FUNDAMENTALS OF ICT

ECT 2104 Introduction to ICT

General Objectives
By the end of this unit, the trainee should be able to:-
General Objectives
At the end of this unit a student should be able to:

 Highlight the history of computer

 Describe the components and the function of the computer system
 Explain the safe use of the computers
 Apply safety features to use of computers
i. Introduction to ICT: Meaning of ICT, Uses of ICT in organizations
ii. ICT equipment / facilities: Computers, Photocopiers, Telephone / fax
machines, Printers, Others.
iii. Computer Personnel: Categories of computer personnel, Roles of computer
personnel, Computer programmers, System analysts, System developers,
Network engineers, others
iv. Computer safety and ergonomic: Meaning and importance, Health issues
in the use of computers, Measures for safety and ergonomics
v. Computers: Meaning of a computer, History of computers, Types of
computers, Importance and limitations of computers, components of
computer system
vi. Computer hardware Output devices: Monitor (Visual Display Unit), Printers,
Voice data, Input devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Voice data input
devices, C.P.U: Architecture, Control unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit, Internal
Memory, Storage media: hard disk, magnetic tapes & disks, flash disk, optical
devices, communication equipment
vii. Computer software: Meaning of Software, Types of computer software:
System Software, Operating systems, Utilities, Application Software, custom
made, off shelf
viii. Computer security: threats, Hardware Security: Physical security, Logical
security, Data security, Software Security: Protection from computer viruses,
Protection, Backups: local, Internet
ix. Trends in ICT technology: Hardware advancements, Software
advancements, Communications

Introduction - what is ICT?

• You see the letters ICT everywhere - particularly in education. But what does
it mean?
• ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communications
Technology
However, apart from explaining an acronym, there is not a universally
accepted definition of ICT. Why? because the concepts, methods and
applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. It’s
difficult to keep up with the changes - they happen so fast.
Consider the three words behind ICT:
- INFORMATION
- COMMUNICATIONS
- TECHNOLOGY
A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital technology
that already exist to help individuals, businesses and organizations use information.

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ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate,
transmits or receives information electronically in a digital form. For
example:-
• Personal computers
• Digital television
• E-mail
• Robots.
• Facsimile e.t.c
So ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission
or receipt of digital data. Importantly, it is also concerned with the way these
different uses can work with each other. In business, ICT is often categorized into 2
broad types of product: -
1. The traditional computer-based technologies (things you can typically
do on a personal computer or using computers at home or at work); and
2. The more recent, and fast-growing range of digital communication
technologies (which allow people and organizations to communicate and
share information digitally)
A brief look at these two categories demonstrates the kinds of products and ideas
that are covered by ICT:
Traditional Computer Based Technologies
These types of ICT include:
Application Use
Standard Office Applications - Main Examples
Word E.g. Microsoft Word: Write letters, reports etc
processing
Spreadsheets E.g. Microsoft Excel; Analyze financial information; calculations;
create forecasting models etc
Database E.g. Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Access; Managing data in many
software forms, from basic lists (e.g. customer contacts through to complex
material (e.g. catalogue)
Presentation E.g. Microsoft PowerPoint; make presentations, either directly using
software a computer screen or data projector. Publish in digital format via
email or over the Internet
Desktop E.g. Adobe In design, Quark Express, Microsoft Publisher; produce
publishing newsletters, magazines and other complex documents.
Graphics E.g. Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator; Macromedia Freehand and
software Fireworks; create and edit images such as logos, drawings or
pictures for use in DTP, web sites or other publications
Specialist Applications - Examples (there are many!)
Accounting E.g. Sage, Oracle; Manage an organization’s accounts including
package revenues/sales, purchases, bank accounts etc. A wide range of
systems is available ranging from basic packages suitable for small
businesses through to sophisticated ones aimed at multinational
companies.
Computer Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers to assist the
Aided Design design process. Specialized CAD programs exist for many types of
design: architectural, engineering, electronics, roadways
Customer Software that allows businesses to better understand their
Relations customers by collecting and analyzing data on them such as their
Management product preferences, buying habits etc. Often linked to software
(CRM) applications that run call centers and loyalty cards for example.

