
winding
process)
Elimination of Pearl chain PC 18...500% 1,6...800 cm Q Furthermore,

pearl chains like yarn setting of the
faults fault length:
0,2 – 50 cm
and number
of faults: 5
– 500
Elimination of Dark foreign FD 5...100% 0,2...10 cm Q, F There are

foreign fibers fibers in light 6 auxiliary
yarns setting
points each
for the FD
and FL-
channel.
Light foreign FL 5 ...100% 0,2...10 cm Q, F FL is less
fibers in dark sensitive
yarns than FD
Abbreviation
B = Basic Q = Q-Data F = Foreign fibers
Determination of Quality Characteristics in Uster

Classimat
All quality characteristics are monitored continuously at every production
position.
Quality Abbreviation Technical Options Comment
characteristics specifications needed
Coefficient of CV-MV 50….10,000 m, Q No substantial variation
variation, per 0 ….99% when changing the
group evaluation length.
Measurement can be
started at bobbin change
on modern winding
machines.
Coefficient of CV-SP 50..10’000 m, Q No Substantial variation
variation, position 0 … 99% when changing the
evaluation length.
Imperfections: IPI Setting thresholds: Q Imperfections can
• Frequent thin -30/-40/-50/-60% Q be calculated for a
places reference length of
35/50/70/100% Q
100…2,000 m.
• Frequent thick 140/200/280/400%
places
• Frequent neps
Classification of CMT Length classes A B, Q Visual evaluation of
thick and thin to G: thin and thick places on
places 0 – 1 cm, 1 – 2 cm the basis of the USTER
Grades
2 – 4 cm, 4 – 8 cm,
8–32 cm, >32 cm
Thick place classes :
45–100%, 100–
150%, 150– 250%,
250–400%, > 400%
Thin places classes:
H1, H2, I1, I2:
–30…–45%, –45…
–75%
Pearl chain PC Q Total number of all PC

faults, Calculated per
100 km
Number of N, S, L, T Total number of
disturbing thick eliminated yarn faults,
and thin places calculated per 100 km
Wrong cut Cp, Cm Total number of
eliminated yarn faults,
calculated per 100 km
Count deviation CCp, CCm Q, F Total number of
and monitoring of eliminated yarn faults,
uneven long thick calculated per 100 km
and thin places
Classification of FD, FL Length classes A Q, F Total number of foreign
foreign fibres to F: fibres per class and
0–1 cm, 1–2 cm, 2–3 calculated per 100 km
cm, 3 – 5 cm, 5- 7 21 displayed foreign
cm, 7 – 10 cm fibres classes.
Reflectance classes: 1 table for FD, 1 table
5–10%, 10–20 %, for FL
20–30%, 30–100%
Case study – Higher lint loss in blow room

Problem Reported: More Lint in Trash
S. No. Material Processed Process Details

1 Mixing – MCU-5 + Sankar 6 Card hank – 0.14
2.5% Span Length – 25.2 Draw frame hank – 0.15
Fineness – 3.8 Speed frame hank – 1.5
Strength – 20 g/tex Ring frame count – 40s
Trash – 4.962
Maturity Co-efficient – 0.82
Blow room line: MBO – MONO – UNIMIX (without beater) – ERM –

CHUTE – LC 300 CARD - DF DO/6 – RSB – LF1400A S/F –– LG 5/1 R/F
Quality obtained before fine tuning
S. No. Machine Waste% Trash% Lint% Trash% in C.E% of
delivery m/c
1 MBO 1.80 65 35 4.218 15.0
2 MONO 1.31 55 45 3.418 18.96
3 UNIMIX 1.20 65 35 2.654 22.35
4 ERM 0.50 72 28 1.80 31.62
TOTAL 4.61 Overall 63.7%
Approach to the problem

