Atom
• The fundamental particles of an atom are the
electron, the proton and the neutron.
• The atom can be viewed as a miniature solar
system whose sun is the nucleus and whose
planets are the electrons.
Quarks bound together by gluons
Atom
• In the normal atom the number of electrons is equal
to the positive charges in the nucleus → atoms are
electrically neutral; the electric charge on the atom is
zero.
• Nucleons ↔ protons and neutrons are composed of
quarks that are held together by gluons.
Fundamental particles
• Electrons; very small particles carrying one
unit of negative charge.
• Their mass is only 9.1 X 10 -31kg.
 Fundamental particles Nucleons

• Mass of atomic particle is expressed in atomic

• Two types; protons and neutrons
mass units (amu)
• Both have nearly 2000 times the mass of an

• One atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 the mass of electron.

a carbon -12 atom

• The mass of a proton is 1.673 X 10 -27 kg.
• Neutron is slightly heavier 1.675 X 10 -27 kg
• The electron mass is 0.000549 amu

Nucleons Atomic structure

• The atomic mass number of each is one

• The nucleus of an atom is very small, but contains
• The primary difference between a proton and nearly all the mass of the atom
a neutron is electric charge (because it contains most of its mass).
• The proton carries one unit of positive charge

• The neutron, no charge, electrically neutral • For e.g. the nucleus of uranium atom contains
99.998% of the entire mass of the atom
 Atomic structure
• The atom is essentially empty space.
• The possible electron orbits are grouped into
different “shells”.
• Arrangement of these shells determine how
an atom reacts chemically.
Atomic structure
• Periodic table has matter in order of
increasing complexity beginning with
hydrogen (H)
• An atom of hydrogen has 1 proton in the
nucleus and 1 electron outside the nucleus
Atomic structure
• The number of protons determines the chemical
element.
• Atoms that have same number of protons but
different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
• Isotopes behave in the same way in chemical
reaction.
Atomic structure
• Helium (He) contains two protons, two
neutrons and two electrons.
• Lithium (Li) has three protons, four neutrons
and three electrons
 Atomic structure Atomic structure
• Electrons can exist only in certain shells, which • The most complex naturally occurring element is
represent different electron binding energies or uranium (U).

energy levels. • Uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.

• The electron shells are given code K,L, M,N ---- to The electron distribution is K→ 2, L → 8,M → 18, N →

represent relative binding energies. 32, O → 21, P → 9, Q → 2.

• The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the higher its • The total number of electrons in the orbital shells is
exactly equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
binding energy

Electrons in specific orbits Electrons in Uranium atom

 Ionization Ionization
• If an atom has an extra electron or has had an • Atoms cannot be ionized by addition or

electron removed it is said to be ionized. subtraction of protons → bound very strongly

• An ionized atom is not electrically neutral but
carries a charge equal in magnitude to the
difference between the number of electrons and
together and that would change the type of
atom.
• Alteration in the number of neutrons does not

protons. ionize an atom → neutron is electrically neutral.

Ionization Ionization

•The X-ray transfers its energy to an  The ionized atom and the released electron are

orbital electron and ejects the called an ion pair.

electron from the atom.
•Approximately 34 eV energy
required.
Figure represents interaction
between an X-ray and a carbon
atom, a primary constituent of
tissue.
 The remaining atom has a net electric charge of +1.
 Ionization is the removal of an orbital electron form
an atom
 The larger the atom, the greater the abundance of
neutrons over protons.
 Electron arrangement
• The maximum number of electrons that can
exist in each shell increases with the distance
of the shell from the nucleus.
• Maximum electrons per shell = 2n2. Where ‘n’
is the shell number.
Maximum number of electrons in each shell
Electron arrangement
• What is the maximum number of electrons that can exist in
the O shell?
O shell → fifth shell from the nucleus
→ n=5 → 2n2
→ 2(5)→ 2(25) = 50 electrons.
This is a theoretical value. Even the largest atom does not
completely fill shell O or higher.
Electron arrangement
• The number of electrons in the outermost
shell of an atom is equal to its group in the
periodic table.
• The number of electrons in the outermost
shell determines the valence of an atom.
• The number of the outermost electron shell
of an atom is equal to its period in the table.
 Electron arrangement Electron arrangement

• Oxygen has eight electrons. • Aluminium has 13 electrons, two in the K

shell, eight in the L shell, and three in the M
shell.
• Two in the K shell and six in the L shell.