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 The C part of ICT refers to the communication of data by electronic means,
usually over some distance. This is often achieved via networks of sending and
receiving equipment, wires and satellite links.
The technologies involved in communication tend to be complex. You
certainly don't need to understand them comprehensively for your ICT course.
However, there are aspects of digital communications that you need to be aware of.
These relate primarily to the types of network and the ways of connecting to the
Internet. Let's look at these two briefly (further reading will provide much more
detail to support your study in ICT).
1. Internal networks
Usually referred to as a local area network (LAN), this involves linking a
number of hardware items (input and output devices plus computer
processing) together within an office or building. The aim of a LAN is to be
able to share hardware facilities such as printers or scanners, software
applications and data. This type of network is invaluable in the office
environment where colleagues need to have access to common data or
programmes.
2. External networks
Often you need to communicate with someone outside your internal network;
in this case you will need to be part of a Wide Area Network (WAN). The
Internet is the ultimate WAN - it is a vast network of networks.
ICT in a Broader Context
• Your entire ICT course will almost certainly cover the above examples of ICT
in action, perhaps focusing on the use of key applications such as
spreadsheets, databases, presentation, graphics and web design software.
• It will also consider the following important topics that deal with the way ICT
is used and managed in an organization:
- The nature of information (the "I" in ICT); this covers topics such as the
meaning and value of information; how information is controlled; the
limitations of ICT; legal considerations
- Management of information - this covers how data is captured, verified
and stored for effective use; the manipulation, processing and
distribution of information; keeping information secure; designing
networks to share information
- Information systems strategy - this considers how ICT can be used
within a business or organization as part of achieving goals and
objectives
What information does in business?
We talk often about Information - the "I" in ICT. But what is information? How
does it differ from "data"? And what kind of information does a business require?
The difference between Data and Information?
It is important that you understand the difference between "data" and
"information"
Data
Think of data as a "raw fact(s)" - it needs to be processed before it can be
turned into something useful. Hence the need for "data processing". Data comes in
many forms - numbers, words, symbols. Data relates to transactions, events and
facts. On its own - it is not very useful.
Think of the data that is created when you buy a product from a retailer. This
includes:
- Time and date of transaction (e.g. 10:05 Tuesday 23 December 2003)
- Transaction value (e.g. £55.00)
- Facts about what was bought (e.g. hairdryer, cosmetics pack, shaving foam)
and how much was bought (quantities)
- How payment was made (e.g. credit card, credit card number and code)
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 - Which employee recorded the sale
- Whether any promotional discount applied
At its simplest, this data needs processing at the point of sale in order for the
customer to receive a valid receipt. So the data about the transaction is processed
to create "information" - in this case a receipt. You can imagine that the same data
would also be useful to the manager of the retail store. For example, a report
showing totals sales in the day, or which are the best-selling products. So the data
concerning all shop transactions in the day needs to be captured, and then
processed into a management report.
Information
The above example demonstrates what information is.
Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to
the person who receives it.
Note the two words highlighted in italics - "processed" and "meaningful". It is not
enough for data simply to be processed. it has to be of use to someone - otherwise
why bother?!
Uses of Information in a Business
Businesses and other organizations need information for many purposes: we have
summarized the five main uses in the table below.
Use Description
Planning To plan properly, a business needs to know what resources it has
(e.g. cash, people, machinery and equipment, property, customers). It
also needs information about the markets in which it operates and
the actions of competitors. At the planning stage, information is
important as a key ingredient in decision-making.
Recording Information about each transaction or event is needed. Much of this is
required to be collected by law - e.g. details of financial transactions.
Just as importantly, information needs to be recorded so that the
business can be properly managed.
Controlling Once a business has produced its plan it needs to monitor progress
against the plan - and control resources to do so. So information is
needed to help identify whether things are going better or worse than
expected, and to spot ways in which corrective action can be taken
Measuring Performance must be measured for a business to be successful.
Information is used as the main way of measuring performance. For
example, this can be done by collecting and analysing information on
sales, costs and profits
Decision- Information used for decision-making is often categorised into three
making types:
(1) Strategic information: used to help plan the objectives of the
business as a whole and to measure how well those objectives are
being achieved. Examples of stategic information include:
- Profitability of each part of the business
- Size, growth and competitive structure of the markets in which a
business operates
- Investments made by the business and the returns (e.g. profits,
cash inflows) from those investments
(2) Tactical Information: this is used to decide how the resources of
the business should be employed. Examples include:
- Information about business productivity (e.g. units produced per
employee; staff turnover)
- Profit and cash flow forecasts in the short term
- Pricing information from the market
(3) Operational Information: this information is used to make sure