1. Static pressure adjusted as per machinery manufacturer
recommendation
2. Deduster added in line in-between MBO and Mono cylinder and
feeding ventilator removed.
3. Beater speed M
BO – from 1000 to 800 rpm
Unimix – 800 rpm
ERM – 600 rpm
4. In MBO & Unimix
• Stop/Go ratio has been increased from 40/60% to 15/85%
• Waste plate setting is completely kept in opened condition. The
setting kept is 3/3/3/4/4
• Beater to grid bar setting closed from 5 to 3
• In Unimix and MBO, stripper to lattice setting changed from 25
to 20 mm
• Unimix feed ventilator speed reduced from 1800 to 1400 rpm
5. In ERM,
• Setting between feed roll reduced from 2.5 to 1 mm
• Traverse bar to beater changed from 1 to 2 mm
• Stop/Go ratio changed from 30/70% to 15/85%
• Feed ventilator speed changed from 2600 to 2000 rpm
• Waste plate setting kept is 3/3/3/4/4
• Beater to grid bar setting changed from 4 to 3 mm
Final results obtained
S. No. Machine Waste% Trash% Lint% Trash% in C.E% of

delivery m/c
1 MBO 2.1 72 18 3.54 28.65
2 MONO 2.3 70 29.67 2.426 31.4
3 UNIMIX 1.2 78 21.8 1.82 24.97
4 ERM 0.5 77 21.7 1.43 21.4
Overall 71.18%
Case study – More kitties in the yarn

Problem Reported: More kitties in the yarn due to which winding cuts
increased.
Blow Room Line:
Unimix Varioclean Flexi clean I Flexi clean II 7-Cards
Bale plucker
Unimix Varioclean Flexi clean I Flexi clean II 7-Cards
Approach to the problem: Straight away the waste analysis carried out.
Observations:
• On waste study the total% extracted is around 4.25% in total blow
room. Cleaning efficiency of the total line is around 45–50%.
• In card heavy seed coats loading noticed in flats.
• Quantity of waste is found ok. So, it is decided to study the quality of
waste. On analysis, the lint loss% is more (45–50%) in the waste.
Action Taken:
The following points were adjusted:
1. Static pressure checked and corrected in all the points.
2. Grid bar settings adjusted.
3. Guide sheet settings adjusted.
4. Lint loss reduced to 25–28% overall and cleaning efficiency improved
to 62% with the same quantity of waste.
5. Flats were cleaned thoroughly and flat stripper adjusted for proper
cleaning and resetting done.
Results: Yarn appearance improved and around 40 clearer cuts reduced.
Case study – Nep generation in blow room

Problem Reported: More nep generation in Blow room which affects the
quality of yarn.
S. No. Material Processed Process Details
1 Mixing – S4 Card hank – 0.13
Count – 30s K Draw frame hank – 0.125
Maturity Co-efficient – 0.82 Speed frame hank – 1.25
Staple Length – 29 mm Ring frame count – 30s
Fibre fineness – 3.56
Fibre strength – 20.68 gms/tex
Trash in mixing – 2.74
Blow room line: MBO – MONO – UNIMIX (without beater) – ERM I –

ERM II – AEROFEED
Approach to the problem:
1. Beater speed in various machine adjusted in blow room
2. Spacer and setting adjustment in ring frame
3. Mixing changing frequency studied.
Influence of beater speed on yarn quality:
S. Particulars Yarn Particulars

No.
Thin Thick Neps Total
1 As per mills trial 31 650 874 1555
2 After adjusting the suction pressure by 8 401 664 1074
adjusting the speed of feeding fan of
ERM, Chute and Unimix
3 MBO – Beater speed 1000 rpm, Mono 6 357 540 903
cylinder – 720, ERM II – Beater 445
rpm, Aerofeed – opening roll 710 rpm
cylinder – 720, ERM II – Beater 445
rpm, Aerofeed – opening roll 710 rpm
cylinder – 720, ERM I – Beater 445 rpm,
ERM II – Beater 445 rpm, Aerofeed –
opening roll 660 rpm
Setting adjustment in ring frame:

