EPS B401Guidance&counselling in Educational Institutions-2

EPS B401: GUIDANCE
&
COUNSELLING IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
For B. Ed science, Arts, ECE, Special Needs, Bsc. AGED
& Extension,
Lecturers: Mr. Japheth M. Makuna & Dr. Alice Anika
1 PWANI UNIVERSITY Tuesday, January 18, 2022

Course Purpose
 This course is intended to bring an
understanding of the various guidance and
counselling services provided to enable
students understand, accept, and utilize
their aptitudes and abilities and work on
their limitations in order to become
adjusted and functional members of the
society.
Expected learning outcomes
By the end of the Course, the learner should be able
to:
1. Discuss the concept of guidance and
counselling in the modern & traditional
African society
2. Discuss the types and causes of emotional
disturbances in students
3. Describe the basis, goals, principles and the
scope of the school guidance programme
4. Discuss the counselling and psychotherapy
processes and their adaptation to students

Cont’…
5. Explain the counsellor-client expectations
6. Discuss the types of counselling.
7. Explain the guidance for children/students with
specific needs
8. Critically analyse ethical issues in counselling.

INTRODUCTION
 The School guidance programme provides
professional services to students to assist them
make appropriate decisions or adjustment.

INTRODUCTION
 Students are assisted to understand, accept
themselves, and utilize their abilities, attitudes,

and interests to become useful members of the
society.

GUIDANCE
 Definition;
 Downing (1968) defined guidance services as an
organized set of specific services established as an
integral part of the school environment designed to
promote the development of students and assist them
toward a realization of sound, wholesome adjustment,
and maximum accomplishments according to their
potentialities.

GUIDANCE
 Patterson (1973) defined guidance as a broad area
of educational activities and services aimed at
assisting individuals in making and carrying out
adequate plans and achieving satisfactory
adjustments in life”.

GUIDANCE
 In the school setting guidance is a process that
is aimed at leading the individual to the
achievement of desired life goals
 i.e. facilitate the achievement of desired life
goals.
 It is meant to equip the individual with
knowledge and techniques that will enable
him/her to identify and find ways of solving
problems before they confront him/her.

GUIDANCE
 Guidance is also defined as a process,
developmental in nature, by which an individual
is assisted to understand, accept, and utilize his
abilities, aptitudes, interests, and attitudinal
patterns in relation to his aspirations.
 The major purpose of guidance services is

to assist students to make appropriate
decisions.

GUIDANCE
 The Ministry of Education (1997) defined
guidance as “a continuing process concerned
with determining and providing for
developmental needs of learners”.
 These definitions indicate that guidance is a

life-long process that involves helping
individuals both as a group and at the
personal level.

ASSUMPTIONS UNDER-GIRDING
GUIDANCE SERVICES
 The concept of guidance services is predicated upon
two major assumptions:
1. Man has dignity and worth and is therefore

worthy of respect and assistance;
2. Man is not completely self-sufficient and needs

assistance in resolving a number of critical
problems which confront him throughout his life-
span.
Note
 Guidance covers activities designed to direct and
promote developmental progress in a
general way.

PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
1. Guidance is concerned with systematic
development of the individual.
 This implies that in addition to academic assessment by

teachers, the guidance teacher should help the individual
students to systematically assess their aspects of
development such as adjustment and athletic ability.

PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
2. Guidance is a continuous, sequential educational
process.
 This means that guidance should be provided throughout one’s

life.
 It implies that the individual guidance begins at home goes on to

school and in the society smoothly.
 Therefore, there will be need for the parents, the teachers, and
the community to be in harmony and co-operate so that the
individual is guided to acquire the right behaviour and values.

Objectives Of School Guidance
Programme
1. To educate the student so he/she can make an informed
career choice
2. To make the youth aware of the educational and
occupational realities.
 This is central to any programme of school guidance
because the student’s experiences are often so narrow that
he/she simply does not perceive the opportunities, which
actually exist.

Programme
 Guidance programmes must first serve a
diagnostic function by providing a clear picture of
occupational needs of the nation and how these
needs are reflected in actual educational
openings and the present job market.
 This information is communicated effectively to

the students so as to broaden their educational
and occupational perspectives.

Programme
 A variety of approaches may be used to broaden
this perspective
i. Field trips,
ii. Vocational seminars
iii. Visiting experts,
iv. Career conferences,
v. Summer work opportunities, and
vi. A library Resource Centre etc.

Programme
3. To cultivate within the student questions about
him/her, which must be raised before such
experiences are even relevant.
4. To face him/herself with “who am I?” in relation

to his/her own aspirations, expectations,
interests, as key in any decision making process.

Programme
5. To enable the child understand one’s own strengths and
limitations and to accept them.
 This takes a long period of time and can be facilitated in
many ways.
 One way is through a School’s Curriculum, perhaps in
 Creative writing
 Literature
 History
 Human biology or
 An exploration of current events and
 Participation in extracurricular activities.

GUIDANCE IN TRADITIONAL
AFRICAN SOCIETY
…

Introduction
 Discuss the traditional African guidance and counseling from
specific Communities in Kenya?
 How did the youth learn society values?
 Was the guidance and counseling then beneficial to the society?
 What techniques were used?
 Who were the counsellors?
 Does the traditional African way of guidance and counselling
exist today?
 What were the merits and demerits of the traditional African
way of guidance and counseling?

The traditional African way of guidance
and counseling
 Guidance of the youth, children and in some cases adults has
been practised for as long as man has lived.
 Men/women have always sought the advice and counsel of

others who had superior knowledge, insight, or experience
(Mbiti, 1970).

Cont’…
 The youth were educated about the traditions,
moral values and culture of the community.
 This was done by the elders as part of their social
responsibility.
 Guidance was given to any member of the society
regardless of his/her age as long as he/she was
found wanting in any aspect of social life and
responsibility (Ibid, 1970).

Cont’…
 The practitioners were entirely private family affairs with
senior members i.e. parents, relatives and elders acting as
counsellors.
 Serious or complicated behaviour problems were handled by

organized panels of elders or experienced persons in the
communities.
 Guidance and counselling took place in groups and

sometimes through ceremonial gatherings such as initiation
or circumcision, and during marriage times.

Cont’…
 The youth were given advice by the elders on how to be
responsible and live according to societal expectations.
 Girls (female clients) were guided by their mothers, aunts
 Boys (men) were guided by their fathers, uncles, grandfathers

and other responsible men in the community.

Techniques used during Traditional
African guidance and counselling
 Some of the techniques used during guidance
and counselling were;
 Storytelling,
 Proverbs,
 Formal instructions,
 Songs and
 Riddles etc

EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCES IN
CHILDREN
…

Emotional disturbances during Early
School Years
 The problems involve difficulties of social and emotional
adjustment to school and to other children.
 Problems experienced include:-
1. Irrational fears e.g. school phobia
2. Anxiety about leaving home
3. Withdrawal due to overwhelming school experiences
4. Aggression and
5. Other antisocial behaviours due to peer influence and
conflicts and frustrations of home and school life.

Cont’…
 If the teacher cannot handle the problem, assistance from the
parents and/or guardians should be sought for through the
head of the school.

Emotional disturbances among Upper
Primary School Children
 Problems encountered during this phase include:-
1. Learning difficulties
2. Extreme isolation of an individual from the rest of the
group and the teacher
3. Disruptive and inattentive behaviour
4. Outbursts of anger
5. Truancy and lack of interest in school work

Cont’…
6. Disobedience and rudeness
7. Faking illness
8. Drug abuse especially in urban areas
9. Fighting with other children
10. Being bullied by older/stronger children
 Teacher counsellor should note and try to modify
maladaptive behaviour of children.
 He/she may use individual and/or group counselling.
 He/she should refer cases that he/she cannot handle

Emotional disturbances among
Secondary School Students
 During adolescence important decisions and
choices have to be made about one’s future.
 A great deal of problems do not only hinge on the
academic level but also on the adolescent’s
readiness for making decisions and choices.
 The guidance programme offered should enable
the adolescents to live successfully.

Cont’…
 There is need to know, for instance:
 Requirements for various careers they intend to
choose
 The sort of work or training they can seek
 The sort of skills and qualifications they are
capable of
 Different needs they should be prepared to
meet in future

…
 The demand different careers and lifestyles make
on an individual.
 Preparation for vocational choices becomes at first
a group and class concern for guidance.
 It should form part of the basic curriculum of the
school.
 Field trips, discussions, films, talks by professionals
etc. should be made available to students in their
high school final year.

…
 Group guidance as part of the curriculum should include:-
 Personal health, good grooming, prevention of diseases.
 Money management e.g. budgeting, hire purchase, insurance
and so on.
 Civic responsibilities of individuals e.g. voting and obeying the
law.
 Responsible sexual behaviour;
 Is a socially desirable and deliberate pattern of behaviours
used to promote sexual health, manage risk and foster
respect for sexual partners within the context of community
influences.