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 that specific operational tasks are carried out as planned/intended
(i.e. things are done properly). For example, a production manager
will want information about the extent and results of quality control
checks that are being carried out in the manufacturing process.
Sources of data and information
• Data and information come from many sources - both internal (inside the
business) and external.
• Business data and information comes from multiple sources. The challenge for a
business is to capture and use information that is relevant and reliable. The main
sources are:
Internal Information
 Accounting records are a prime source of internal information. They detail the
transactions of the business in the past - which may be used as the basis for
planning for the future (e.g. preparing a financial budget or forecast).
 The accounting records are primarily used to record what happens to the
financial resources of a business. For example, how cash is obtained and
spent; what assets are acquired; what profits or losses are made on the
activities of the business.
 However, accounting records can provide much more than financial
information. For example, details of the products manufactured and delivered
from a factory can provide useful information about whether quality
standards are being met. Data analyzed from customer sales invoices
provides a profile of what and to whom products are being sold.
 A lot of internal information is connected to accounting systems - but is not
directly part of them. for example:
i. Records of the people employed by the business (personal details; what
they get paid; skills and experience; training records)
ii. Data on the costs associated with business processes (e.g. costing for
contracts entered into by the business)
iii. Data from the production department (e.g. number of machines; capacity;
repair record)
iv. Data from activities in direct contact with the customer (e.g. analysis of
calls received and missed in a call centre)
v. A lot of internal information is also provided informally. For example, regular
meetings of staff and management will result in the communication of
relevant information.
External Information
 As the term implies, this is information that is obtained from outside the
business.
 There are several categories of external information:
i. Information relating to way a business should undertake its activities
E.g. businesses need to keep records so that they can collect taxes on
behalf of the government. So a business needs to obtain regular information
about the taxation system (e.g. PAYE, VAT, and Corporation Tax) and what
actions it needs to take. Increasingly this kind of information (and the return
forms a business needs to send) is provided in digital format. Similarly, a
business needs to be aware of key legal areas (e.g. environmental legislation;
health & safety regulation; employment law). There is a whole publishing
industry devoted to selling this kind of information to businesses.
ii. Information about the markets in which a business operates
This kind of external information is critically important to a business. It
is often referred to as "market" or "competitive intelligence". Most of the
external information that a business needs can be obtained from marketing

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 research. Marketing research can help a business do one or more of the
following:
1. Gain a more detailed understanding of consumers’ needs – marketing
research can help firms to discover consumers’ opinions on a huge range of
issues, e.g., views on products’ prices, packaging, recent advertising
campaigns
2. Reduce the risk of product/business failure – there is no guarantee that
any new idea will be a commercial success, but accurate and up-to-date
information on the market can help a business make informed decisions,
hopefully leading to products that consumers want in sufficient numbers to
achieve commercial success.
3. Forecast future trends – marketing research can not only provide
information regarding the current state of the market but it can also be used
to anticipate customer needs future customer needs. Firms can then make
the necessary adjustments to their product portfolios and levels of output in
order to remain successful.