S. Particulars Yarn Particulars
No.
Thin Thick Neps Total
1 Spacer changed from 3.25 to 3.00 mm 2 266 533 768
2 Top roll setting changed from 52.5 to 2 185 460 647
50.5 and back zone setting is 59.5 mm
During this process un-drafting is also noticed frequently. TPI of rove is

reduced from 1.6 to 1.4 for 1.25 hank to solve this problem.
Conclusion:
1. The recommended beater speed: MBO – 600 rpm
MONO – 720 rpm
ERM II – 445 rpm
AEROFEED – 710 rpm
2. One ERM bypassed

3. Static pressure to be maintained.
4. The cleaning efficiency of blow room line is found 60%.
5. A frequent changing of lot to be minimized by mills to avoid the
variation in quality.
6. Total imperfection as per mills – 1555
7. As per the trials conducted – 1074
8. There is a reduction of 481 imperfections (30.9%)
9. After the adjustment of speeds in blow room line the total imperfection
level reduced from 1074 to 903 (16%)
10. After the adjustment in ring frame the total imperfection reduced to
647 (28.3%)
Case study – Improvement of productivity

Count Actual GPS 40S Converted GPS
40s CW 104 92
40S KW 106 108
30s CW 147 107
40s CW Lycra 58 94
30s CW Lycra 78 65
HOK
Department Actual Hok Std. Hok (Sitra)
Mixing and blow room 2.65 1.4
Carding 0.76 2.0
Draw frame 0.81 0.7
Speed frame 2.11 1.8
Ring frame 22.57 9.1
Ring frame Tenters 7.96 3.8
Ring frame Doffers 7.01 2.6
Ring frame Others 7.60 2.7
Total HOK 28.9 15.0
OHSAM
Actual OHSAM = 3.1
Std. OHSAM = 1.96
Actual Std.
Ring frame Tenter OHSAM = 0.92 0.50
Ring frame Doffer OHSAM = 0.81 0.34
Ring frame Others OHSAM = 0.88 0.35
Scope for improvement
Improvement in GPS
The GPS was found less compared to the standard GPS. The reasons for low
GPS are given below
Speed frame
The TPI was found high. The customer has kept higher TPI for good
performance which reduces the productivity and also leads to undrafting in
ring frame. So speed frame TPI can be optimized for good performance and
also to improve productivity.
Ring frame
1. Break Draft:
The Break draft in ring frame was kept as 1.23 due to higher TPI in speed
frame which in turn leads to undrafting. The B.D can be kept as 1.14 for
better performance and also to reduce weak places in yarn which improves
the warping performance.
2. Higher TM/TPI in ring frame:
In 40s CW the T.M can be reduced to 4.10 instead of 4.29 and in 40s KW
the T.M can be reduced to 4.25 from 4.33 for optimum performance and to
increase the productivity.
3. Top arm setting:
The present top arm setting is 48.5/63.5 which can kept as 50/62 for better
performance.
4. Breakage rate:
At present the breakage rate is around 6-7 breaks for the spindle speed of
12,250 rpm, which increase the Pneumafil waste up to 1.5%. The customer is
using low clearance traveller EL1 UDR and also running with low winding
length (3.9mm), which leads to higher end breaks.
Since the machines are running at slower speeds the 6 sides/tenter was
allotted which increase the patrolling time of tenter and affects the productivity.
The no. of sides can be reduced.
At present the cop content in ring frame is 35 gms which is low. This
leads to more number of doffs and in turn reduces the productivity. So the cop
content can be increased to improve the productivity.
Humidification plant and exhaust systems are not running, which causes
more accumulation of fluff in the department and leads to end breaks.
Maintaining the R.H% in the department.
More restarting breaks and more breaks (around 150 breaks) after
prolonged power failure were noticed.
Auto coner
The settings in autoconer are very close except A1, A2 & B1 which leads to
more no. of cuts and reduces the productivity.
More no. of cop rejections was noticed with Long snarl – double option
in ring frame which can be kept as long snarl – single.
Improvement in HOK and OHSAM
The mills HOK and OHSAM are at par from the standard values which
can be improved to increase the labour productivity.
Case study – Reduction of clearer cuts in yarn

