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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical
Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical
⁎
Runze Mao , Masashi Kishimoto, Hiroshi Iwai
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Science, Kyoto University, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan
a r t i cl e i nfo a bstr ac t
Article history: In this work, we aim to develop a novel measurement methodology using serially connected re
Received 9 June 2021 sistor–capacitor (RC) parallel circuits by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The advantage of
Received in revised form 11 August 2021 the proposed methodology is that temperature at multiple points can be determined in a single mea
Accepted 18 August 2021
surement with fewer connected cables and a flexible assembly compared with conventional approaches
Available online 21 August 2021
such as those using thermocouples or resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). In the proposed metho
dology, multiple RC parallel circuits are used, each of which connects an RTD to a capacitor in parallel. Four
Keywords:
Serially connected sensors experiments are conducted, i.e., single, double, triple, and quadruple RC circuits, to verify the feasibility of
Resistor–capacitor parallel circuit the proposed methodology at temperatures of 290–360 K. With the proposed methodology, we can suc
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy cessfully determine multipoint temperature using the serially connected sensors in a single measurement.
Resistance temperature detector The accuracy of the proposed method estimated from conventional RTD measurement results is confirmed
Multipoint temperature measurement to be 0.7 K in the temperature range tested. The proposed method can be applied to profile the temperature
of electrochemical devices that operate at relatively low temperatures, such as lithium-ion batteries.
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2021.113051
0924-4247/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 1. (a) Existing setup and (b, c) proposed setup for temperature measurement.
designed cell holder with a sapphire window on each side of the in Fig. 1(b) is measured by EIS, the resistance of each RTD can be
holder to ensure the optical path for IR measurements. The purpose separately obtained when the capacitance of the capacitors is ap
of the experiments was to obtain data that could be used for the propriately selected. With this method, we can obtain the tem
validation of numerical simulations, rather than to reveal the perature distribution on the measured object in a single
thermal phenomena in a real stack: the temperature field obtained measurement. The number of necessary cables installed inside the
with the special cell holder should be different from that of a cell in a measured object extending to the outside can be reduced to n + 1.
real stack. Moreover, when the capacitors are installed next to the measured
To acquire multipoint temperature data in a single measurement, object, the number of necessary cables from the object can be fur
a novel methodology is proposed in this study, which utilizes mul ther reduced to 2, as shown in Fig. 1(c), which can significantly
tiple RTD–capacitor parallel circuits connected in series. The overall simplify the measurement system.
impedance of the circuits is measured by electrochemical impedance The principle of the multipoint temperature measurement using
spectroscopy (EIS), and the resistance of each RTD is evaluated by EIS is explained in detail as follows. First, the impedance of a single
equivalent circuit fitting. The separate evaluation of the serially RC parallel circuit is expressed as follows.
connected RTDs becomes possible because the characteristic time 1
scale of each resistor-capacitor (RC) parallel circuit in the system can 1 R j CR2
Z= +j C =
be adjusted individually by selecting a capacitor with an appropriate R 1 + ( CR)2 1 + ( CR)2 (1)
size: the capacitor is used as a marker for the RTD. When each of the where R is the resistance of the RTD; C is the capacitance of the
several RC parallel circuits has a different characteristic time scale, capacitor; j is the imaginary unit; and ω (ω = 2πf, with f being the
each resistance in the system can be measured separately by EIS frequency) is the angular frequency.
measurement and the resistances are converted to temperature in The relationship between the real part of the impedance Z’ and
formation. Owing to the serial connections of the RTDs, the number the imaginary part of the impedance Z′’ is expressed as follows.
of required cables can be reduced in the proposed method, on the
2 2
other hand, each RTD requires two cables in a conventional mea R 2 R
Z +Z =
surement method using RTDs. In this work, we aim to clarify the 2 2 (2)
feasibility of the proposed methodology by EIS using multiple seri
ally connected RTD–capacitor parallel circuits for determining the On the complex plane, called the Nyquist plot, the impedance
multipoint temperature in a single measurement with fewer con forms a semicircle centered at (R/2, 0) with the radius of R/2 as
necting cables than in conventional approaches using thermo shown in Fig. 2(a). It has to be emphasized that the frequency that
couples or RTDs. The advantages and disadvantages of the proposed gives the peak point in the impedance semicircle is related to the
methodology over the conventional and other novel temperature characteristic time scale τ of the RC parallel circuit, and it is ex
measurement techniques are discussed and its potential target is pressed as follows.
suggested. 1
= = CR
fc (3)
2
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 2. Nyquist plot of (a) single RC parallel circuit and (b) several RC parallel circuits connected in series with capacitors of different sizes.
