1.

0 SIMPLE STRESS If the stress varies over the cross-section, we can write the stress at a point as
The force per unit area or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section, is dF dA
called the stress on that section and is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma).
σ
The stress in a member or cross-sectional area A subjected to an axial load P shown
is therefore obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the load by the area A:

F (F.2)

F
= A σ (F.1)
A
F
Figure 1.2
Saint-Venant's Principle (Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant):
"The difference between the effects of two different but statically equivalent loads
becomes very small at sufficiently large distances from load."
F F F F
Units : Figure 1.1
F
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N/m2 (or Pa) Load distorts lines
1 MPa = 106 Pa Located near load
a a
1 GPa = 109 Pa b b
1 KPa = 103 Pa c c
Sometimes N / mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa. While Section a-a σavg
US customary unit is pound per square inch (psi) or kilopound per square inch (ksi). Lines located away F
From the load and support
Why it is called simple stress?
It is called simply stress because we consider that the force applied is assumed to be Section c-c
acting on the center of gravity of the materials cross-section causing a uniform stress
distribution. Load distorts lines
Located near support
But in reality stress distribution even vary at any section along the length of the
material. But the discrepancy of assuming it uniform and its true distribution is Section b-b
neglible. Figure 1.3
Variable stress TYPES OF STRESSES :
We assume the force F is evenly distributed over the cross-section of the bar. In
reality F = resultant force over the end of the bar. There only two basic simple stresses exist: (1) normal stress, (2) shear stress. Other
stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these e.g.
bending stress is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional
stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.
1.1 NORMAL STRESS P
We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the areas
concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are
generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ).
P
F
= (F.1) M
A
A C C
F
A

=
e e
P P
Figure 1.4 b)
a)
Normal stress: Axial Loading Figure 1.6

Axial force: load P directed along the axis of the member However, if a two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically as shown in Fig.
1.6, we find from the conditions of equilibrium of the portion of member shown in
We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the areas Fig. 1.6b that the internal forces in a given section must be equivalent to a force P
concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are applied at the centroid of the section and a couple M of moment M = Pe. The
generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ). distribution of forces and thus the
In actual, as we stated previously it will be corresponding distribution of stresses
F cannot be uniform.
assumed that the distribution of normal stresses in
an axially loaded member is uniform except in σ
When a material subject to axial force, it has Tensile
the immediate vicinity of the points of application C two conservative sign convention.
of the loads as per Saint-Venant’s principle. The
value σ of the stress is then equal to σavg and can • Tensile Stress
=
be obtained from formula (F.1). However we If σ > 0 the stress is tensile (taken positive).
should realize that, when we assume a uniform The fibers of the component tend to elongate
distribution of stresses in the section, when we due to the external force. A member
assume that the internal forces are uniformly Figure 1.5 subjected to an external force tensile P and
distributed across the section, it follows from Compressive
tensile stress distribution due to the force is
elementary statics that the resultant F of the shown in the given figure.
internal forces must be applied at the centroid C
of the section (Fig 1.5). • Compressive Stress Figure 1.7
If σ < 0 the stress is compressive (taken negative) i.e. The fibers of the component tend
This type of loading is called centric loading and will be assumed to take place in all to shorten due to the external force. A member subjected to an external compressive
straight two- force members found in trusses and pin-connected structures such as force P and compressive stress distribution due to the force is shown in the given
the one considered in Fig. 1.2. figure.
1.2 SHEAR STRESS Common occurrence of shearing stress:
Another type of stress is obtained when transverse force P are applied to a member
Loads are transmitted to individual members through connections that use rivets,
shown in Fig.1.8a. By passing a section between the points of application of the two
bolts, pins, nails, or welds
forces (Fig.1.8b), we obtain the diagram of portion of the member in Figure 1.8c. To
maintain equilibrium the section offers internal forces. These internal forces are
called shearing forces and the magnitude V of their resultant is the shear in the
section. P P
P
P
V

P P
P P
P
a) b) c)
Figure 1.8 Single shear Double shear

Now when we divide this shear which is equal to P by the area A of this section, we
obtain the average shearing stress in the section. This stress is denoted by Greek
letter τ (tau).

