ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
THE HUMAN BODY
TERMINOLOGIES
Anatomy - study of the structures of the
body
Physiology - study of the processes and
functions of the body
Organelles - are the small structures that
make up some cells
Organism - any living thing considered as a
whole, whether composed of one cell, such
as a
bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a
human
Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement,
and reproduction
Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or
part of the organism
Reproduction - is the formation of new cells
or new organisms
ANATOMY
- Anatomy is the scientific discipline that
investigates the structure of the body. The word
anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and
separate, the parts of the body for study.
(VanPutte, Regan,& Russo, 2016)
- Studying anatomy involves structure of body
parts, its microscopic organization, how each
develops including its relationships and
functions.
- There are basic approaches in anatomy namely
Systemic and Regional. As the name implies,
systemic dwells on body systems such as
skeletal and muscular systems. While the latter,
which is regional, reviews specific areas head,
abdomen.
Surface Anatomy and Anatomical Imaging are
yet another approach to anatomists. These two
general ways examines a living person through
its internal structures. For instance, Surface
anatomy focuses study of external features like
bony projections. On the other hand, Anatomical
imaging utilizes different imaging samples like
ultrasound and X-rays to evaluate internal
structures.
PHYSIOLOGY
- As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) notes,
Physiology deals with processes or functions of
living things as an ever-changing organism. This
is to aid in predicting body’s responses to
different stimuli and to understand how the body
maintains homeostasis. Therefore, physiology is
the science of body functions. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
- Moreover, there are subdivisions of physiology
that focuses on different organizational level
such as cellular physiology and systemic
physiology. For the human as a specific
organism, the study is called Human Physiology.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
sTRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
There are six structural levels that our body can
be studied and these are chemical, cell, tissue,
organ, organ system and organism as shown
below in figure 1.
Figure 1.1 Levels of Organization for the
Human Body
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and
Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo
(2016)
1. CHEMICAL ATOMS. Atoms (colored balls)
combine to form molecules.
2. CELL LEVEL. Molecules from organelles such
as, the nucleus and mitochondria, which
make up cells
3. TISSUE LEVEL. Similar cells and
surroundings materials make tissues.
4. ORGAN LEVEL. Different tissues combine to
form organs, such as the urinary bladder.
5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL. Organs such as the
urinary bladder and kidneys, make up and
organ system.
6. ORGANISM LEVEL. Organ systems make uo
an organism.
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THE HUMAN BODY
The Chemical Level of organization deals with The last level is the Organism Level as a living
how different atoms like hydrogen and carbon thing considered as a whole, whether
interact to form molecules. In the Cell Level, composed of only one cell such as bacterium, or
which is the basic unit of organisms, we try to one that is made of trillions of cells like us
correlate how a molecular substance affects a human.
living organism. For example, our cells contains
nucleus that contains hereditary information.
And though cells differ in structure and function,
knowledge of these differences would greatly
help in grasping concepts of anatomy and
physiology. Tissues on the other hand are
combined cells that are similar. Their similarity in
characteristics and surrounding materials
determines its functions. As an overview, we
have epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve
tissues. When two or more tissue types work
together to perform one or more functions, this
will be called Organ. Examples of which includes
our heart and stomach , even our brain (figure
1.2).

Figure 1.2 Major Organs Human Body

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo
(2016)
The next level would be the Organ System. This
pertains to group of organs working together to
sustain a specific function. The works of the
kidneys, urinary bladder, ureter and urethra is an
example displaying coordinated function for the
urinary system to be efficient in its purpose. But
though this system has specific roles to
perform, remember that all systems are
interrelated problem on one organ system may Figure 1.3 Organs Systems of the Body
have serious effects on other systems. Figure *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

1.3 provides an illustration of the different organ

systems in the human body.
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THE HUMAN BODY
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Aren’t you wondering whether humans like us
share one or many characteristics with other
organism? If there are, what are the different
characteristics of life? Let’s take a review at
these characteristics of life, according to
VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016).
1.1 ORGANIZATION – living things are highly
organized. They have specific interrelationships
for it to perform functions essential for the living
organism to thrive. In effect, any problems that
affects its organization will greatly disrupt its
function.
1.2 METABOLISM - is all of the chemical
reactions taking place in an organism. It includes
the ability of an organism to break down food
molecules, which are used as a source of energy
and raw materials to synthesize the organism’s
own molecules. It is the ability of the organism to
use energy to perform functions essential to
growth, movement and even reproduction.
1.3 RESPONSIVENESS - is simply the capability
to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a
change. For instance, our body perspires a lot
whenever our temperature rises during hot
weather.
1.4 GROWTH – an increase in number or length.
In the human body, growth is an evidence when
bones become larger as the number of bone
cells increases.
1.5 DEVELOPMENT - occurs when an organism
changes through time. Like the developmental
changes happening before birth, a human being
changes through time. Though growth signifies
development, differentiation also embodies
development. Differentiation can be seen as a
change in structure and function from a
generalized to a specialized structures. For
example, following fertilization, generalized cells
specialize to become specific cell types, such as
skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These
differentiated cells form tissues and organs.
1.6 REPRODUCTION - is the ability to form new
organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs and
continuity.
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (h ′m - -st ′sis; homeo-, the same),
according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016)
is the ability to maintain balance despite
changes in the internal and external
environment. Like temperature regulation as an
example, our body produces sweat (as water) in
attempt to lower down body temperature caused
by the external environment. And since
homeostasis involves complex mechanisms,
these regulations are also affected by different
variables. Variables are conditions like volume,
chemical content and in this case, temperature.
Their values may easily change and so does the
response of the organism.
In the given example, sweating aids in the
regulation, maintaining the body temperature
near the ideal normal value. If temperature was
the variable, the sweating is considered as the
Homeostatic mechanism. Most homeostatic
mechanisms are governed by the nervous
system or the endocrine system. Note that
homeostatic mechanisms are not able to
maintain body temperature precisely at the set
point (figure 1.4). Instead, body temperature
increases and decreases slightly around the set
point, producing a normal range of values. As
long as body temperatures remain within this
normal range, homeostasis is maintained.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Figure 1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of the carriable, such as temperature around an
ideal normal value or set point.
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo
(2016)
Homeostasis is maintained by many feedback
systems. Each monitored condition in a
feedback system, or feedback loop, is termed a
controlled condition. Any disruption that causes
a change in a controlled condition is called a
stimulus. Some stimuli come from outside the
body, while others come from within. In addition
to the controlled condition and the stimulus,
feedback systems have three other
components:
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THE HUMAN BODY
1. A receptor monitors the controlled condition
and sends information (input) to a control
center.
2. A control center receives the input,
compares it to a set of values that the
controlled condition should have (set point)
and sends output commands (nerve
impulses or chemical signals) to an effector.
3. An effector receives output commands and
produces a response that changes the
controlled condition.