Problem Reported: More Classimat faults in the yarn
Count processed: 40s KH
Mixing:
Cotton Variety: MECH
2.5% length: 28.5 mm
Trash %: 2.8
Misc: 3.8–4.2
Strength: 22 g/tex
SFC (n): 33.5
Classimat faults:
U% – 15.52 C3 – 2
Thin – 10 C4 – 2
Thick – 340 D1 – 1.6
Neps – 246 D2 – 1
Total – 596 D3 – 0.4
N – 10.1 D4 – 0.4
S – 40.6 E – 0.5
L – 118.5 F – 115
T – 1.8 G–1
A1 – 1000 H1 – 382
A2 – 39 H2 – 0
A3 – 5 I1– 0.2
A4 – 5 I2 – 0
B1 – 545 FD – 11.8
B2 – 48
B3 – 12
B4 – 8
C1 – 57
C2 – 12
Reduction of Nep cuts

1. The blow room beater speeds, ventilator speeds, feed roller to beater
setting in Unimix and flexi clean, stripper roller setting in Unimix has
to be optimized. The Unimix beater can be bypassed.
2. Flat setting, flat speed and condition of wire points can be checked.
Reduction of long thick faults

The mill is not running the humidification plant for the ring frame department
and also the housekeeping was also not good. Hence, improper maintenance
of machines, poor control of humidity and poor housekeeping in spinning
room will lead to long thick faults. Condition of drafting rollers, setting and
top roller pressure were checked and corrected in draw frame and ring frame.
Apron felting in simplex and ring frame.
Reduction of long thin faults

Carding:
1. Loading of under-casing has been checked
2. Tension draft checked
Drawframe:
1. Missing slivers in drawing
2. Piecing practice of tenders
3. Crushing of slivers in drawing (the gap between can and sliver has to
be increased).
4. Reducing creel tension draft and web tension draft.

5. Too low /high top roller pressure.
Speed frame:
1. Excessive roving stretch / insufficient TPI (TPI has been increased
from 1.37 to 1.44 in LFS 1660).
2. Use of empty bobbins with wide variation in diameter.
3. Higher creel draft
4. Too high break draft and in-appropriate selection of condensers
(spacer changed from black to green)
5. Sliver splitting while drafting (use of wider bore diameter trumpet in
finisher Drawframe). Sliver guides at feed should be adjusted such
that sliver run side by side but not crossing over each other.
6. Excessive top arm pressure may leads to roller lapping which leads to
long thin places.
Ringframe:
1. Creel stretch due to no free movement of bobbin holder.
2. Optimum back zone setting and break draft (wider setting and low
B.D may lead to long thin and thick places.
Result:
After making all the changes mentioned above the classimat results are given
below:
U% – 15.51 A2 – 27 C4 – 1 I1 – 0.5
Thin – 2 A3 – 4 D1 – 1 I2 – 0
Thick – 215 A4 – 0.5 D2 – 1
Neps – 183 B1 – 349 D3 – 0.5
Total – 400 B2 – 27 D4 – 0
N – 3.9 B3 – 2 E–0
S – 20.2 B4 – 1 F – 56
L – 56.5 C1 – 43 G–0
T – 1.0 C2 – 10 H1 – 112
A1 – 743 C3 – 3 H2 – 0
Reduction of short cuts in yarn

Short thick faults cuts are shortly termed as ‘short cuts’ in the clearer
system. Normally there are 16 classes in short class in the classimat systems.
Depending upon the severity of faults and their size, they have to be cleared
by suitable clearer settings. The examples for reduction of short cuts in the
yarn are given below:
Material: cotton, MECH
Count: 40s KH
Clearer setting:
% CM
N 300
S 120 2.5
L 40 40
H1 110 2.8
H2 100 4
H3 90 4
H4 51 10
H5 0 0
H6 0 0
Results:
U% – 15.52
Thin – 10
Thick – 340
Neps – 246
Total – 596
N – 10.1
S – 40.6
L – 118.5
T – 1.8
A1 – 1000 B1 – 545 C1 – 57 D1 – 1.6
A2 – 39 B2 – 48 C2 – 12 D2 – 1
A3 – 5 B3 – 12 C3 – 2 D3 – 0.4
A4 – 5 B4 – 8 C4 – 2 D4 – 0.4
Approach to reduce the short cuts