…
 Common problems at this level include:
1. Drug abuse and addiction, smoking cigarettes and drinking
alcohol.
2. Disillusionment and boredom.
3. Conflicts of adult expectations against those of their peers.
4. Role confusion and identity crisis due to conflicting societal
demands.
5. Academic problems such as poor study methods, failure in
examinations.
6. Delinquent behaviour e.g. stealing, truancy, lying, and
cheating.

Concerns And Problems Of Students In Post-
secondary Training Institutions
 The major concern of both the primary and secondary school
pupils is to successfully perform well in their terminal
examinations.
 It is the good results one scores, which enable the individual,
join the next higher institution.
 The concerns for students in post-secondary institutions
become completely different.
 Failure in examinations might mean withdrawal from the
training or less salary than that of a successful one.

Cont’…
 For students in our Teachers’ Training Colleges, you
will note that apart from being concerned in
completing their courses successfully, nowadays
majority of them are also family men and women.
 Their problems will equally be varied.
 Colleges should pay attention to the provision of

guidance and counselling services to this population.

…
 Problems include:
 Financial constraints, no loans, and scholarships
for some students.
 Premarital sex and unplanned pregnancies.
 Poor health e.g. infected with sexually
transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS
 Crowded hostels and insufficient facilities in
some learning institutions. etc

Discussion on Researches on the
following
 HIV/AIDs
 Trauma
 Depression
 Anxiety
 Drugs related psychosis

Loss and Grief Process
 Developed by Kubler-Ross ➔ work with terminally ill
patients
 Denial
 Anger
 Bargaining
 Depression
 Acceptance

GOALS OF EDUCATIONAL
GUIDANCE
.

Goals of Educational Guidance
 The Handbook for Schools’ Guidance Counsellors (1977) pg.
7 gives the following goals to help counsellors plan their
work.

Goals of Educational Guidance
1. To help children develop their natural
curiosity about the world around them.
 By;
 Asking questions and searching for answers.
 Introducing new concepts and trying new
methods.

Cont’…
2. To help children develop techniques and
resources that will facilitate their learning,
such as;
 Helping new students adjust to a new school
environment by learning:
 Names of staff members,
 Significance of school traditions,
 Interpreting time tables,
 Understanding basic regulations,
 Becoming familiar with extra-curricular activities.

Cont’…
 Developing and seeking to correct reading
difficulties.
 Planning more effective study habits.
 Guiding students in the use of the school library
and in the acquisition of other reference
material.

Cont’…
3. To help the youth realize the values of education
 Acquired formally (in school, training situations,
higher institutions of learning) or informally (through
every day experiences):
 In gaining knowledge and understanding
 In acquiring skills
 In solving problems
 In developing relationships
 In developing appreciations for people, places, and
things
 In enhancing one’s earning capacity

Cont’…
4. To help students discover their special
aptitudes (abilities) and their
limitations.
 This may involve some testing; it requires

cumulative academic records and the recording
of observations and interviews.

Cont’…
5. To help students recognize the
importance of maintaining a good
academic record, for it is closely related
to future educational and occupational
opportunities.
 Visits to training institutions, colleges, and

universities may create an incentive to qualify
for such opportunities.

THE SCOPE OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE
PROGRAMME
..

Introduction
 The school guidance programme has several inter-related
components:
1. Educational guidance
2. Vocational/Career guidance
3. Guidance for Development
4. Guidance for Adjustment
5. Psychological Counseling
6. Health guidance and counseling
7. Civic guidance and counselling

EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE
 A learner in a new school or in a higher level of learning are helped to adjust to
the new and unfamiliar educational environment.

 The learner is helped to cope with new teachers, subjects, classes, regulations,
accommodation, and boarding facilities.

 Orientation programmes organized by Guidance and Counselling Department
would enable the learner to settle down faster.

 The learners are taught how to be good time managers.
 They are instructed on effective study methods and skills.
 They are also motivated to develop positive attitude towards school.

VOCATIONAL/CAREER GUIDANCE
 Vocational choice is defined as “the process of assisting an
individual who possesses certain assets, abilities and possibilities to
select from many occupations one that is suited to himself and
then aid him/her in preparing for it, entering upon and professing
it,”(Ibid, 1977).
 Vocational guidance provides information about job opportunities

and the factors affecting the job market such as employment
information, technology, and international relations.
 The learner is better informed about subject of study and subject

choices.

GUIDANCE FOR DEVELOPMENT
 As learners grow up they need information on what changes to
expect as they move from one stage of growth and development to
another.
 They require guidance on how to successfully cope with

challenges that characterize each phase of development.
 Through developmental (facilitative) guidance and counselling the

learner is enabled to set goals appropriate in each stage, anticipate
possible outcomes and discover how to work towards a higher
level of achievement for his/her own good and the good of the
society.

GUIDANCE FOR ADJUSTMENT
 Guidance and counselling helps the learners to develop a
deeper understanding of who they are and acknowledge their
potential abilities and their weaknesses.
 This in turn enables them work towards strengthening the

positive aspects about themselves and eliminate the negative
ones.

PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING
 The learner with personal psychological problems acquires life
skills; attitudes and living values that enable him/her manage
his/her problems with less fear and anxiety.
 A child with signs of personality or social maladjustment is helped

to identify possible corrective measures so as to overcome
personal difficulties, which may lead to unacceptable behaviour.
 Corrective or remedial guidance and counselling is offered to

learners with disruptive behaviour.
 The main purpose of this is to promote behaviour change.

HEALTH GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 Preventive guidance assists a learner to identify and avoid
situations or activities that are potentially dangerous.
 Those learners already involved in risky behaviour are helped

through adjustive guidance to appreciate how their attitude
or actions may lead to unpleasant consequences.
 The guidance and counselling programme promotes good

physical and mental health by teaching about nutrition and
hygiene, prevention of diseases and especially the sexually
transmitted and HIV/AIDS.

CIVIC GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 This prepares the learners to be good citizens.
 They are taught how to be amicable with other people by

promoting Kenyan motto of “peace, love and unity.”
 All forms of discriminations, gender inequality, corruption

are discouraged.
 Children are taught civic responsibilities such as voting and

democratic ideals.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term guidance
2. Discuss the goals of school guidance.
3. Discuss incidences when you would offer the guidance for
i. Development
ii. Adjustment and
iii. Healthy counselling.
4. Under what circumstances do you offer services of
psychological Counselling to a student?

ROLE OF THE GUIDANCE
SPECIALIST
1. The Guidance Specialist

The guidance specialist
 The guidance specialist would:
1. Conduct group guidance classes according to the
surveyed informational needs and interests of the student
population.
2. Assist the individual student in the rational planning and
attainment of educational and / or vocational objectives.
3. Provide individuals and groups with information about
scholarships, fellowships, and loans.

Cont’…
4. Administer, score, and interpret standardized
intelligence, achievement, interest, aptitude, and
personality tests to the student population.
5. Provide leadership to teachers in the development of valid

and reliable teacher made subject-matter tests.
6. Conduct research designed to measure the effectiveness of

the total guidance programme.
7. Motivate students to make use of informational and testing

services by a creative and continuous orientation programme.

COUNSELLING
.

Definition
 Tolber (1959) defines Counselling as “a person at
face-to-face relationship between two people in
which the counsellor, by means of this
relationship and his/her special competencies
provides a learning situation in which the client is
helped to know him/herself and his/her present
and possible future situations so that he/she can
make use of his/her characteristics and
potentialities in a way that is both satisfying to
oneself and beneficial to the society”.
Cont’…
 Patterson (1973) defines counselling as “a process which
eventually helps normal individuals to deal with or
remove frustrations and obstacles that interfere
with their daily lives”.
 He sees counselling as a part of guidance.
 Hence, we can say that counselling is a face-to-face human

encounter whose outcome is greatly dependent upon the
quality of the counselling relationship.

Key elements in counselling
 The key elements in counselling are that:-
1. Counselling is a professional service provided
by trained and competent persons, to an
individual or group in need.
2. It is a process that involves both the

counsellor and the client where the client
determines the direction and the goals to be
achieved.

Cont’….
3. It is a dynamic relationship between the
counsellor and the client where the counsellor
establishes rapport but maintains a psychological
distance to avoid an overly emotional
involvement.
4. Counselling is a teaching-learning process where

the client learns new behaviours and attitudes
through cognitive reasoning and/or behaviour
modification.

Principles Of Counselling
1. Counselling helps the client to move towards a greater
level of self-acceptance and self-understanding.
 Counselling should help the client become more self-aware and

realistically accept his/her abilities and limitations.
 The individual should be encouraged to overcome biased self-

perceptions, distorted realities and harmful attitudes because they
tend to lead to self-destruction.
 Such self-awareness serves as a source of energy to achieve much

more.