If a feedback system reverses the change in the

controlled condition to restore it to the set point,
this is a negative feedback system. For example,
a negative feedback system controls blood
pressure. However, if a feedback system further
strengthens a change in the controlled
condition, this is a positive feedback system. For
instance, childbirth is an example of positive
feedback. During labor, uterine contractions
force the baby’s head into the cervix, which
stretches. The stretching causes the
hypothalamus to secrete a hormone called
oxytocin, which induces more uterine
contractions. Negative feedback systems tend
to maintain stable conditions, whereas positive
feedback systems tend to be unstable and must
be shut off by some event that is outside the
feedback loop, such as the delivery of the child.

TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

Body Positions

Descriptions of any part of the human body

assume that the body is in a specific stance
called the anatomical position. In the anatomical
position, the body is upright. This means that
the subject stands erect with the head level,
eyes facing forward, feet at on the floor, and
directed forward, and arms at the sides, with the
Figure 1.5 Directional terms
palms turned forward. However, two terms *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A
describe a reclining body. If the body is lying Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan
Thompson (2015)
face down, it is in the prone position. If the body
is lying face up, it is in the supine position.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Directional Terms

Directional terms describe parts of the body

relative to each other. Directional terms are
generally grouped in pairs of opposites.
(Thompson, 2015).
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THE HUMAN BODY
BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

Figure 1.6 illustrates different regions in the body. This will help to properly identify specific area/s of a
patient body to be evaluated upon. As seen in the image, the central region of the body consists of the
head, neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the
thorax and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips). The upper limb is
divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and
the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.

Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view)

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to
the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Make sure to familiarize because these terms would facilitate better communication between
health care providers.

Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (posterior view)

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
THE HUMAN BODY
The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to the
knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Make sure to
familiarize because these terms would facilitate better communication between health care providers.

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

One portion of the body that occupies a large

area would be the abdominopelvic cavity. Determining
exact location of possible problems concurrent to
different organ/s can be difficult. For this reason, it was
subdivided further into regions and quadrants. It is also
best to appreciate that some organs may extend over
multiple quadrants as shown in figures 1.7 and 1.8.
(Thompson, 2015)

Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic Quadrants

*taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011

Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic Regions and some Organs

found in each Region
*taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
THE HUMAN BODY
PLANES

Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections. The following illustrations
will provide a good view of how bodily structures can be viewed.

Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body

*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory,
Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)
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Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal

structure (figure 1.10). A cut through the long axis
of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut at a
right angle to the long axis is a transverse section,
or cross section. If a cut is made across the long
axis at other than a right angle, it is called an
oblique section.

Figure 1.10 Planes of Section through an Organ

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Body Cavities

The body contains spaces—called cavities—that house the internal organs. The two major body
cavities are the dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity. Each of these cavities is subdivided further, as
shown below.

Figure 1.11 Body Cavities

*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A
Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan
Thompson (2015)
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THE HUMAN BODY
Serous membranes

VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016) specifies that serous membranes lines trunk cavities and cover the
organs of these cavities. They are filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces thereby reducing
friction. Figures below will depict different serous membranes found in our body

Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) Frontal section showing the parietal pericardium (blue), visceral pericardium (red), and pericardial
cavity. (b) Frontal section showing the parietal pleura (blue), visceral pleura (red), and pleural cavities.
(c) Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic cavity showing the parietal peritoneum (blue), visceral
peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity, mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal organs.

The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes. The parietal part of a serous membrane lines the
wall of the cavity, and the visceral part covers the internal organs. The serous membranes secrete fluid
that fills the space between the parietal and visceral membranes. The serous membranes protect
organs from friction. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the pleural cavities surround the lungs,
and the peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs. Mesenteries are parts of the
peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and
nerves to organs. Retroperitoneal organs are found “behind” the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the
adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder are examples of
retroperitoneal organs. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)