• Aluminium is in the third period (M shell) and

• Oxygen is in the second period and the third group (three electrons) of the periodic
table.
sixth group of the periodic table.

Electron arrangement Electron arrangement

• All atoms having one electron in the outer shell
• What are the period and the group for the
→ group I
gastrointestinal contrast agent, barium?
• Two electrons → group II
Period 6 and group 2
• When eight electrons are in the outer shell, the
shell is filled.
• No outer shell can contain more than eight
• Atoms with filled outer shells → group VIII, the
electrons.
noble gases are very stable.
 Electron arrangement
• In the fourth period instead of adding electrons
to the next outer shell, electrons are added to
an inner shell → transitional elements.
• The chemical properties of the transitional
elements depends on the number of electrons
in the two outermost shells.
Electron arrangement
• The shell notation of the electron
arrangement of an atom identifies
➢The relative distance of an electron from the
nucleus
➢Relative energy by which the electron is
attached to the nucleus

Electron arrangement Electron binding energy

• The force that keeps an electron in orbit is the
• The strength of attachment of an electron to
centripetal force → opposite charges attract.
the nucleus is called the electron binding
• The centripetal force just balances the force
energy ( Eb )
created by the electron velocity, the
centrifugal force → the electrons maintain
• The closer the electron to the nucleus, the
their distance from the nucleus traveling in a
more tightly it is bound.
circular or elliptical path
 Electron binding energy Electron binding energy

• K-shell electrons have higher binding energies • The greater the total number of electrons in an
than L-shell electrons. atom, the more tightly each is bound.

• L-shell electrons are more tightly bound to the • The larger and more complex the atom, the
nucleus than M-shell electrons. higher the Eb for electrons in any given shell.

Electron binding energy Binding energy of electrons of atoms of radiologic

importance
• Electrons of atoms with many protons are
• How much energy is
more tightly bound to the nucleus than small
required to ionize tungsten
atoms .
by removal of a K-shell
• More energy is needed to ionize a large atom electron?

than a small atom. • The minimum energy →

70keV → less than that the
atom cannot be ionized.
 Binding energy of electrons of atoms of Binding energy of electrons of atoms of radiologic
radiologic importance importance
• Carbon (C) an important component of human tissue

• Eb for outer shell electrons is only 10eV.

• But approximately 34 eV is necessary to ionize tissue

atoms.

• The value 34eV is called the ionization potential

• The difference 24 eV, causes multiple electron

excitations, which ultimately result in heat.

Binding energy of electrons of atoms of Characteristics of some radiographically

radiologic importance important elements
• How much more energy is necessary to ionize
barium than to ionize carbon by removal of K-
shell electrons?

Eb (Ba) = 37,400 eV
Eb (C) = 300 eV
Difference = 37,100 eV
=37.1 keV
 Atomic nomenclature
• Element indicated by alphabetic abbreviations →
chemical symbols
• Chemical properties of an element are determined by
the number and arrangement of electrons.
• The no of protons→ atomic number represented by Z
• The no of protons + no. of neutrons → atomic mass
number → symbol is A
Atomic nomenclature
• The atomic mass no. and the precise mass of an
atom are not equal.
• Actual atomic mass of an atom determined by
measurement and rarely a whole number.
• 135 Ba has A = 135 because its nucleus contains
56 protons and 79 neutrons.
• The atomic mass of 135 Ba is 134.91 amu

Atomic nomenclature Atomic nomenclature

• Only one atom 12 C has an atomic mass equal • Many elements in their natural state are
composed of atoms with
to its atomic mass number.