Cont’…
2. Counselling is always client centered.
 The needs of the client come first.
 A counsellor should, while counselling, avoid bringing in
his/her personal needs or being overly emotionally
involved.
 He/she should concentrate on the needs of the client.
 The client should be allowed to set his/her own goals while

the counsellor plays a facilitative and supportive role.

Cont’…
3. Accepting counselling on the part of the client leads
to a greater level of honesty toward others, but more
so towards the self.
 This means that the clients real self resembles more and more
his/her ideal self.
 That is, his/her self-concept is becoming congruent with

his/her experiences.
 As the client shares his/her repressed tendencies and distorted

experiences with others, they will provide the needed positive
feedback.

Cont’…
4. Counselling is personal, intimate, and totally
individual in focus.
 Its purpose is to enhance the personal development, and the
psychological growth toward maturity of its clients.
 The ultimate purpose of a good guidance and counseling

programme should be to help the individual student to acquire
understanding, ability and appreciation necessary to act
intelligently and effectively in dealing with problems of everyday
life.
 Counselling is thus a means or a process of helping a student to

help him/herself.

Cont’…
 The teacher counsellor works closely with other
professionals e.g. medical personnel, social workers, other
staff members, the parents, etc. through referrals.
 He/she also works with other persons in his/her

environment in a manner, which facilitates the achievement
of desirable objectives for the benefit of the student.

Cont’…
 The teacher counsellor is more concerned with the
development of what is, than with fundamental change with
the deep and distant past;
 with making the best of a situation as it actually is, rather than
with altering the way of the world (Kagan, 1984).

Cont’…
 The teacher counsellor works individually with each student
trying to help the counsellee ;
 Gain a meaningful perspective of his/her strengths and

weaknesses,
 Get a clear vision of his/her opportunity, and a knowledge of

existing or possible interferences in his/her maturing and
adjustment throughout life.

Cont’…
 It is not the function of the teacher counsellor to “tell” the
student.
 The teacher counsellor is committed to assisting each student in
the struggle for self-understanding.

Role of the counsellor
 The counsellor would:
1. Engage in professional counselling with small groups
of students (six to eight) with similar problems relating to
self and/or to others.
2. Engage in professional counselling with the
individual student who is troubled.
3. Conduct group-centred in-service programmes
with teachers, administrators, and parents whereby
they could become acquainted with the philosophical and
empirical considerations that influence the work of the
counsellor.

Cont’…
4. Conduct research designed to measure the effectiveness of
individual and group counselling.
5. Motivate students to seek counselling of their own volition

through a creative and continuous orientation programme
(Angelo & Pine,1968).

Functions of a Teacher Counsellor
1. Planning and development of the guidance
programme .
 He/she co-ordinates various aspects of the programme in a
meaningful sequence of guidance services,
 He/she helps the head teacher to identify the guidance needs of
the students.

Cont’…
2. Providing counselling services.
 It is essential that the teacher counsellor devotes time to
individual or group counselling meetings.

Cont’…
3. Student appraisal,
 The counsellor co-ordinates the accumulation of
meaningful information concerning the students.
 Such information is gathered through
 conferences with students,
 interviews with students,
 academic records,
 observations, and thus identifies students with special needs.

Cont’…
4. Educational and vocational planning.
 This may include assisting the students in relating their
interests (aspirations), aptitudes and abilities to current and
future educational and vocational opportunities and
requirements.
 He/she also collects and disseminates to students
information concerning careers, opportunities for further
education and training.

Cont’…
5. Referral work.
 The teacher counsellor has a major responsibility in making
and coordinating referral services within public and private
agencies.
 Open Arms Counseling and Training Centre, Kilifi

town

Cont’…
6. Staff consultation.
 The counsellor shares the student information data with
staff members, with due regard to confidentiality.
 He/she helps staff members to identify students with

special needs and problems and keeps them informed of
developments concerning individual students, which might
have a bearing on their learning.

COUNSELING AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Counseling Theories

MAJOR THEORIES OF COUNSELLING
• There are a number of different approaches
used by professional counsellors.
• Theories help counselors understand the
dynamics of human behavior and choose
therapeutic approaches appropriate to specific
clients and situations.
• Psychological theories come alive in the
counselor's mind if they are seen as
extensions of life experiences of various
theorists.

Cont’…
 Counseling practitioners are then
encouraged to form, on the basis of existing
theories, an operational framework
consistent with their own experiences and
values.
 Counselling theory deals with assumptions
and hypotheses about the process of human
development.
Cont’…
 The problems and difficulties which arise at
various stages through out our life span as a result
of environmental or other influences are
considered under counselling theory.
 The ways in which different forms of therapy and
counselling approach these problems, and their
individual methods of helping clients have
evolved theories about human development and
the acquisition of helpful and unhelpful
88
behaviours.
PWANI UNIVERSITY Tuesday, January 18, 2022
Cont’…
The following are major categories Of
Counseling theories/ Interventions:
1. Affective models
2. Cognitive models
3. Behavioral models etc

AFFECTIVE MODELS
 In affective counseling theory, the focus is on
emotions and feelings.
 While every counselor works with people's
emotions, thoughts and behaviors, some counselors
focus primarily on emotions, or a person's affect.
 Affect is the outward expression of a feeling or
emotion.
 Affective counseling theory is based on an
idea that a person can be healed of mental health
ailments by focusing on their emotions and taking
responsibility for their feelings.
Case
 Margaret, age 18, decides to see a counselor for
low self-esteem. She has always envisioned herself
as a successful hard-working student, but she is
now in a dead-end with her studies. Margaret's
counselor works with her using affective
counseling techniques, which include providing
supportive listening to Margaret, helping her
identify and communicate her feelings, and
helping her cope with her negative feelings.
Cont’…
 The affective counseling techniques center on
emotions, empathy, letting the client lead the
session, non-judgment, and helping the client
reach his or her full potential.

Cont’…
 If Margaret visited a counselor using the affective
counseling theory, the counselor would:
1. Place priority on establishing a good, trusting
and respectful relationship with her.
2. Assist her with becoming aware of her feelings
of disappointment and sadness.
3. Assist Margaret for taking responsibility for her
own feelings (instead of blaming her sadness on
others).

Cont’…
4. Facilitate Margaret's ability to communicate her
feelings effectively (i.e. by using 'I statements').
5. Help Margaret learn coping mechanisms to deal
with her troubling emotions, such as exercise and
breathing techniques.
6. Have an optimistic view of Margaret, knowing that
her difficult feelings, thoughts and behaviors are a
sign that something in her environment is awry and
her defense mechanisms have taken over.

Cont’…
7. Believe that Margaret's view of herself has
shaped the world in which she lives, including
her behavior and her reactions to certain
situations.
8. Believe that Margaret, like others, will naturally
grow and move towards self-actualization,
or realizing one's full potential, as it is an innate
drive to do so.

AFFECTIVE MODELS
1) Psychodynamic therapies etc
2) Person/Client-centeredTherapy,
3) Gestalt Therapy
4) Existentialism

Cognitive models
 Rational-Emotive Behavioural therapy
 Transactional Analysis etc

Behavioral models
 Behavior therapy
 Reality therapy
 Cognitive-Behavioral therapy

PSYCHOANALYSIS
 Developed by Sigmund Freud
 He thought that individual’s needs(sex), irrational forces &
unconscious motivations determined a person’s behaviour
 He placed great importance on person’s early childhood
experiences within the family context.
 A child experiences conflicts at each stage of development
 If a child is able to resolve those conflicts, he/she moves to
the next stage of development well prepared to meet the
conflicts of that stage.
 If she is unable to resolve the conflicts of the present stage of
development, he/she moves to the next stage less prepared
to meet and resolve conflicts inherent in that stage.

Cont’…
 If the conflicts met by a child at every stage of his
/her development are resolved, the child will
eventually have a well-adjusted adult life
 If those conflicts are not resolved, the child will
eventually experience psychological difficulties as an
adult.
 Psychoanalysis consists of two interrelated theories:
 A structural theory that consist Id, Ego & Superego
 Psychosexual stages of development

Structural theory
 The Structure of Personality
▪ THE ID—The Demanding Child
▪ This is the source of all psychic energy
▪ It consists of instinctual needs & drives that seek
immediate gratification. For example, a hungry
child will demand to be fed immediately by
crying.
▪ The child stops crying after it has been fed.
▪ The Id is ruled by the pleasure principle
▪ It is present at birth.

Cont’…
▪ THE EGO—The Traffic Cop
▪ Not present at birth
▪ Develops after 5/6 months
▪ Operates on reality principle
▪ It defers gratification of the id’s instinctual demands
until an appropriate object is available in reality.
▪ For instance, a hungry child demands to be fed
immediately by crying.
▪ Unfortunately, food is not ready.
▪ That is the reality. It has to wait until the food is ready.
▪ Ego’s primary task is to mediate the often conflicting
demands of the Id and reality.