 The information for marketing research tends to come from three main sources:
Internal Company Information – e.g. sales, orders, customer profiles, stocks,
customer service reports
Marketing intelligence – this is a catch-all term to include all the everyday
information about developments in the market that helps a business prepare and
adjust its marketing plans. It can be obtained from many sources, including
suppliers, customers and distributors. It is also possible to buy intelligence
information from outside suppliers (e.g. Mintel, Dun and Bradstreet) who will
produce commercial intelligence reports that can be sold profitably to any
interested organisation.
Market Research – existing data from internal sources may not provide sufficient
detail. Similarly, published reports from market intelligence organizations cannot
always be relied upon to provide the up-to-date, relevant information required. In
these circumstances, a business may need to commission specific studies in order
to acquire the data required to support their marketing strategy.
Types of information system
For most businesses, there are a variety of requirements for information.
Senior managers need information to help with their business planning. Middle
management needs more detailed information to help them monitor and control
business activities. Employees with operational roles need information to help them
carry out their duties.
As a result, businesses tend to have several "information systems" operating at the
same time. This revision note highlights the main categories of information system
and provides some examples to help you distinguish between them.
The main kinds of information systems in business are described briefly
below:
Information Description
System
Executive An Executive Support System ("ESS") is designed to help senior
Support management make strategic decisions. It gathers, analyses and
Systems summarises the key internal and external information used in the
business.
A good way to think about an ESS is to imagine the senior
management team in an aircraft cockpit - with the instrument panel
showing them the status of all the key business activities. ESS
typically involve lots of data analysis and modelling tools such as
"what-if" analysis to help strategic decision-making.

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Management A management information system ("MIS") is mainly concerned with
Information internal sources of information. MIS usually take data from the
Systems transaction processing systems (see below) and summarise it into a
series of management reports.
MIS reports tend to be used by middle management and operational
supervisors.
Decision- Decision-support systems ("DSS") are specifically designed to help
Support management make decisions in situations where there is uncertainty
Systems about the possible outcomes of those decisions. DSS comprise tools
and techniques to help gather relevant information and analyse the
options and alternatives. DSS often involves use of complex
spreadsheet and databases to create "what-if" models.
Knowledge Knowledge Management Systems ("KMS") exist to help businesses
Management create and share information. These are typically used in a business
Systems where employees create new knowledge and expertise - which can
then be shared by other people in the organisation to create further
commercial opportunities. Good examples include firms of lawyers,
accountants and management consultants.
KMS are built around systems which allow efficient categorisation
and distribution of knowledge. For example, the knowledge itself
might be contained in word processing documents, spreadsheets,
PowerPoint presentations. internet pages or whatever. To share the
knowledge, a KMS would use group collaboration systems such as an
intranet.
Transaction As the name implies, Transaction Processing Systems ("TPS") are
Processing designed to process routine transactions efficiently and accurately. A
Systems business will have several (sometimes many) TPS; for example:
- Billing systems to send invoices to customers
- Systems to calculate the weekly and monthly payroll and tax
payments
- Production and purchasing systems to calculate raw material
requirements
- Stock control systems to process all movements into, within and
out of the business
Office Office Automation Systems are systems that try to improve the
Automation productivity of employees who need to process data and
Systems information. Perhaps the best example is the wide range of software
systems that exist to improve the productivity of employees working
in an office (e.g. Microsoft Office XP) or systems that allow
employees to work from home or whilst on the move.
Methods of data storage
 Data storage is the holding of data in an electromagnetic form for access
by a computer processor. There are two main kinds of storage:
 Primary storage is data that is held in in random access memory (RAM)
and other memory devices that are built into computers.
 Secondary storage is data that is stored on external storage devices such
as hard disks, tapes, CD's.
The table below summarizes the main methods of data storage
Method Description
Hard disks Often called a disk drive, hard drive or hard disk drive, this method
of data storage stores and provides relatively quick access to large
amounts of data. The information is stored on electromagnetically