• This is because the 12 C atom is the arbitrary ➢different atomic mass numbers and
➢different atomic masses
standard for atomic measure.
but
➢identical atomic numbers.
 Atomic nomenclature
• The characteristic mass of an element →
elemental mass, determined by the relative
abundance of isotopes and their respective
atomic masses.
• Ba→ At.no 56. the atomic mass number of its
most abundant isotope is 138.
Isotopes
• Atoms that have the same atomic number but different
atomic mass numbers are isotopes
• Same number of protons but varying number of neutrons
• The seven natural isotopes of Barium are 130Ba, 132Ba,
134Ba, 135Ba, 136Ba, 137Ba, 138Ba.
Atomic nomenclature
• Natural Barium, consists of seven different isotopes
• Atomic mass numbers are 130,132, 134, 135,136, 137
and 138.
• The elemental mass is determined by the average weight
of all these isotopes.
Isotopes
Q. How many protons and neutrons are in each
of the seven naturally occurring isotopes of
Barium?
A. The number of protons in each isotope is 56.
the number of neutrons is equal to A-Z.
130Ba: 130 - 56 = 74 neutrons
132Ba: 132 – 56 = 76 neutrons
134Ba: 134 – 56 = 78 neutrons and so on.
 Isobar
• Atomic nuclei that have the same atomic mass number
but different atomic numbers are isobars.
• They have different numbers of protons and different
numbers of neutrons but the same total number of
nucleons.
Isobaric radioactive transitions
• Isobaric radioactive transitions from parent
atom to daughter atom result form the release
of beta particle or positron.
• The parent and daughter are atoms of
different elements.

Isotone Isomers
• Have same atomic number and the same atomic mass
• Are atoms with different atomic numbers and different
number.
mass numbers but a constant value for the quantity A-Z.
• Are identical atoms except that they exist in different

• They have same number of neutrons in the nucleus. energy states because of the differences in nucleon
arrangement.
• Atoms that have the same number of neutrons but
• Technetium -99m decays to technetium-99 with the
different numbers of protons are isotones. emission of a 140-keV gamma ray, which is useful in
nuclear medicine.
 Characteristics of various nuclear
Characteristics of various nuclear arrangements
arrangements
Arrangement At.No At.Mass No. Neutron No. Q. From the following list of atoms, pick out those that
are isotopes, isobars, and isotones.
Isotope Same Different Different 131, I130, Cs 132, 131 .
54 Xe 53 55 53 I

Isobar Different Same Different 130, I 131 are isotopes.

53I 53

Isotone Different Different Same

53 I 131 , 54 Xe 131 are isobars.
Isomer Same Same Same
130, Xe 131 , 55Cs 132 are isotones
53I 54

Combinations of atoms Levels of organization of matter

• Molecule; atoms of various elements may combine to
form structures called molecules.

• Four atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen can

combine to form two molecules of water.

• 2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O.

• Molecules in turn combine to form larger structures;

cells and tissues.
 Compound Covalent bonding
• Atoms combine with each
• A chemical compound is any quantity of one other to form compounds
type of molecule. in two main ways.

• The formula NaCl represents one molecule • Oxygen and hydrogen

of the compound sodium chloride. combine into water

• Sodium chloride has properties that are through covalent bonds.

different from either sodium or chlorine.

Covalent bonding Covalent bonding

• Oxygen has six electrons in its • The hydrogen electrons
orbit both the H and O,
outermost shell.
thus binding the atoms
• It has room for two more together.

electrons, so in a water molecule

• This covalent bonding is
two hydrogen atoms share their characterized by the
single electrons with the oxygen. sharing of electrons.
 Ionic bonds Ionic bonds
• Sodium and chlorine • The sodium will give up its
combine into salt electron to the chlorine.
through ionic bonds. • Sodium becomes a positive
ion and chlorine a negative
• Sodium has one ion.
electron in its • The two are attracted to each
outermost shell. other, resulting in ionic bond .
• Chlorine has space for
one more electron in its
outermost shell.