Cont’…
▪ THE SUPEREGO—The Judge
▪ Develops at the age of between 4-5 years
▪ It is the sense of what is right and wrong in a
society.
▪ It consists of the internalized societal values,
norms and standards.
▪ The child learns them first from his/her
parents and later from other moral agents of
his/her society

Cont’…
▪ It operates on moral principle
▪ For example a hungry child demands to be fed
immediately.
▪ This demand comes from Id.
▪ The reality is that food is available
▪ Eventually, the child learns to control Id’s
impulses in accordance to what is regarded to
be right or wrong in his/her society.
▪ The child will experience guilt if it does what is
considered to be wrong in the society.
The mind; conscious & Unconscious
levels
 Conscious and Unconscious level; use the Iceberg to
understand the two levels
Conscious:
What’s on the
surface
i.e. logic, reality
Unconscious:
What lies deep,
below the surface
i.e. drives, instincts

Conscious level
 In Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the
conscious mind consists of everything inside of our awareness.
 This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and
talk about in a rational way.
 The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations,
perceptions, memories, feeling and fantasies inside of our current
awareness.
 Closely allied with the conscious mind is the preconscious, which
includes the things that we are not thinking of at the moment but
which we can easily draw into conscious awareness.

Unconscious Mind
 In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the
unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges,
and memories that outside of our conscious awareness.
 Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or
unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
 According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence
our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of
these underlying influences.

The unconscious mind
 Things that the conscious mind wants to keep hidden from
awareness are repressed into the unconscious mind.
 While we are unaware of these feelings, thoughts, urges and
emotions, Freud believed that the unconscious mind could
still have an influence on our behavior.

Psychoanalysis
 The Unconscious
❑Clinical evidence for postulating the unconscious:
❑Dreams
❑Slips of the tongue
❑Posthypnotic suggestions
❑Material derived from free-association
❑Material derived from projective techniques
❑Symbolic content of psychotic symptoms
❑NOTE: consciousness is only a thin slice of the
total mind

Psychoanalysis
 Anxiety
❑ Feeling of dread resulting from repressed feelings, memories and
desires
❑Develops out of conflict among the id, ego and superego to
control psychic energy

Psychoanalysis
❑Ego-defense mechanisms:
❑Are normal behaviors which operate on an
unconscious level and tend to deny or distort reality
❑Help the individual cope with anxiety and prevent
the ego from being overwhelmed
❑Have adaptive value if they do not become a style of
life to avoid facing reality

Psychosexual Dev. theory
❑ ORAL STAGE First year(0-18 months)
❑ Related to later mistrust and rejection issues
❑ ANAL STAGE Ages 1-3

❑ Related to later personal power issues
❑ PHALLIC STAGE Ages 3-6

❑ Related to later sexual attitudes
❑ LATENCY STAGE Ages 6-12

❑ A time of socialization
❑ GENITAL STAGE Ages 12-60

❑ Sexual energies are invested in life

Cont’…
 Some behaviours are fixated during personality development.
 These affect the individual when is a grown up.
 Five facets that Sigmund Freud argued were the source of
maladaptive behaviours:
1. Sexual and aggressive drive
2. Early childhood experiences/Undesirable
3. Anxiety
4. Unconscious processes
5. Ego defense mechanisms

Goals of Psychoanalysis
 Psychoanalysis focuses on the analysis of the
client’s childhood experiences.
1) It aims to uncover the unresolved conflicts that
occurred during childhood.
 The unresolved conflicts are the sources of
maladaptive behaviour latter in life
 The awareness of those unresolved conflicts
brings healing to the client.

Psychoanalytic therapeutic Techniques
 Free Association
 Interpretation
 Analysis of resistance
 Dream Analysis
 Analysis of transference and counter transference

Free Association
 How Is Unconscious Information Brought Into Awareness?
 Freud also believed that he could bring these unconscious
feelings into awareness through the use of a technique called
free association.
 He asked patients to relax and say whatever came to mind
without any consideration of how trivial, irrelevant, or
embarrassing it might be.
 By tracing these streams of thought, Freud believed he could
uncover the contents of the unconscious mind where
repressed desires and painful childhood memories existed.

Cont’…
 Client reports immediately without censuring any feelings or
thoughts

Video Clip

Psychoanalysis
❑Interpretation
❑Therapist points out, explains, and teaches the
meanings of whatever is revealed

Psychoanalysis
❑Dream Analysis
❑Therapist uses the “royal road to the
unconscious” to bring unconscious material to
light
❑Latent content
❑Manifest content

Psychoanalysis
❑Resistance
❑Anything that works against the progress of therapy
and prevents the production of unconscious material
❑Analysis of Resistance
❑Helps the client to see that canceling appointments,
fleeing from therapy prematurely, etc., are ways of
defending against anxiety
❑These acts interfere with the ability to accept
changes which could lead to a more satisfying life

Psychoanalysis
 Transference and Counter-transference
❑Transference
❑The client reacts to the therapist as he did to an
earlier significant other
❑This allows the client to experience feelings that
would otherwise be inaccessible
❑ANALYSIS OF TRANSFERENCE — allows the
client to achieve insight into the influence of the
past

Psychoanalysis
❑Counter-transference
❑The reaction of the therapist toward the client that
may interfere with objectivity
❑Not always detrimental to therapeutic goals; can
provide important means of understanding your
client’s world
❑Counter-transference reactions must be
monitored so that they are used to promote
understanding of the client and the therapeutic
process

Application to Group Counseling
 Group work provides a rich framework for working through
transference feelings
 Feelings resembling those that members have experienced
toward significant people in their past may emerge
 Group members may come to represent symbolic figures from
a client’s past
 Competition for attention of the leader provides opportunities to

explore how members dealt with feelings of competition in the
past and how this affects their current interactions with others.
 Projections experienced in group provide valuable clues to a

client’s unresolved conflicts

PERSON CENTRED THERAPY
Developed by Carl Rogers

Person-Centered View of Human
Nature
 At their core, humans are trustworthy and positive
 Humans are capable of making changes and living productive,

effective lives
 Humans innately gravitate toward self-actualization

 Actualizing tendency
 Given the right growth-fostering conditions, individuals strive to

move forward and fulfill their creative nature

Nature
 Emphasizes:
 Therapy as a journey shared by two
fallible(imperfect) people
 The person’s innate striving for self-actualization
 The personal characteristics of the therapist and the
quality of the therapeutic relationship
 The counselor’s creation of a permissive, “growth-
promoting” climate
 People are capable of self-directed growth if involved
in a therapeutic relationship

Nature
 The Person-Centred Therapy is a Growth-Promoting
Climate
 Emphasizes facilitative counseling with the
following core conditions;
1. Congruence
 Genuineness or realness in the therapy session
 Therapist’s behaviors match his or her words

Person-Centred Therapy
2. Unconditional positive regard
 Acceptance and genuine caring about the client as a
valuable person
 Accepting clients as they presently are
 Therapist need not approve of all client behavior

3. Accurate empathic understanding
 The ability to deeply grasp the client’s subjective
world
 Helper attitudes are more important than knowledge
 The therapist need not experience the situation to
develop an understanding of it from the client’s
perspective

 The therapist experiences unconditional
positive regard or real caring for the client
 The therapist experiences empathy for the

client’s internal frame of reference and
endeavors to communicate this to the client
 The communication to the client is, to a

minimal degree, achieved

 The Therapist
1. Provides a supportive therapeutic environment in which
the client is the agent of change and healing
2. Serves as a model of a human being struggling toward
greater realness
3. Is genuine, integrated, and authentic, without a false front
4. Can openly express feelings and attitudes that are present
in the relationship with the client

5. Has invested in developing his or her own life experiences
to deepen self- knowledge and move toward self-
actualization

 Application to Group Counseling
 Therapist takes on the role of facilitator
 Creates therapeutic environment
 Techniques are not stressed
 Exhibits deep trust of the group members
 Provides support for members
 Group members set the goals for the group

 Group setting fosters an open and accepting community
where members can work on self-acceptance
 Individuals learn that they do not have to experience the

process of change alone and grow from the support of
group members

Limitations of the Person-Centered
Approach
 Cultural considerations
 Some clients may prefer a more directive, structured
treatment
 Individuals accustomed to indirect communication
may not be comfortable with direct expression of
empathy or creativity
 Individuals from collectivistic cultures may disagree
with the emphasis on internal locus of control

Limitations of the Person-Centered
Approach
 Does not focus on the use of specific techniques, making
this treatment difficult to standardize
 Beginning therapists may find it difficult to provide both

support and challenges to clients
 Limits of the therapist as a person may interfere with

developing a genuine therapeutic relationship

GESTALT THERAPY
Developed by German Psychologists; Fritz Perls, Max
Wertheimer, Kurt Kaffka & Christian Von Ehrenfels
GESTALT- WHOLE

Gestalt Therapy
 It is grounded in the client’s "here and now”
 It focuses on the awareness of the whole
person(feelings, thoughts & behaviours)
 If you want to understand a person, you need to
understand his /her environment also.
 If an individual neglects the self while attending to the
demands of self-image, may exhibit maladaptive
behaviours