Raw material faults:
The faults created by the raw material quality i.e. due to raw material are
termed as raw material faults usually A1–A4 and B1 classes come under
this category. These faults can’t be reduced fully but can be controlled. The
reasons for these types of faults are
• Low micronaire value
• Higher Short Fiber Content (SFC) and immature fibres
• Presence of large amount of trash or higher proportion of seed coat
fragments in mixing
• Higher sugar content (honey dew) in fibre
Housekeeping in ring frame department and RH% in the departments has
to be controlled.
• Blow room and Carding:
• To reduce the raw material faults, the beater speeds in blow room has
been optimized and Unimix beater was bypassed.
• In carding, licker-in speeds (880 rpm), cylinder speed (430 rpm).
• Feed plate to lickerin setting was kept as 0.75 mm
• Feed weight was maintained around 400 g/m and draft of around 90.
Draw frame:
• Optimized roller setting. Back zone setting – 5% length + 4 mm and
Front zone setting – equal to 5% length
• Break Draft has to be optimized (1.28)
Speed frame: (LFS 1660):
• Improper roller setting to be corrected (Front bottom roller – 45 mm,
middle roller-47 mm)
• Break Draft to be optimized (1.19)
• Proper selection of condensers
• Optimized TPI (1.47)
• Improper drafting zone and flyer cleaning
• Apron condition has to be ensured
• Piecing practices to be corrected
• Spacer size to be optimized (Green)
• Top arm load to be checked
Ring frame:
• Optimized B.D
• Optimized spacer sizes (3.25 mm)
• Better housekeeping and R.H%
• Top and bottom apron condition checking
• Cleanliness of top and bottom clearer roller checking

• OHTC blowing and suction points to be checked
• Fly in traveler has to be avoided
• Bad work practice has to be avoided
After implementing all the above points the results are shown below
U% – 15.51
Thin – 2
Thick – 215
Neps – 183
Total – 400
N – 3.9
S – 20.2
L – 56.5
T – 1.0
A1 – 743 B1 – 349 C1 – 43 D1 – 1
A2 – 27 B2 – 27 C2 – 10 D2 – 1
A3 – 4 B3 – 2 C3 – 3 D3 – 0.5
A4 – 0.5 B4 – 1 C4 – 1 D4 – 0
Production balance in spinning mills

Entrepreneurs must fulfill many important requirements in order to set up
viable yarn manufacturing plants. Some of these requirements are selection
of most suitable site and machinery combination, economic size of the
unit and operational flexibility. However, once the plant has been installed
and commissioned, spinning managers endeavor to achieve the required
product quality at standard output rate. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain
production balance between preparatory, spinning and winding stages and
ensure the following parameters:
• No section of any winding machine should be out of production due
to shortage of yarn supply from the ring spinning shed.
• Similarly, the ring spinning frame or any back process machine
should not be idle due to shortage of feed material.
• There should not be an excessive stock of yarn, roving, sliver and
blowroom laps, as accumulation of material at any processing stage
may lead to temporary stoppage of the back process machine.
• Machines should not be operated at maximum speed in order to
consume the accumulated stock of back process materials.
Production program ring spinning

Assuming that the installed capacity of the spinning mill is 12,000 spindles
comprising of 10 Ring Spinning Frames (1200 spindles/machine), the daily
production will depend upon the production program.
Process parameters for production balancing