Radioactivity Radioactivity
• Some atoms exist in abnormally excited state
characterized by an unstable nucleus. • The atoms involved are radionuclides.

• To reach stability, the nucleus spontaneously
emits particles and energy and transforms itself
into another atom.
• This process is called radioactive disintegration
or radioactive decay.
• Only nuclei that undergo radioactive decay are
radionuclides.
• Radioactivity is the emission of particles and
energy in order to become stable.
 Radioisotopes
• The most important factor affecting nuclear
stability is the number of neutrons.
• When a nucleus has either too few or too many
neutrons, the atom can disintegrate radioactively,
bringing the number of neutrons and protons to a
stable and proper ratio.
Natural radioisotopes
• Two primary sources
• Some originated at the time of earth’s formation and
still decaying very slowly
• E.g. is uranium ultimately decays to radium, which in
turn decays to radon.
• These and other decay products of uranium are also
radioactive.
• Others such as 14C are continuously produced in the
upper atmosphere by the action of cosmic radiation.
Artificial Radioisotopes
• Many elements have stable isotopes and
radioisotopes.
• May be artificially produced in machines such
as particle accelerators or nuclear reactors.
• Seven radioisotopes of barium have been
discovered all of which are artificially produced.
• They are 127Ba, 128Ba, 129Ba, 131Ba, 133Ba, 139Ba,
140Ba
Radioactive decay
• Radioactive isotopes can decay to stability in
many ways
• But only two- beta emission and alpha emission
are of particular importance.
 Beta emission
• During beta emission, an electron is created in
the nucleus is ejected from the nucleus with
considerable kinetic energy and escapes from
the atom.
• The result is loss of small quantity of mass and
one unit of negative electric charge from the
nucleus of the atom.
• Simultaneously, a neutron undergoes
conversion to a proton.
131 I decays to 131 Xe with the emission of beta
particle.
Beta emission
• The result of beta emission therefore is to
increase the atomic number by one (Z → Z+1)
• The atomic mass number remains the same (A
remains constant ).
• This nuclear transformation therefore results in
an atom changing from one type of element to
another.
Alpha emission
• Much more violent process
• Alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons bound together.
• Its atomic mass number is 4
• A nucleus must be extremely unstable to emit
an alpha particle.
 Alpha emission The decay of 226 Ra to 222 Rn is accompanied by
alpha emission
• When a nucleus emits alpha particle, it loses
two units of positive charge and four units of
mass.

• The resulting atom is chemically different and

lighter by 4 amu.

Radioactive decay Radioactive decay

• Virtually all radioisotopes are capable of
• Radioactive decay results in emission of alpha
transformation by beta emission, but only
particles, beta particles and usually gamma heavy radioisotopes are capable of alpha
emission.
rays.

• Some radioisotopes are pure beta emitters or

• Beta emission occurs much more frequently pure alpha emitters.
than alpha emission. • Most emit gamma rays simultaneously with
the particle emission.
 Radioactive decay Radioactive half-life
• 139Ba 56 is a radioactive isotope that decays by
beta emission. What will be the values of A
and Z for the atom that results from this • Radioisotopes disintegrate into stable isotopes
emission?
of different elements at a decreasing rate, so

• In beta emission a neutron is converted to a that the quantity of radioactive material never
proton and a beta particle: n → p + β quite reaches zero.
139 Ba → 139 La 57.
56

Radioactive half-life Radioactive half-life

• Radioactive material is measured in curies (Ci)
• 1 Ci = 3.7 X 10 10 atoms disintegrating each second
(3.7 X 10 10 Bq).
• The rate of radioactive decay and the quantity of
material present at any given time are described
mathematically by a formula known as the
radioactive decay law.
• Form this formula we obtain a quantity known as
half-life (T ½ )
• The half-life of a radioisotope is the time
required for a quantity of radioactivity to be
reduced to one-half its original value.
• Half life of radioisotopes vary from less than a
second to many years.
• Each radioisotope has a unique, characteristic
half-life.
 Radioactive half-life Linear graph of radioactive dacay