Gestalt Therapy
 Initial goal is for clients to gain awareness of
what they are experiencing and doing now.
 Promotes direct experiencing rather than the
abstractness of talking about situations
 Rather than talk about a childhood trauma the

client is encouraged to become the hurt child

The Now
 Our “power is in the present”
 Nothing exists except the “now”
 The past is gone and the future has not yet
arrived
 For many people the power of the present is lost

 They may focus on their past mistakes or
engage in endless resolutions and plans for the
future

Unfinished Business
 Feelings about the past are unexpressed
 These feelings are associated with distinct memories
and fantasies
 Feelings not fully experienced linger in the
background and interfere with effective contact
 Result:
 Preoccupation, compulsive behavior, wariness
oppressive energy and self-defeating behavior

GOALS OF GESTALT THERAPY
 To help the Client to achieve self-integration that
he/she lost in the course of his/ her
development.
 To help the client to live here and now.
 One is helped to become aware of his/her
thoughts, feelings and actions in the present
 He/she begins living here and now with its
realities
 This is the main curative factor in Gestalt
Therapeutic Techniques
 Directed awareness
 Use of “I” language
 Internal dialogue exercise; Games of
Dialogue
 Dream work

 Encourages direct experience and action
 Here-and-now focus allows members to bring

unfinished business to the present
 Members try out experiments within the group setting

 Leaders can use linking to include members in the
exploration of a particular individual’s problem
 Leaders actively design experiments for the group while

focusing on awareness and contact
 Group leaders actively engage with the members to form a

sense of mutuality in the group

Limitations of Gestalt Therapy
 The approach has the potential for the therapist to abuse
power by using powerful techniques without proper training
 This approach may not be useful for clients who have

difficulty abstracting and imagining
 The emphasis on therapist authenticity and self-disclosure

may be overpowering for some clients
 The high focus on emotion may pose limitations for clients

who have been culturally conditioned to be emotionally
reserved

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIORAL
THERAPY (REBT)
Developed by Albert Ellis

Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
(REBT)
 Stresses thinking, judging, deciding, analyzing, and doing
 Assumes that cognitions, emotions, and behaviors interact

and have a reciprocal cause-and-effect relationship
 Is highly didactic, very directive, and concerned as much

with thinking as with feeling
 Teaches that our emotions stem mainly from our beliefs,

evaluations, interpretations, and reactions to life situations

The Therapeutic Process
 Therapy is seen as an educational process
 Clients learn
 To identify the interplay of their thoughts, feelings
and behaviors
 To identify and dispute irrational beliefs that are
maintained by self-indoctrination
 To replace ineffective ways of thinking with effective
and rational cognitions
 To stop absolutistic thinking, blaming, and repeating
false beliefs
View of Human Nature
 We are born with a potential for both rational and irrational
thinking
 We have the biological and cultural tendency to think

crookedly and to needlessly disturb ourselves
 We learn and invent disturbing beliefs and keep ourselves

disturbed through our self-talk
 We have the capacity to change our cognitive, emotive, and

behavioral processes

Irrational Ideas
 Irrational ideas lead to self-defeating behaviors
 Some examples:
 “I must have love or approval from all the significant
people in my life.”
 “I must perform important tasks competently and
perfectly.”
 “If I don’t get what I want, it’s terrible, and I can’t
stand it.”…..

Counseling Goals
 The Counsellor helps the client to change
or minimize self-defeating irrational ideas,
emotions and behaviours

Application of REBT to Group
Counseling
 Tailored for specific diagnoses such as anxiety, panic, eating
disorders and phobias
 Treatments are standardized and based on empirical evidence
 Use of homework allows lessons learned in group to generalize to

the client’s daily environment
 Help members gain awareness of how their self-defeating

thoughts influence what they feel and how they behave
 Heavy emphasis on psychoeducation and prevention of symptoms

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
 Show a video clip of this therapy

Other theories
 Transactional Analysis by Eric Berne
 Life positions
 I am Ok, you are Ok; health position
 I am Ok,You are not Ok; not a health position; superiority &
inferiority
 Am not ok you are not Ok; not a health position
 Am not ok you're Ok; not health position
 Life Scripts
 Descriptions of how things are done in different situations and
hence how we act or behave when in those situations.
 They become a person’s life plan
 They direct our actions in every life situation

Other theories
 Reality Therapy
 By William Glasser
 He proposes that a human being has psychological needs such as
love and belonging, power, freedom and desire to have fun.
 Human being’s sole physiological need is Survival
 These needs must be fulfilled in a responsible manner in order
for the person to develop to a healthy functioning personality

THERAPEUTIC RELATIONSHIP
▪ The therapeutic relationship is an important
component of effective counseling
▪ The therapist as a person is a key part of the

effectiveness of therapeutic treatments
▪ Research shows that both the therapy

relationship and the therapy used contribute to
treatment outcome

Cont’…
▪ The most important instrument you have in
counseling isYOU as the counsellor
▪ Your living example of who you are and
how you struggle to live up to your
potential is powerful.
▪ Be authentic

Cont’…
▪ If you hide behind your role the client
will also hide.
▪ Be a therapeutic person and be clear
about who you are
▪ Be willing to grow, to risk, to care, and
to be involved

BASIC COUNSELING SKILLS
Discussion

Cont’…
 Questioning
 Paraphrasing
 Reflection
 Listening
 Interpretation
❖ Engage learners into a discussion and role plays

GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING FOR
CHILDREN WITH SPECIFIC NEEDS
….

LEARNERS’ COUNSELING NEEDS IN AN
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 The term ‘children with special needs’ is used to
describe the children whose needs fall outside the
established ‘normal’ range.
 The needs may be
 Physical,
 Behavioural,
 Cognitive,
 Social/ emotional etc.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
Other terms used to describe these children include:
 Children with exceptionalities,
 Children with challenges and
 Children with disabilities

INCLUSIVE SETTING
The diagnoses which are commonly recognized among
children:
 Autism spectrum disorder(ASD), primarily a
behavioural and developmental disorder
 Cerebral palsy – manifested mainly as a physical
(motor-based) disability,
 Down syndrome and other syndromes physical
manifestations and involving developmental and intellectual
disabilities

INCLUSIVE SETTING
Diagnoses contd.
 Sensory-based disabilities, that is, visual and hearing deficits
However, there is sometimes confusion about other
disabilities such as learning and intellectual disabilities
 These children are often labeled incorrectly before
a professional diagnosis is made
 Children who are gifted and talented are often also
misunderstood by teachers

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Common mistakes made by teachers:
 A learning disability and an intellectual disability is the same.
eg - a child with cerebral palsy also has an intellectual disability

 The most basic requirement should be that all teachers
are knowledgeable about the different types of
disabilities they are likely to encounter in the classroom.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 The child with a learning disability may be average or above
average in overall intelligence but may have difficulty with a
specific academic area such as reading, writing, mathematics,
spelling…
 They may also have challenges in recalling and organizing
information if not given appropriate guidance and if taught
using traditional teaching methods.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Intellectual Disability (formally MR) is defined as an
intellectual functioning level that is below average and with
significant limitations in daily living skills
(adaptive functioning).
 These limitations will cause a child to learn and develop
more slowly than a typical child.
 Levels of disability are expressed as mild, moderate and
severe.
 However, the mild ID child can have highly developed skills
in a particular area – negotiating sales (street smart).

INCLUSIVE SETTING
What is a disability?
There are varying types, levels and combinations of
sensory, cognitive, physical and mental conditions which
fall under the umbrella of ‘disability’..
The WHO defines Disability as
“… an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations,
and participation restrictions …..
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Disability should be distinguished from “handicap”
which are environmental “obstacles” that can be physical, social or
cultural that impede persons from having access to amenities and
basic rights, for e.g. the absence of a ramp in a building handicaps a
person who is wheelchair bound.
 The education system or teachers’ attitudes towards
children with disabilities can also prove to be an
handicap, preventing them from achieving their
educational goals.

Boy with Cerebral Palsy

DOWNS SYNDROME FLOPPY MUSCLE TONE
EYE SHAPE HIGH PALATE

Boy with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Provisions for students with Special
Needs
 In developed Countries the provision of special education
services is mandated by law.
 In the USA - The Individuals with Disabilities
 Students can be placed in fully inclusive classrooms,
mainstreamed or segregated for instruction.
 In Canada, provincial governments determine the extent of
support for each child.

Provisions for students with Special
Needs
 In these countries, the focus is on the definition of disability
in order to obtain funding for each student.
 The cost for special education services is exorbitant and
budgets within the Departments of Education have been greatly
impacted as more disabilities have been added for special
education services.
 In Australia - the number of children requiring special education
intervention within regular classrooms moved significantly by
adding Asperger’s Syndrome(related to autism and
characterized by awkwardness in social interaction, pedantry in
speech, and preoccupation with very narrow interests) and
Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
 The prevalence of children with ADHD, 6 – 17 years, was found to
be 11.2% (Sawyer et al, 2002).