P Two shearing plane

 ave = P V
A P One shearing plane
The value we’ve obtained is an average value of the shearing stress over the entire V V
section. Similar to normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses across the FBD on top of Bolt FBD on center of Bolt
section cannot be assumed uniform. As you will see in succeeding chapters, the
Figure 1.10
actual value τ of the shearing stress varies from zero at the surface of the member to
a maximum value τmax that may be much larger than the average value τave.
• Single Shear
The shear force V causes the shearing stress. By summation of forces horizontal for
C τ equilibrium using the free body diagram on the top of the bolt, we can obtain the
τ σ magnitude of shear force to be equal to P. Notice that only one sheared area or one
σ shearing plane. Thus the average shearing stress for single shear can be express as

τ τ V P
 ave = or  ave =
A A
Figure 1.9
Where: A = sheared area equal to the cross sectional area of the bolt
Note that if normal stress acts perpendicularly on the section, shear stress is
tangential to the area it acts.
• Double Shear 1.3 BEARING STRESS
The shear force V causes the shearing stress. By summation of forces horizontal for Bearing stress is a normal stress not shearing stress. Bearing stress is in the members
equilibrium, we then obtain the magnitude of shear force to be equal to half of P. that a bolt connects (not in the bolt itself), along a bearing surface. While the amount
Notice that there two sheared area or two shearing plane as shown from the free of the force or compression load, the area depends on the mode of the contact.
body diagram. Thus the average shearing stress for double shear can be express as Consider figure 1.10,
Force P results in
P bearing stress
V P P
 ave = = 2 or  ave = b =
P
A A 2A Thus, P
Ab
• Punching Shear FBD on top of Bolt
We have also what we call as punching shear. Example of punching shear is the Figure 1.11
shear stress developed due to action of punch in forming a rivet hole as shown in
figure 1.11a. Where: Ab = projected area where bearing pressure is
P = bearing force
d
t • For “Single Shear”
As=πdt projected area
τ
t

shank d P
P
P P
P
(a) (b)
Figure 1.11
Shear stress is caused by the pulling force P and notice that the sheared area is along Figure 1.12
the circumference of the rivet as shown in figure 1.11b, thus the shear stress in
condition is express as
P P
P P
b = or b =
 ave = or  ave = Ab d t
As d t
1.4 STRESSES ON OBLIQUE PLANE
Where: As = circumferential sheared area We have learned that axial forces in a two-force member cause normal stresses
t = thickness of the rivet head in this case
= thickness of the punched plate

P P
and transverse forces exerted on bolts and pins cause shearing stresses. Thus, a normal force applied to a bar on an inclined section produces a
combination of shear and normal stresses.
P Using trigonometry since σ and τ are functions of sine and cosine. We know the
maximum and minimum values will occur at θ = 0°, 45°, and 90°.
P σ τ
P/A P/2A

However, axial forces cause both normal and shearing, stresses on planes which -90°
are not perpendicular to the axis. This is also the case for transverse forces exerted 0° 90°
on a bolt or pin. Consider an inclined section of a uniaxial bar.
-90° 0° 90° -P/2A

P P
θ

Looking on the internal forces,

A A’ Therefore if the cutting plane is vertically oriented then maximum normal stress will
be obtained. While as if the cutting plane is inclines 45° from vertical then we
F
obtained maximum shear stress.
P θ
θ P
1.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

V From a design perspective, it is important to know the largest load which a

The resultant force in the axial direction must be equal P to satisfy equilibrium. material can hold before failing. This load is called the ultimate load, Pu.
The force can be resolved into components perpendicular to the section F and Equivalently the ultimate normal stress is denoted as σu. The stress equations are the
parallel to the section V section, F, and parallel to the section, V. Using same as before with P = Pu and ultimate shear stress is denoted as τu. Often the
trigonometric functions F and V can be taken as, allowable load is considerably smaller than the ultimate load.
F = P cos  and V = P sin  It is a common design practice to use factor of safety.
While the area for the cut section is given as,
Ultimate Load Ultimate Stress
A' A F .S . = or F .S . =
cos  = or A ' = Allowable Load Allowable Stress
A cos 
Therefore if we would like to calculate for the average normal stress on the The two equations above are identical when a linear relationship exists between the
section it will be taken as, load and the stress. In real-world engineering application, however, this relationship
P cos2  ceases to be linear as the load approaches its ultimate value approaches its ultimate
F P cos   =
= = or
A
value.
A' A
cos 
And the average shear stress on the section is

V P sin  P P sin 2
= = or = sin  cos  or =
A' A A 2A
cos 