• The half-life of 131I is 8 days . If 100 mCi (3.7 X 109

Bq) of 131I were present on january 1 at noon, then 131I decays with a half-
at noon on Jan 9th only 50 mCi (1.85 X 109 Bq ) would life of 8 days. This
remain. On january 17, 25 mCi and on January 25
linear graph allows
12.5 mCi would remain.
estimation of
• A plot of the radioactive decay of 131I allows one to
determine the amount of radioactivity remaining
radioactivity only for a
after any given time. short time

Semilog graph Semilog graph

• The linear –linear plot of decay of is difficult to
interpret after few half-lives.
• With the semilogarithmic form one can estimate
radioactivity after a very long time.
• To use these graphs one must express the
initial radioactivity as 100% and convert the
time of interest to units of half-life.
• For decay times exceeding three half-lives, the
semilog form is easier to use.
 Semilog graph Semilog graph
Question

65 mCi (2.4 X 109Bq) of 131I are present at

noon on Wednesday. How much will remain
1 week later? Hint ; Half life of 131I is 8 days

Semilog graph 14C Half-life

• 7 days = 7/8 T½ = 0.875 T½ . 65 mCi

55%
• Fig shows that at 0.875 T½
• 14C is a naturally occuring radioisotope with T½
approximately 55% of the
= 5730 years.
initial radioactivity will
remain; • The concentration of 14C is constant and 14C is
55% X 65mCi (2.4 X 109Bq) =
incorporated into living materials at a constant
0.55 X 65 = 35.8 mCi (1.32 X
109Bq)
rate.
 Radiocarbon dating 14C Half-life
• Trees of Petrified Forest contain less 14C than
living trees because the 14C of living trees is in
equillibrium with the atmosphere.

• The carbon in a petrified tree was fixed many

thousands of years ago and the fixed 14C is
reduced with time by radioactive decay.

14C Half-life Radioactive decay

Qn: If a piece of petrified wood contains 25% of the 14C Qn; How many half-lives are required before a
that a tree living today contains, how old is the
quantity of radioactive material has decayed to
petrified wood?
less than 1% of its original value?
• The petrified wood has been dead long enough for
14C to decay to 25% of its original value. That time • A simpler approach is to count half- lives.
period represents two half-lives.
• We can estimate that the petrified wood is
approximately 2X 5730 = 11,460 years old.
 Radioactive decay Radioactive decay
Half-life number Radioactivity remaining • Activity remaining = Original Activity (0.5)n.
1 50%
• The concept of half-life is essential to
2 25%
3 12.5% radiology.
4 6.25%
• Used daily in nuclear medicine and has an
5 3.12%
6 1.56% exact parallel in x-ray terminology, the half-
7 0.78%
value layer.

Types of ionizing radiation Types of ionizing radiation

• All ionizing radiation can be classified into two • Although all ionizing radiation acts on the biologic
tissue in the same manner, there are fundamental
categories
differences between various types of radiation.
➢Particulate radiation • These differences can be analyzed according to five
physical characteristics;
➢Electromagnetic radiation ➢ Mass
➢ Energy
• The types of radiation used in diagnostic ➢ Velocity
ultrasound and in magnetic resonance imaging ➢ Charge
are nonionizing radiation. ➢ Origin.
 General classification of ionizing radiation Particulate radiation
Type of radiation symbol At.mass.no charge origin • Many subatomic particles are capable of
PARTICULATE
causing ionization.
Alpha radiation
∝ 4 +2 Nucleus
• Electrons, protons , even rare nuclear
Beta radiation β- 0 -1 Nucleus
fragments can all be classified as particulate
β+ 0 +1 Nucleus radiation if they are in motion and posses
ELECTROMAGNETIC sufficient kinetic energy.
Gamma rays γ 0 0 Nucleus
X-rays X 0 0 Electron cloud • At rest they cannot cause ionization.