Types of Intervention – Students with
Special Needs
 Inclusion – children with different levels of disability
are accommodated in all classes with support
 Mainstreaming – students join classes for
particular subjects
 Resource Rooms – Students go to resource room (already
exists in public and private schools).
 Resource Persons – Special educator, Reading
specialist, Guidance Counselor
 Itinerant teams – school and or clinical psychologists,
nurse, special educator, occupational therapist, speech and
physical therapist

Role of the Teacher as Parent
Confidant
 The birth of a baby born with a disability is seen as a death
to expectations for parents and extended family members.
Emotions may include:
 Shock and disbelief
 Anger and resentment before resignation and
acceptance ..this is my burden, my test of faith.
 There may be bitterness and unacceptance
(rejection leading to neglect)Resolution – to do the
best for this child

Role of the Teacher as Parent
Confidant
 The parents of children with special needs are in need of a lot
of psychological support.
 They may appear to be defensive, demanding, in denial and
overprotective but they are often still working through the
impact of having a child with special needs.

Role of the Teacher in Identification
and Referral Process
 Teachers are often the first to detect a disability or
significant delay
 Teachers can provide useful information necessary to
determine a diagnosis.
 There is no room for assumptions. Refer if in
doubt.
 Several conditions can mimic a presentation of ID or ADHD
incld. iron deficiency, ear, nose and throat, malnutrition…
 Teachers’ careful observation provide evidence for
medication e.g. children with ADHD

Role of Teacher in Intervention
▪ Teachers input is essential in developing and reviewing
individual education plans (IEPs).
▪ Teachers must record their observations to be used as
evidence in discussions.
▪ Teachers must pursue the recommendations provided
through comprehensive assessments.
▪ Teachers’ must employ best practices – training is
essential

Role of Teacher in Intervention
 Teachers’ self efficacy must be evident – seek out
information, improving practice, setting personal goals,
finding ways to improve the work environment.
 What contributes to your self fulfillment as a teacher?

NB
 Children with special education needs in the classroom will
perform best if:
 The student to teacher ratio is smaller
 There is an IEP for each student with special education
support
 There is sufficient space for children to learn comfortably

NB
 There is a comprehensive intervention team including:
 School/clinical/counseling psychologists,
 Guidance counselor,
 Speech therapist,
 Occupational therapists,
 Physical therapists,
 Behaviour therapists,
 Special educators

They want to make it to the finish line!

PARENTS’ COUNSELING NEEDS IN AN
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Discuss parents’ counseling needs in an inclusive setting

TYPES OF COUNSELLING
…

Types of counselling
 OBJECTIVES
 By the end of this lesson you should be able to;
1. Define
i. Individual counseling
ii. Group counselling
2. Explain when each of these two types of counselling may
be used.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
counselling.
4. Describe the factors to consider when forming the
counselling group.

INDIVIDUAL COUNSELLING
 Counselling is characterized by certain features that mark it
as the focal point of the guidance programme:
1. It is a purposeful learning experience for the counsellee;
2. It is a private interview between the counsellor and the
counsellee; and
3. It is a one-to-one relationship, a relationship predicated
upon the mutual confidence of the parties concerned and
growing out of the counselee's recognition of an existing
need for assistance, and the presence in the school of an
adult who is prepared to provide the desired assistance.

 Frequently pupils require skilled aid in evaluating personal
potentialities against a background of knowledge about the
requirements and opportunities inherent in an area of choice.
 Counselling alone provides a medium through which the
pupil may be assisted to recognize and evaluate the many
factors upon which decisive and intelligent action hinges.
 Each individual is unique.
 His/her assets and limitations are so peculiarly personal that
he/she cannot be given proper assistance to plan for realistic
goals except on an individual basis.

 Many of the decisions of pupils are highly personal in nature;
and most of them require private, individualized assistance.
 Some individuals have concerns and problems, which are
unique; others need individual support in coming to a
realization that their concerns and problems are not unique.
 Group counselling opens the door to individual counselling,
by giving the student a sense of security in knowing there is
an understanding person with whom he/she may talk, and by
giving him/her hope that he/she may be guided to solutions
of his/her problems along paths he/she has not explored.

 Most students seeking individual help have a fear of exposing their
concerns to anyone other than a mature person in whom they have
confidence.
 This person may be the teacher counsellor or another staff
member.
 They are particularly afraid to have their peers know of their
insecurity.
 For this reason, individual counselling must be treated with
confidentiality, the student and counsellor should be alone for
their conversation, and the student should have the assurance that
no part of it will be shared with a third person without his/her
knowledge and consent.

 The student prefers to share with someone with whom
he/she is not so emotionally involved.
 The counsellor must be alert to those problems that may
require the professional help of a doctor, a psychologist, a
psychiatrist, or a social worker.
 The ability to make wise referrals is a competency, which
every conscientious counsellor will want to develop.

 When a counsellor can plan time for it, he/she will find that
routine “getting acquainted” sessions with all students will
help him/her to spot those students who may need individual
counselling, but who would be most reluctant to seek it on
their own initiative.

Goals of Individual Counselling
 The same goals as group counseling.
1. To provide needed information,
2. To help students understand themselves and their role in
society,
3. To help them develop a base for problem-solving and
decision-making, and
4. To help them accept the responsibility for their solutions
and decisions.

 The traditional one-to-one counselling relationship is a
deliberately contrived activity for the purpose of achieving
particular therapeutic goals.
 To some degree and for some counselling goals, this traditional
treatment or diagnostic relationship is artificial and insufficient.
 Some of these elements of artificiality or insufficiency might be
overcome by introducing and utilizing group concepts in these
areas.
 The objective is not to exclude the one-to-one relationship as
either a diagnostic or therapeutic device, but rather to point up
the need for further extension and expansion of the role that
group process may play as a diagnostic and treatment tool (Boy &
Pine, 1968).

GROUP COUNSELLING
 Is useful with adults, upper grade elementary school
pupils, and to some extent with primary school children.
 It is particularly appropriate for the adolescent because

of his/her strong desire to be like his/her peers.
 He/she is usually struggling for independence from the

important adults in his/her life; therefore, it is easier for
him/her to accept help from other adolescents than
from an adult.

GROUP COUNSELLING
 It is an important and effective means of providing help to
students.
 Group counselling serves three important purposes;
1. It is a time saving method of helping a number of students with a
common interest or need.
2. It provides an opportunity for the objective consideration of a
given subject.
The recognition of one’s limitations in making career choices, for
example, may be considered in an atmosphere where each one can accept
his/her own limitations and realize that having limitations is common
to us all.
3. It provides an opportunity for students to develop trusting
relationships with the teacher counsellor in situations that are
objective and impersonal, so that when personal problems arise,
the students feel free to seek individual counselling.

GROUP COUNSELLING
 In dealing with several students simultaneously, it spreads the
effect of the counsellor and at the same time preserves
his/her effectiveness;
 It seems to be more readily accepted by students in that,
since it occurs within a peer group, it is not as “different” or
as threatening to them as individual counselling.
 It makes effective use of the social setting and peer
identification;

GROUP COUNSELLING
 The adult experiences by students in group counselling is
unique in that he/she is accepting of them and facilitating to
their experiences, rather than imposing an external
judgment.
 He/she is a resource, a catalyst, and, perhaps, a new concept
of an adult;
 Often the establishment of counselling groups within the
school may facilitate individual counselling and other new
opportunities to meet the needs of the students.


GROUP COUNSELLING
 Group counselling then, which has been and will continue to be a
part of school formal counselling programme, should be
recognized as the most important single technique in a planned
guidance and counselling programme.
 Initiate the programme by taking a critical look at the needs of the
students;
 (i) Which needs are common to more than two or three of them?
 (ii) Which needs are currently being met by some form of group
counselling?
 (iii) How can group counselling be used in areas to which help
should be directed?

LIMITATIONS OF GROUP COUNSELLING
 Wright (1964) identifies these inherent limitations as follows:
1. The inability of some students of relate to the common element or
problem, thus never really feeling a part of the group.
2. The need that some individuals have to identify more directly and
more closely with one person (presumably the counsellor) before
being able to relate or interact comfortably with a group of persons
limits some members from participating in the group.
3. The probability that there is less warmth or closeness of relationship
between the counsellor and individual group members.
4. A danger that the relative safety or anonymity of the group, and the
expressions of other group members, may lead some individuals to
experience catharsis or disturbing insights too much or too rapidly to
be adequately dealt with during the particular session.

THE COUNSELLOR IN THE PROCESS OF
GROUP COUNSELLING
 The counsellor is attempting to relate to a group as well as
develop a counselling atmosphere in which group members freely
communicate with each other.
 The counsellor who has had too much experience counselling
individuals may bring to group counselling a pattern of responding
which is more sensitive to the individual group member than to
the group as a whole.
 Such a mode of operation may make this counsellor highly
effective in communicating with an individual within a group, but
it has the inherent danger of the counsellor not communicating
with the group as a whole, and of his/her losing the opportunity
to involve him/herself in a linking function among the group
members.