S. No. Department Process Parameters
1 Ring Frame Count – 40s

Spindle speed – 18,00 rpm
Machine Efficiency – 93.5%
TM – 4.35
TPI – 27.51
Waste – 2%
2 Speed Frame Hank – 1.2

Spindle speed – 1100 rpm
Machine Efficiency – 85%
TM – 1.25
TPI – 1.37
Waste – 1%
3 Finisher Draw frame Hank – 0.13

Delivery speed – 350 mpm
Machine efficiency – 80%
Waste % – 0.5%
4 Breaker Draw frame Hank – 0.13

Waste % – 0.5%
5 Carding Hank – 0.13

Waste % – 7%
6 Blow room Diameter of Lap Roller – 9”

Speed of Lap Roller – 15 rpm
Linear density of Lap – 400 g/m,
Lap length – 40 m
Efficiency – 85 %
Hank of Lap – 0.0015
Ring frame
Ring frame production / spindle/8 hrs
7.2 × Spindle speed ( rpm ) × Machine efficiency ( % )
=
Count × TPI × 100
7.2 × 18000 × 93.5
=
40 × 27.51 × 100
= 110 g / spindle / 8 h × No. of spindles
= 110 × 12000
Ring frame Actual Production = 1320 kg / 10 machines
Actual production
Ring frame (Required Input) =
(100 – std waste% ) /100
1320
=
(100 – 2 ) /100
= 1347 kgs
Simplex frames
On the basis of the foregoing assumptions, the number of Simplex frames
required to supply roving to be ring shed are calculated as follows:
7.2 × Spindle speed ( rpm ) × Machine efficiency ( % )
Speed frame production / spindle / 8 hours =
Count × TPI × 100000
7.2 × 1100 × 85
=
1.2 × 1.37 × 100
= 4.09 kg / spindle / 8 hours × No. of spindles
= 4.09 × 120
Speed frame Actual Production = 490.8 kgs/machine
Ring frame input required
No. of Speed frame required =
Speed frame production

= 1347 / 490.8
= 2.74 ∞ 3 machines
Total speed frame production = 490.8 × no. of machines
= 490.8 × 3
= 1472.4 kg / 3 machines
Actual production
Speed frame (Required Input) =
(100 – std waste% ) /100
1472.4
=
(100 – 1) /100
= 1487.27 kg
Finisher draw frame

Draw frame production /delivery/8 hrs
0.2835 × delivery speed ( mpm ) × m / c efficiency ( % )
=
Sliver hank × 100
0.2835 × 350 × 80
=
0.13 × 100
= 610.6 kg / delivery / 8 hrs
Draw frame Actual Production = 610.6 kgs / machine
Speed frame input required
No. of Speed frame required =
Draw frame production
= 1487.27 / 610.6
Total speed frame production = 610.6 × no. of machines
= 610.6 × 3
= 1831.8 kgs / 3 machines
Actual production
Finisher draw frame (Required Input) =
(100 – std waste% ) /100
1831.8
=
(100 – 0.5) /100
= 1840.95 kg
Breaker draw frame

Draw frame production /delivery/8 hrs
=
Sliver hank × 100
0.2835 × 500 × 80
=
0.13 × 100
= 872.3 kg / delivery/8 hours × no. of deliveries
= 872.3 × 2
Breaker Draw frame Actual Production = 1744.6 kg / machine

Finisher Draw frame Input required
No. of Breaker Draw frame required =
Breaker Draw frame production
= 1840.95 / 1744.6
Total Breaker Draw frame production = 1840.95 kg / machine
Actual production
Breaker draw frame (Required Input) =
(100 – std waste% ) /100
1840.95
=
(100 – 0.5)/100
= 1850.15 kgs
Cards
Card production / spindle/8 hrs
=
Sliver hank × 100
0.2835 × 130 × 90
=
0.13 × 100
= 255 kg / card / 8 hours
Breaker Draw frame Input required
No. of card required =
Card production
= 1850.15 / 255
= 7.25 ∞ 7 machines (2 machine cushioning = 9
machines)
Total card production = 255 × no. of machines
= 255 × 7
= 1785 kg / 7 machines
Actual production
Card (Required Input) =
(100 – std waste% ) /100
1785
=
(100 – 7 ) /100
= 1919.3 kg
Usually 2 extra cards will be installed to add flexibility to the carding