Particulate radiation Alpha particles

• Two main types of particulate radiation.
• Alpha particles are emitted only from the
➢Alpha particles
➢Beta particles. nuclei of heavy elements.
• Both are associated with radioactive decay.

• An alpha particle is a helium nucleus • Light elements cannot emit alpha particles
containing two protons and two neutrons.
because they do not have enough excess mass

• Compared with an electron, the alpha particle (excess energy).

is large and exerts a great electrostatic force.
 Alpha particles
• Once emitted from the radioactive atom, the
alpha particles travels with high velocity
through matter.
• Because of its great mass and charge, it easily
transfers this kinetic energy to orbital
electrons of other atoms.
Alpha particles
• It has a very short range in matter.
• In air, alpha particles can travel approximately
5 cm, whereas in soft tissue the range may be
less than 100μm.
Alpha particles
• Ionization accompanies alpha radiation.
• The average alpha particle possess 4 to 7 MeV
of kinetic energy and ionizes approximately
40,000 atoms for centimeter of travel through
air.
• Because of this amount of ionization, the
energy of alpha particle is quickly lost.
Alpha particles
• Alpha radiation from an external source is nearly
harmless because radiation energy is deposited in the
superficial layers of skin.
• With an internal source of radiation, just the opposite
is true.
• If an alpha-emitting radioisotope is deposited in the
body, it can intensely irradiate the local tissue.
 Beta particle
• A beta particle is an electron emitted from the
nucleus of a radioactive atom.
• Beta particles differ from alpha particles in both
mass and charge.
• They are light particles with an atomic mass
number of zero and carry one unit of negative or
positive charge.
Beta particle
• The beta particle range is longer than that for the
alpha particle.
• Depending on its energy, a beta particle may
transverse 10 to 100cm of air and approximately
1 to 2cm of soft tissue.
Beta particle
• The only difference between electrons and negative
beta particles is their origin.
• Beta particles originate in the nuclei of radioactive
atoms and electrons exist in shells outside the nuclei of
all atoms.
• Once emitted from a radioisotope, beta particles
transverse air, ionizing several hundred atoms per
centimeter.
Electromagnetic radiation
• X-rays and gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic
radiation
• X-rays and gamma rays are often called photons.
• Photons have no mass and no charge.
• They travel at the speed of light (c = 3X 108 m/s) and are
considered energy disturbances in space.
 Electromagnetic radiation
• X-rays and gamma rays are the only forms of ionizing
electromagnetic radiation of radiologic interest.
• The only difference between x-rays and gamma rays is
their origin.
• Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus of a
radioisotope and are usually associated with alpha or
beta emission
Electromagnetic radiation
• X-rays are produced outside the nucleus in the electron
shells
• X-rays and gamma rays exist either at the speed of light
or not at all.
• Once emitted they have an ionization rate in air of
approximately 100 ion pairs/cm, about equal to that of
beta particles.

Characteristics of several types of ionizing

Electromagnetic radiation radiation
Type of radiation Approximate In air In soft tissue Origin
• Photon radiation loses intensity with distance energy
PARTICULATE

but theoretically never reaches zero. Alpha particles 4-7 MeV 1-10 cm Up to 0.1 mm Heavy
radioactive
• Particulate radiation on the other hand, has nuclei
Beta particles 0-7MeV 0-10 m 0 - 2 cm Radioactive
nuclei
finite range in matter and that range depends ELECTROMAGNETIC

on the particle’s energy. X-rays 0-25 MeV 0 -100 m 0 - 30 cm Electron cloud

Gamma rays 0-5 MeV 0 - 100 m 0 - 30 cm Radioactive

nuclei
Different types of radiation ionized matter
Different types of radiation ionized matter with
with different degrees of efficiency
different degrees of efficiency
• Alpha particles are highly ionizing radiation
with a very short range in matter.

• Beta particles do not ionize so readily and

have a longer range.

• X-rays have a low ionization rate and a very

long range.