GROUP COUNSELLING
 This linking function is the counselor's ability to be sensitive
to many persons at the same time, thus clarifying attitudinal
comparisons and contrasts within the group, and assisting the
group members to communicate with each other rather than
just with the counsellor.
 The counselor's ability to link the thoughts and ideas of the
group members not only makes the members more
comfortable with each other, it encourages individual group
members to become concerned with and involved in the
problems of the other members.


GROUP COUNSELLING
 When the individual begin to feel a bond with fellow group
members, he/she is more inclined to become involved in the
adjunctive counselling element, which is a part of
effective group counselling.
 The adjunctive counselling element of group counselling is
the process whereby each member of a group feels disposed
to assist fellow group-members in finding solutions to their
problems by actually becoming emphatically involved in
considering the dimensions of their behaviour.

GROUP COUNSELLING
 Individuals within the context of group counselling may not
be formally knowledgeable as to the process of counselling or
the approach employed by the professional counsellor, but, in
their own way, they communicate with fellow group-
members in comprehending and attempting to help resolve a
problem under consideration.
 This desire to assist fellow members of a counseled group is a
natural outcome of group counselling if the professional
counsellor has been skilled enough to develop a linking
relationship among group members, a relationship in which
each member of a group develops sensitivity to the
attitudinal skills involved in assisting fellow group-members.

GROUP COUNSELLING
 It becomes imperative, then for the group counsellor to be
sensitive not only to individuals within a group, but to the
group as a whole and to find ways of how he/she can develop
a communicating relationship among group members by
linking the attitudinal aspects of each client’s verbalization to
the attitudinal structure of each of the group members (Boy
& Pine, 1968).

Qualities of effective Guidance and
Counselling Service providers
 Self-awareness and understanding
 Good psychological health
 Sensitivity
 Open-mindedness
 Objectivity
 Competence
 Trustworthiness
 Interpersonal Attractiveness

COUNSELING PROCESS
….

Components Of The Counseling
Process
 Relationship Building
 Assessment & Diagnosis
 Goal Setting
 Intervention
 Termination and
 Follow-Up

Relationship Building/Rapport
 Conditions Of An Effective Therapeutic Relationship
1. Accurate Empathy
2. Genuineness/Congruence
3. Unconditional Positive Regard/Respect
❖ Client’s perception of relationship is what counts!

Relationship Building
 Counselor Skills Associated With Facilitative Conditions
1. Nonverbal and verbal attending behaviors
2. Paraphrasing content of client communications
3. Reflecting client feelings and implicit messages
4. Openness and self-disclosure

5. Immediacy
6. Attending to Client's Theory of Change
7. Interactive vs. Didactic Approach
8. Promoting Hopefulness

 Functions Of A Therapeutic Relationship
1. Creates an atmosphere of trust and safety
2. Provides a medium or vehicle for intense affect
3. Models a healthy interpersonal relationship
4. Provides motivation for change

Assessment
 Purposes Of Assessment
1. Systematic way to obtain information about the client’s
problems, concerns, strengths, resources, and needs.
2. Foundation for goal-setting and treatment planning.
3. Basis for Diagnosis
1. HIV positive patient ; Not taking medication (ART) because he has no

enough food….Assessment and diagnosis?

Assessment
 Assessment Considerations
1. Assessment is always an ongoing process, changing as
you learn more about the client.
2. Who is complaining or alarmed? Who thinks there is a
problem? What is the person complaining about?
3. What is the person motivated for? What does he or she
want?
4. What does the person do well? (Find contexts of
competence.) Skills, hobbies, sports, activities,
avocations, life experiences, etc.

Assessment
5. Exceptions/previous solutions/times when
situation was better
6. Best coping moments
7. What are the goals? How will we know when
we are done?
8. Get specific about the problem-free future.

Assessment
 What are the patterns of the problem? How is it performed?
Search for regularities of action and interaction, time, place, body
behavior, etc. Get specific (so could imagine seeing/hearing the
problem on a videotape)
 Scan for potentially harmful actions of clients or others in clients'
lives (e.g., physical violence, drug/alcohol abuse, sexual abuse,
self-mutilation, suicidal intentions/attempts, etc.) that may not be
obvious or may be minimized during an initial interview.

Assessment
 Assessment Tools
1. Intake forms
2. Intake interview
 Clinician questions
3. Formal instruments
 DSM IV etc

Assessment
 Assessment Tool “Rules Of Thumb”
1. Never diagnose with a test or screening instrument only.
2. Tests are useful in validating information provided by the client
in the subjective interview.
3. Testing tools should only be used by those with training in using
that tool.
4. All testing tools have limitations.
5. Never replace the expertise, training, and experience of the
clinician with a test.

Assessment
 Stages of Change (Meeting the client where they are)
 Pre-contemplation - "I really don't want to change.
 Contemplation- I'll consider it."
 Preparation- "I'm making a plan for it."
 Action- "I'm doing it, but not regularly."
 Maintenance- "I'm doing it."
 Termination- "I have no desire to go back to my own ways."

Goal-Setting
 Goal Functions
1. Define desired outcomes
2. Give direction to the counseling process
3. Specify what can and cannot be accomplished in counseling
4. Client motivation
5. Evaluate effectiveness of counseling
6. Measure client progress

Goal-Setting
 Seven Qualities Of Well Formed Treatment Goals
 Saliency to the Client/Collaborative
 Small
 Concrete, Specific, and Behavioral
 The Presence Rather Than the Absence of Something
 A Beginning Rather Than an End
 Realistic and Achievable Within the Context of the Client’s Life
 Perceived as Involving “Hard Work”

Interventions
 Categories Of Counseling Interventions
1. Affective; Eg Psychoanalysis-Goal, Techniques
2. Cognitive
3. Behavioral etc

The art of therapy revolves around
helping clients to bow out of their
symptoms gracefully
- Milton Erickson

Termination and Follow-Up
 Indicators Of Counseling Success
1. Clients “own” their problems and solutions
2. Clients develop more useful insight into problems and
issues
3. Clients acquire new responses to old issues
4. Clients learn to develop more effective relationships

Termination
 No clear cut ending, but no need to
continue beyond usefulness.
 Awareness by the counselor and the client
that the work is accomplished.
 May take the same number of sessions as
rapport building.

Types of Termination
1. Suggested termination, with client agreement
2. Imposed termination
• Continuing is against client best interest
• Client is deteriorating, not progressing
• Incompatibility with the therapist
• Client using therapy in place of life
3. Situational termination
• Client moves
• Employment or insurance changes
4. Early termination, clients just don’t return.

CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE REFERRALS
AND FOLLOW-UP ARE DONE IN
COUNSELLING
Explain five situations in which the counsellor
would refer a client.

CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE REFERRALS AND
FOLLOW-UP ARE DONE IN COUNSELLING
 In the event of transference where the client projects his or
her feelings on to the counsellor
 In a situation where the client needs medical attention
 If the client’s needs are beyond what the counsellor can
handle.
 Where the client is a case of child abuse
 Where the client wants to change the counsellor
 If the client has relocated

COUNSELLOR –CLIENT
EXPECTANCIES
Discussion

Cont’…
 Building a rapport, and subsequent trusting
relationship, with a counsellor requires that a
client is open and honest and willing to work at
identifying issues and resolutions.
 Due to the personal nature of the exchange,
between a client and counsellor, there are strict
guidelines that must be adhered to throughout
the confidential counselling process.

Cont’…
 Whilst it is generally accepted that a counsellor
must behave professionally, responsibly and
appropriately, towards a client during contact and
throughout the client’s counselling relationship,
there is also a list of acceptable and unacceptable
client behaviour which must also be
acknowledged.

The Client’s Role
 It is the client’s responsibility to maintain focus on their
behaviour, throughout the confidential one-to-one
counselling sessions with a counsellor.
 Clients must also expect to have their self-beliefs and choices
challenged, and to maintain focus on achieving a positive
resolution and outcome.
 A counselling client must also maintain a professional
relationship with their counsellor, which basically means that
they must not confuse the counsellor’s therapeutic interest in
them for friendship or personal involvement.

Cont’…
 The client/counsellor relationship must be clearly defined
and respected at all times by both parties and must adhere to
professional etiquette and guidelines.
 Failure to maintain a professional level of communication
will mean the counselling relationship may not provide the
client with the appropriate supportive environment to
address their personal emotional issues in.