process and take care of stoppage of any card for replacement of old wire.
Blowroom
Daily production required from Blow Room Line @ 7 % waste at the carding
stage is 1919.3 kg Production required per hour = 240 kg/h
If Chute Feed System is not provided, number of scutchers required is
calculated as follows:
Production/scutchers/8 hrs (kg)
=
Lap hank × 100
0.2835 × ( 3.14 × 9” × 0.0254 × 15 ) × 85
=
0.0015 × 100
= 1730 kg / scutchers
Card required input
No. of scutchers required =
Blow room production
= 1919.3 / 1730
= 1.1 ∞ 1 scutcher
Total blow room production/day = 1730 × no. of scutchers × no. of shifts
= 1730 × 1.1 × 3
= 5709 kg / day
Cotton required
The quantity of cotton required per day can be calculated is shown:
Cotton required per day @ 3 % waste in Blow Room = 5709 × 1.03
= 5880.27 kg
Number of cotton bales required (170 kg each) = 5880.27 / 170
= 35 bales / day
Summary
Process wise number of machines calculated above for achieving production
balance is summarized below:
1. Ring Spinning Economic Unit = 12,000 spindles, 10 Ring Spinning

Frames, 1200 spindles each
2. Simplex Frames = 3 Roving Frames, 120 spindles each
3. Finisher Drawing Frames = 3machines (single delivery)
4. Breaker Draw frame = 2 (twin delivery)
5. Carding Machines = 9 machines
6. Blow Room = 2 scutcher line

Textile Testing

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Process control and yarn

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

First published 2015, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-80308-35-7

2. Application of statistics in textiles 20

3. Cotton fibre selection and bale management system 42

3.5 Cotton fibre engineering 52

4. Control of wastes in spinning 69

5. Control of neps and fibre rupture 141

6. Control of count, strength and its variation 175

7. Yarn evenness and imperfection 196

7.3 Unevenness (Um%) 199

8. Short-term irregularity 226

9. Interpretation and analysis of diagram, spectrogram 253

10. Control of yarn hairiness in spun yarns 307

11. Yarn faults 325

12. Productivity of a spinning mill 343

13. Yarn quality requirements for high-speed machines 356

Annexure: Basic conversion charts 367

spinning industry for the production of consistent yarn quality. Chapter 4

1.1 What is quality?

1.2 Quality as input–output system

user or government and industry. It can be guidelines or characteristics for the

Input parameters Textile production Output parameters

Figure 1.1 Quality as input-output model

1.3 Quality feedback cycle

Production Technology, machine,

Figure 1.2 Quality feedback cycle

1.4 Seven tools of quality

1.4.1 Fishbone Diagram / Cause-and-Effect Diagram /

Eccentric gear Improper meshing

Missing of teeth Eccentric rollers

Figure 1.3 Cause-and-Effect Diagram for periodic variation in yarn

When to use a Fishbone Diagram

1.4.2 Check sheet

Type of defects Number of defects

Figure 1.4 Check sheet of fabric faults

1.4.3 Control chart

No. of samples inspected No. of samples defective % defective

Figure 1.5 Control chart for defective cone packages

When to use a control chart

• When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).

Figure 1.6 Histogram of yarn faults in classimat

When to use a histogram

• When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are

1.4.5 Pareto chart

Figure 1.7 Pareto Chart of yarn faults in classimat

When to use a pareto chart

1.4.6 Scatter diagram

Figure 1.8 Scatter Diagram

When to use a scatter Diagram

– When determining whether two effects that appears to be related both

Machine cutting Die cutting small parts

Sorting & bundling

Collar Cuff Under

Join shoulder seam

Join collar to shirt

• When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are

– When determining whether two effects that appears to be related both