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 charged surfaces called 'platters'.
Floppy disks A floppy disk is a type of magnetic disk memory which consists of a
flexible disk with a magnetic coating. Almost all floppy disks for
personal computers now have a capacity of 1.44 megabytes.
Floppy disks are readily portable, and are very popular for
transferring software from one PC to another. They are, however,
very slow compared to hard disks and lack storage capacity.
Increasingly, therefore, computer manufacturers are not including
floppy disk drives in the products as a built-in storage option.
Tape storage Tape is used as an external storage medium. It consists of a loop of
flexible celluloid-like material that can store data in the form of
electromagnetic charges. A tape drive is the device that positions,
writes from, and reads to the tape. A tape cartridge is a
protectively-encased tape that is portable.
Optical disks An optical disc is a storage medium that can be written to and read
using a low-powered laser beam. A laser reads these dots, and the
data is converted to an electrical signal, finally converted into the
original data.
CD-R Compact Disc-Recordable ("CD-R") discs have become a universal
data storage medium worldwide. CD-Rs are becoming increasingly
popular for music recording and for file storage or transfer between
personal computers. CDR discs are write-once media. This means
that - once used -they cannot be erased or re-recorded upon. CD-R
discs can be played back in any audio CD player or CD-ROM drive,
as well as many DVD players and drives.
CD-RW Compact Disc-Rewritable (CD-RW) disks are rewritable and can be
erased and re-recorded upon over and over again. CD-RW discs
can only be used on CD players, CD-ROM drives, and DVD players
and drives that are CD-RW playback-compatible.
DVD A DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) is a high density
optical disc with large capacity for storage of data, pictures and
sound. The capacity capacity is 4.7 GB for single sided, singe layer
DVD disc - which is approximately 7 times larger than that of a
compact disc.

ICT Equipment

1. Data logger: Many science experiments involve taking

measurements. Data loggers have sensors to take measurements, such as
light, sound and temperature. The data logger takes repeated measurements
and stores the data, which can then be transferred to a
Computer. Using data logging software, the data can be displayed as a graph.

Data loggers have many advantages over traditional methods of measuring

data. However they should only be used when they enhance science
teaching.

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 2. Digital Camera: Sony DSC-P43 Cybershot Digital Camera with
Smart Zoom, Real Imaging Processor, takes short MPEG movies. Built-in
microphone, re-chargeable batteries and charger with mains lead, 16MB
memory stick supplied.

3. Digital Movie Creator version 3 This is the latest version

of the Digital Movie Creator and so far it has proved slightly disappointing.
The sound quality on this version seems to be much poorer than on the
previous version 2. The Network Team has explored the technicalities behind
the problem but basically it is a fault in the product which the manufacturer is
unable to improve. However the product still has various strong points:- It is
excellent for stop-motion animation, and if sound commentaries are needed
in these, they can be added later. The software is excellent for teaching
primary pupils about simple video editing, without the cameras needing to be
available. Neither the version 3,or the version 2 of these cameras were
designed to be used for recording, for example, a class assembly. One of the
other cameras listed below would be better for this type of use.

4. Digital Microscope: The easy-to use-microscope connects via

USB to all SBC RM Network systems. It has x10, x60 and x200 magnifications.
5. Interactive whiteboards: They receive much press coverage, but they
are not the only solution to gaining a degree of interactivity in teaching with ICT. A
number of other cost effective solutions may be more suitable for certain school
situations. For example:-
The first step for any school wishing to promote interactivity using ICT in a
classroom might be to obtain multimedia projector(s). In a classroom, it can
be connected to an RM Network machine already in place. This would allow all
pupils:-
to see the display during a teaching session,
to see on screen exactly what they would normally see when logged on at an
individual machine
the use of familiar software and the same internet access as the network
machines.
It is not necessary to purchase a laptop specifically for the board. This will only raise
other issues such as access to curriculum software, network resources and internet
access. Most common equipment here are:-

a. The SMART Airline Slate: The SMART Airline Slate - has no

cables and comes with SMART board software, Bluetooth USB
connection and driver software. It is about A4 size, very lightweight
and yet with a very robust feel to it. The battery-free tethered pen lets
you control any software application, write notes and highlight
information in digital ink, as well as use the EDPAX maths software. All
you need is :- a projector attached to a Windows XP computer system,
a white screen or board (not interactive), (or white wall!). It can be
'passed around' pupils in the class who can interact with the image
projected onto a wall or other white surface. The unit is battery
powered lasting about 23 hours if charged fully for 8 hours
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 b. SMART Document Camera – Visualiser: The beauty of the
SMART document camera is its ease of connection. It is genuinely USB
'plug and play' and there is no need for additional software to be
installed. However, you DO NEED TO HAVE SMART Notebook Version
10.