Dos and Don'ts
 When entering into a counselling relationship with a qualified counsellor, there
are a number of things a client should and should not do.
 Do’s
 A client should always check a therapist or counsellor is suitably qualified to do
the job, and is also a member of a professional body. Checking the counsellor’s
approach, to counselling, is also a good idea as it will give the client some idea
of what to expect from the confidential relationship.
 A client should openly express emotion and be open and honest about feelings
and thoughts. They should also take the opportunity to review and re-evaluate
their self-beliefs when it arises.
 In order to get the best out of the counselling process a client must be willing
to work towards a positive outcome. This includes completing additional
homework set by the counsellor, which may include effective exercises that
increase personal awareness and the use of positive affirmations.

Cont’…
 Don’ts
 A client must not assume that the counsellor knows what
their expectation of the counselling process is.
 Honest and open communication will enable the client to
clearly define goals and allow the counsellor to plan and
guide the counselling sessions accordingly, in order to work
towards achieving the client’s goals and aims.
 If the counsellor’s approach does not meet with the client’s
expectations, the client is free to seek counselling support
elsewhere.

Cont’…
 Counselling is a personal service which should provide the
level of supportive assistance a client needs.
 A client should not let the counsellor persuade them to
commit to a long-term counselling contract.
 The counselling relationship should be open to review by
either party at regular intervals. This will ensure the client’s
progress is reviewed appropriately.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING
What are they?

Ethics refers to the beliefs that
individuals hold about “what is
right”
Ethical Conduct: the behaviours

exhibited by the counsellor
Good ethical conduct grounded

in sound moral principles,
understanding the ethical
codes, and having the desire to
do “what is right”

 Laws and Ethical Codes regulate the work of
counsellors
 Laws enforced by government of society

standards
 Morality refers to proper ethical conduct and

involves an evaluation of conduct based on
standard expectations often influenced by cultural,
religion, etc.

The components of good ethical
behaviour
 The components of good ethical behaviour
include:
 Understanding & implementing ethical codes.

 Doing what is best for the client
 Practicing the four core virtues:

 Prudence,
 Integrity,
 Respectfulness, &
 Benevolence
(Meara, Schmidt & Day, 1996)

The components of good ethical
behaviour
 Realizing importance of;
 Intuition,
 Integrity, &
 Honest self-evaluation in ethical decisions
 Placing client welfare as paramount

Client's needs before Counsellor's
 Ethically, counsellors need to be aware of their – own
needs,
o Areas of unfinished business,
o Potential personal conflicts and defenses
o How this may effect the clients
 Responsibilities to work actively toward expanding

own self-awareness and recognize areas of prejudice &
vulnerability
 Personal power is an effective quality of the therapist
 Counsellor's need to nurture

Moral Principles of Ethical
Practice
 Autonomy:
 independence and self- determination
 Non-maleficence:
 do no harm
 Beneficence:
 promote good or wellness

Cont’…
 Justice:
 commitment of fairness
 Fidelity:
 make honest promises / don't deceive / exploit
clients
 Veracity: Truthfulness

Ethical Issues and Practice
Why are ethical standards needed?
What ethical standards guide the work of counselling

psychologists?
What areas of ethical difficulty are faced by

professionals in the field?
How do counsellors make ethical decisions?

Ethical Standards are Needed
 Ensure competent professional behaviour
 Responsibility to public trust
 Professionals monitor their own & other members’

behaviour
 Responsibility to clients
 Responsibility to other professionals

Common Ethical Dilemmas in
Practice
 Multicultural Issues
 Multiple-Role /Dual Relationships
 Informed Consent
 Confidentiality
 Privileged Communication
 Legal cases
 Expert testimony

Multicultural Issues
 Biases are reflected when:
 Neglect social and community factors to
focus unduly on individualism
 Assess clients with instruments that have

not been normed on the population they
represent
 Judge as psychopathological those

behaviours, beliefs, or experiences that
are normal for the client’s culture

Sexuality Issues
 Sexuality / Gender matching of counsellors
 Sexual orientation; e.g Homosexuality

Dual Relationships: Some
Pointers
 Will my dual relationship keep me from confronting
and challenging the client?
 Will my needs for the relationship become more

important than therapeutic activities?
 Can my client manage the dual relationship?
 Whose needs are being met: my client’s or my own?
 Can I recognize and manage professionally my

attraction to my client?

Multiple Roles Relationships
Conflict
 Problems with multiple role relationships
 (Pope, 1991):
 Erosion/distortion of therapy

 Conflicts of interest

 Adverse effects on client rights & cog process

Multiple Roles Relationships
Conflict
Guidelines (Herlihy & Corey, 1997)
Set healthy boundaries early

Consult with fellow professionals
Work under supervision
Use self-monitoring
Informed Consent
 Two central aspects:
 Disclosure & Free consent
 Origins of informed consent
 Informed consent requires a consent that is

competent, knowing, and voluntary
 The process of informed consent:

 Ongoing
 Includes a discussion of the limits of confidentiality

Some Aspects of Informed
Consent
 General goals of counselling,
 Responsibilities of counsellor toward client,
 Responsibilities of clients,
 Limitations of & exceptions to confidentiality,
 Legal & ethical parameters that define relationship,
 Qualifications & background of practitioner,
 Fees involved,
 Services client can expect,
 Approximate length of therapeutic process

Confidentiality
 Not disclosing client information without
her/his prior consent
 Secrets and trust in friendship vs. the

counselling relationship

Caveats to Confidentiality
• Client request for release of information
• Court orders for confidential information
• Child abuse or abuse of a vulnerable adult
• Danger to oneself
• Danger to others
Recent Trends
• Duty to Warn and protect
• Reporting Child Abuse
• Technology Usage
• Relationships with Former Clients
• Managed Care
• Confronting Counsellor Impairment

How Counsellors Make Ethical
Choices
 Identify the ethical dilemma: ethical, legal, moral?
 Identify potential issues: evaluate the rights and

responsibilities of all parties
 Look at the relevant ethics code for guidance
 Consider applicable laws
 Consult
 Brainstorm various courses of action
 Identify the consequences of each action
 Decide on the best possible course of action

Emerging issues in Counselling
Discuss with students; HIV/AIDS, ethical dilemmas, gender based
violence, human sexuality, online counseling, Drug use and abuse etc

STI counseling
 The Counsellor should :
 Help clients to Resolve the current STI/Use ART
 Help client to Prevent further ones
 Give emotional support to change sexual behavior
 Help client cope with the feeling of shame, guilt

and embarrassment

HIV/AIDS
 A survey carried out by Plan International, Kenya (2012) among
HIV positive adolescents aged 10-19 years in Nairobi and Nyanza
regions
 Most HIV positive adolescents have, or intend to be involved in sexual
relationships.
 More than four-fifths (4/5) were found to have been in a sexual
relationship,
 More than two-thirds (2/3) of those were still in a relationship.
 12 million children aged 17 or younger have lost one or both
parents to AIDS in Sub-Sahara,
 there is little evidence on “what works” to improve the well-being of
children affected by HIV and AIDS. (Tonya, et-al, 2007)

Cont’…
 Sexually active children do not always disclose that they are having sex,
 It is also not expected that they are, they are not told their HIV status.
 HIV positive adolescents who know their status conceal information
from their sex partners for fear of
 Denial
 Shame
 Rejection,
 Stigma and
 Discrimination or
 Malice.
 Depression
 For the same reasons they do not also practice safe sex, Non-adherence ART
 HIV-AIDS is a serious problem in schools.

Cont’…
 Both teachers and students are dying of it
 Counsellors should advise both students and teachers to
avoid HIV-AIDS risk behavior like
 Drug-abuse,
 Sex indulgence and
 Bad company. (Chang’ach, 2012).

Cont’…
 Preventive guidance assists an individual to identify and avoid
situations or activities that are potentially dangerous.
 Individuals already involved in risky behaviour are helped
through adjustive guidance to appreciate how their attitude
or actions may lead to unpleasant consequences.
 The guidance and counseling programme promotes good
physical and mental health by teaching about nutrition and
hygiene, prevention of diseases and especially the sexually
transmitted and HIV/AIDS.

DRUG USE AND ABUSE
 Discussion; Cannabis sativa
 Show a video of the effects of cannabis sativa

END
 The Real meaning of Happiness is giving it out to someone else!

EPS B401Guidance&counselling in Educational Institutions-2

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EPS B401: GUIDANCE

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themselves, and utilize their abilities, attitudes,

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 The major purpose of guidance services is

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 These definitions indicate that guidance is a

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1. Man has dignity and worth and is therefore

2. Man is not completely self-sufficient and needs

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 This implies that in addition to academic assessment by

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 This means that guidance should be provided throughout one’s

 It implies that the individual guidance begins at home goes on to

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 This information is communicated effectively to

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4. To face him/herself with “who am I?” in relation

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 Men/women have always sought the advice and counsel of

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 Serious or complicated behaviour problems were handled by

 Guidance and counselling took place in groups and

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 Girls (female clients) were guided by their mothers, aunts

 Boys (men) were guided by their fathers, uncles, grandfathers

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 Their problems will equally be varied.

 Colleges should pay attention to the provision of

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