6. Other Traditional ICT equipment include:- (Except PDA’s

and Web cams that hit the market abit more recent)

a. PCs
b. Laptops
c. Printers
d. Scanners
e. PDA’s
f. Telephones (desktop and mobile)
g. Web cams

ICT PERSONNEL

Computer and Information Systems Manager: A computer and

information systems manager is someone who oversees an organization's
information technology by planning, researching and coordinating computer-
related activities such as network security, Internet and software development.
The manager consults with and supervises other IT personnel such as
computer support specialists, computer software engineers and computer
systems analysts.

Computer Support Specialist: A computer support specialist is a person

who provides technical assistance and help to people or an organization's
employees. A specialist's duties depend on his specific title and area of
expertise. A technical support specialist runs diagnostics programs to fix
software and hardware problems and responds to questions from co-workers
about computer problems. In addition, a computer support specialist writes
training manuals and teaches computer users how to navigate new software or
hardware.
a. A help-desk technician: Responds to computer users seeking help.
Typically, a technician receives emails and telephone calls detailing the type
of help needed. Then he gives computer users instructions to resolve the
problems.

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Computer Systems Analyst: A computer systems analyst is someone
who ensures an organization's information technology and computer system
operates efficiently. The analyst consults with IT personnel such as managers
to understand the organization's needs and goals. Then she designs computer
systems that meet its goals. A computer system analyst chooses to integrate
new designs with existing systems or develops entirely new software or
hardware systems.

Computer Programmer: A computer programmer is a person who writes

computer software programs that are a series of instructions for the computer
to follow. The programmer, who typically works with other IT personnel such as
systems analysts and computer software engineers, implements her designs or
an organization's designs. She uses programming language such as Python
and C++ to code the instructions. The programmer may also modify, update
and repair existing programs. In 2008, the median salary for a computer
programmer was $69,620 a year.

Computer Systems Software Engineer: A computer systems

software engineer is someone who coordinates each organization's
department computer needs such as billing, payroll recording and ordering.
The engineer ensures the system such as the organization's intranet is
properly constructed and maintained. According to BLS, the median annual
wage for a computer system software engineer was $92,430.
b. Computer System Administrator
c. Web Services Assistant
d. Network Engineer
e. Data Administrator
f. Database Administrator
g. E.t.c.
COMPUTER SAFETY AND ERGONOMICS
Definition: Ergonomics is defined as the science related to man and his work,
embodying the anatomic, physiologic, and mechanical principles affecting the
efficient use of human energy.
- Ergonomics derives from two Greek words: ergon, meaning work, and nomoi,
meaning natural laws, to create a word that means the science of work and a
person’s relationship to that work.
What are computer ergonomics?
Computer ergonomics seek to alleviate these stress conditions by focusing on
a number of different things, including:-
 Wrist support for the keyboard
 Key board angle
 Chair height and type
 Back support
 Lighting in the room
 Placement of documents, phones, and other frequently used items
Each of these things, and more, have a direct affect on your comfort and the overall
stress to your eyes, joints, wrists, and other body parts as you spend prolonged
periods of time in front of the computer. Computer ergonomics deals with the
placement and set up of desks, computers and computer equipment, and lighting so
that it minimizes stresses and risks.
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Computer Workstation Ergonomics
The following information assists to set up a workstation correctly.
All recommendations are based upon Australian Standard AS 3590 - 1990
Screenbased workstations
To a large extent the above standard still applies but there have been significant
advances in the field of ergonomics since 1990, as per the photograph below.

Consideration should be given to:-

 The accessories required to operate properly
 The layout of equipment on the desk
 The location of furniture in the room
Work surface height
 Adjust the height of the work surface and/or the height of the chair so that the
work surface allows your elbows to be bent at 90 degrees, forearms parallel
with the floor, wrist straight, shoulders relaxed.
Chair
 Adjust the seat tilt so that you are comfortable when you are working on the
keyboard. Usually, this will be close to horizontal but some people prefer the
seat tilted slightly forwards. Your knees should be bent at a comfortable angle
and greater than 90 degrees flexion. If this places an uncomfortable strain on
the leg muscles or if the feet do not reach the floor then a footrest should be
used. The footrest height must allow your knees to be bent at 90 degrees.
Therefore the height of the footrest may need to be adjustable. Adjust the
backrest so that it supports the lower back when you are sitting upright.
Keyboard placement
 Place the keyboard in a position that allows the forearms to be close to the
horizontal and the wrists to be straight. That is, with the hand in line with the
forearm. If this causes the elbows to be held far out from the side of the body
then re-check the work surface height. Some people prefer to have their
wrists supported on a wrist desk or the desk. Be careful not to have the wrist
extended or bent in an up position.

Screen placement
 Set the eye to screen distance at the distance that permits you to most easily
focus on the screen. Usually this will be within an arm's length. Set the height
of the monitor so that the top of the screen is below eye level and the bottom
of the screen can be read without a marked inclination of the head. Usually
this means that the centre of the screen will need to be near shoulder height.

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 Eyes level with the tool bar. People who wear bifocal or multi focal lenses will
need to get a balance between where they see out of their lenses and avoid
too much neck flexion.
Desk-top layout
 Place all controls and task materials within a comfortable reach of both hands
so that there is no unnecessary twisting of any part of the body. Most people
prefer the document holder to be between the keyboard and the monitor.
There are many different types of document holders available.
Document holder
 Place this close to the monitor screen in the position that causes the least
twisting or inclination of the head.
Posture and environment
 Change posture at frequent intervals to minimize fatigue. Avoid awkward
postures at the extremes of the joint range, especially the wrists. Take
frequent short rest breaks rather than infrequent longer ones. Avoid sharp
increases in work rate. Changes should be gradual enough to ensure that the
workload does not result in excessive fatigue. After prolonged absences from
work the overall duration of periods of keyboard work should be increased
gradually if conditions permit.
Lighting
 Place the monitor to the side of the light source/s, not directly underneath. Try
to site desks between rows of lights. If the lighting is fluorescent strip lighting,
the sides of the desks should be parallel with the lights. Try not to put the
screen near a window. If it is unavoidable ensure that neither the screen nor
the operator faces the window.
 If the monitor is well away from windows, there are no other sources of bright
light and prolonged desk-work is the norm, use a low level of service light of
300 lux. If there are strongly contrasting light levels, then a moderate level of
lighting of 400 - 500 lux may be desirable.
Glare and reflection
 It is important to detect the presence of glare and reflection. To determine
whether there is glare from overhead lights whilst seated worker should hold
an object such as a book above the eyes at eyebrow level and establish
whether the screen image becomes clearer in the absence of overhead glare.
To detect whether there are reflections from the desk surface, the worker
should hold the book above the surface and assess the change in reflected
glare from the screen.
 A number of ways are available to eliminate or reduce the influence of these
reflections:
o Tilt the screen (top part forwards) so that the reflections are directed
below eye level.
o Purchase an LCD screen.
o Cover the screen with a light diffusing surface or anti-glare screen.
o Negative contrast screen (dark characters on light background) will
reduce the influence of these reflections.
 If you experience eye discomfort when using a bright screen you should make
the following adjustments:
o Turn the screen brightness down to a comfortable level.
o Look away into the distance in order to rest the eyes for a short while
every ten minutes or so.
o Change the text and background colours. Recommended are black
characters on white or yellow background, or yellow on black, white on
black, white on blue and green on white. Avoid red and green and
yellow on white.
Using a mouse
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  A well designed mouse should not cause undue pressure on the wrist and
forearm muscles. A large bulky mouse may keep the wrist continuously bent
at an uncomfortable angle. Pressure can be reduced by releasing the mouse
at frequent intervals, by selecting a slim-line, low-profile mouse. Keep the
mouse as close as possible to the keyboard, elbow bent and close to the
body.
Keyboard equipment and radiation
 Computer screens emit visible light which allows the characters on the screen
to be seen. Weak electromagnetic fields and very low levels of other radiation,
not visible to the human eye, can be detected by sensitive instruments.
Similar emissions are produced by television receivers.
 The levels of most radiations and electromagnetic fields emitted
from computers are much less than those from natural sources, such as the
sun or even the human body and are well below levels considered to be
harmful by responsible expert bodies such as the International Radiation
Protection Association (IRPA).
Keyboard and telephone operations
 Avoid cradling the phone between your head and shoulder when answering
calls. If needing to access the computer at the same time a headset is
recommended. Hands free/speaker phone is another option if the
environment is suitable.
Posture During Keying
 Good posture is essential for all users of computers. It comprises of a natural
and relaxed position, providing opportunity for movement, and from which the
operator can assume a number of alternative positions. It is not a single,
rigidly defined position.
Typing technique
 Typing is a physical activity, and using a keyboard requires skill, hence the
need to learn correct typing technique. Unskilled ('hunt and peck') typists are
particularly at risk of Occupational Overuse Injury because they:
o Often use only one or two fingers which may overload the finger
tendons;
o Are constantly looking from keyboard to screen to keyboard, which may
strain neck muscles;
o Often adopt a tense posture (wrists bent back and fingers 'poised to
strike').
 The University acknowledges the importance of learning correct typing
technique. Departments should ensure that untrained staff receives
appropriate training.
Speed of keying
 The efficiency and speed of modern computers makes it possible for a skilled
operator to type extremely quickly. This capability, reinforced by workload
pressures means the potential exists for operators to key at speeds which may
cause or contribute to Occupational Overuse Syndrome.
 The role of the repetitive movement in injury is not fully understood, but is
believed to interfere with the lubrication capacity of tendons, and the ability of
muscles to receive sufficient oxygen supplies. 10,000 - 12,000 keystrokes per
hour is considered an acceptable standard.
Length of time on the keyboard
 The maintenance of a fixed posture for long periods is tiring and increases the
likelihood of muscular aches and pains. In addition, long periods of repetitive
movement and sustained visual attention can also give rise to fatigue-related
complaints.
 It is recommended that operators avoid spending more than five hours a day
on keyboard duties and no longer than 50 minutes per hour without a
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 postural/stretching break.
 Employees newly engaged in keyboard work, and staff returning from an
absence of two or more weeks, need a period of adjustment. The adjustment
may be achieved through reduced work rates, or provision of alternate duties
with gradual re-introduction to keyboard work.
 Jobs should be designed and organized so that either:
o Computer related tasks can be interspersed with non computer related,
or
o Computer based tasks can be rotated amongst several staff (task/job
sharing).
o It is not the change of task per se, but the change to using different
movements and postures that is important. The whole purpose of
task variety is to give the overloaded structures a necessary break.
o Supervisors should ensure that workload controls are exercised using
the following strategies:
 Planning ahead to avoid peaks, and rushed jobs
 Delegating fairly to all staff not just the best workers
 Considering the total workload of the individual (often comes
from a number of sources)
 Clearly defining each operator's workload
 Implementing systems of prioritization e.g. work request forms,
waiting lists
 Using relief staff
 Applying strict tests to the use of 'urgent' labels
 Discouraging 'endless' drafts
 Discouraging the use of typed internal minutes and memoranda
 Encouraging authors to have realistic expectations
 Teaching authors keyboard skills
 Teaching operators how to be assertive, and how to prioritize
 Supporting operators when authors impose unrealistic
expectations
 Refusing illegible drafts
Computers: Meaning of a computer, History of computers, Types of
computers, Importance and limitations of computers, components of
computer system
Computer hardware Output devices: Monitor (Visual Display Unit),
Printers, Voice data, Input devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Voice data
input devices, C.P.U: Architecture, Control unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit, Internal
Memory, Storage media: hard disk, magnetic tapes & disks, flash disk, optical
devices, communication equipment
Computer software: Meaning of Software, Types of computer
software: System Software, Operating systems, Utilities, Application
Software, custom made, off shelf
x. Computer security: threats, Hardware Security: Physical security,
Logical security, Data security, Software Security: Protection from computer
viruses, Protection, Backups: local, Internet.

COMPUTER THREATS
Accidental Deliberate Tech Failure

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Storag - Jostling a - Illicitly copying data - Hard disk failure
e computer when - Theft of computer - Unreliable storage
HDD active media (e.g. bad DVD)
- Damaging a DVD - Power failure
- Fire
Comm - Files/emails are - Intercepting private - Damage to packets during
unicati sent to the wrong data transmission
on person - Infecting files with
viruses, trojans
Dispos - Deleting the wrong file - Deleting someone’s valuable
al or folder data
xi. Trends in ICT technology: Hardware advancements, Software
advancements, Communications

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