Fig. 3. (a) Typical relationship between resistance of platinum RTD and temperature, and between capacitance of aluminum electrolyte capacitor (AEC) and temperature. (b) Ideal
Nyquist plot of single RC parallel circuit at different temperatures.
RT = R0 [1 + A (T 273.15) + B (T 273.15)2] (4) relationship between the performance and the number of
RTD–capacitor parallel circuits.
where A and B are constants, and R0 is the nominal resistance. In this To achieve these purposes, the resistance of the RTD was mea
study, A is 3.908 × 10 3 and B is 5.775 × 10 7, as recommended
sured by two methods. One was the conventional method using a
by the manufacturing company of the RTDs used.
multimeter, and the other was the proposed method using EIS. For
Fig. 3(a) shows the typical relationships between the resistance
the conventional method, the temperature was obtained by mea
of a platinum RTD and temperature, and between the capacitance of
suring the resistance of the RTD with a multimeter and the obtained
an aluminum electrolyte capacitor (AEC) used in this work and
temperature was treated as the ground truth. The accuracy of the
temperature. Here CT is the capacitance of the AEC and C0 is the
proposed method was evaluated by comparing the temperature
nominal capacitance at the reference temperature of 293.15 K.
measured by EIS and the ground truth. The mean and the maximum
Fig. 3(a) clearly shows linear relationships between the resistance of
absolute difference between temperatures measured using the
the RTD and temperature, and between the capacitance of the AEC
multimeter and by EIS were used as indicators of accuracy.
and temperature. Note that the capacitance only shifts the char
acteristic time scale of an RC parallel circuit and does not affect the
size of the semicircle. For this reason, the proposed method using EIS
3.1. Experimental setup
can reflect the change in the corresponding temperature by the
change in resistance in the RC circuit according to Eq. (3). Fig. 3(b)
Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup. As
shows the Nyquist plot of a single RC parallel circuit at different
shown in Fig. 4(a), several RTD–capacitor parallel circuits were
temperatures. As the temperature increases, the radius of the plotted
connected in series and their overall impedance was measured using
semicircle of the impedance measured by EIS also increases, which
an electrochemical impedance analyzer, which is a combination of a
well reflects the relationship between the resistance of the RTD and
potentiostat/galvanostat and a frequency response analyzer. At the
temperature.
same time, to validate the proposed method, the resistance of each
RTD was separately measured using a multimeter as the ground
3. Experiment truth. A selected RTD in the circuits was heated in the experiments.
Fig. 4(b) shows a cross-sectional view of the heated RTD. The tem
Four experiments were conducted in this work. The circuits used perature of the RTD was controlled by a Peltier element connected to
were a single RTD–capacitor parallel circuit and serially connected an electric power supply. The RTD was installed on the hot side of
double, triple, and quadruple RTD–capacitor parallel circuits. The the Peltier element. Thermal paste was used to eliminate air gaps at
first experiment using the single RC parallel circuit was carried out the interface area, which may cause contact heat resistance. Fig. 4(c)
to verify whether EIS could correctly measure the resistance in the shows the photograph of the measurement setup for the proposed
RTD–capacitor parallel circuit. The second to fourth experiments temperature measurement. Since this study is a proof-of-concept
were conducted to validate that the proposed methodology could study, the circuit was assembled on a breadboard with screw
perform multipoint temperature measurement and to explore the terminals connected serially, each of which parallelly holds an RTD
3
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. (b) Cross-sectional view of heated RTD (not to scale). (c) The photograph of the measurement setup for the proposed
temperature measurement.
and a capacitor. The number of cables extended from the circuit is 3.2. Experimental procedure and conditions
indeed reduced to 2.
For the RTD, Pt100 M222 (Heraeus, Germany) was used. The RTDs in the test system were initially kept at room tem
According to the datasheet released by the manufacturing company, perature. Electrical power was supplied to the Peltier element to
its resistance is 100 Ω at 273.15 K; working temperature ranges from heat the RTD to which the Peltier element was attached. The tem
203.15 to 773.15 K (continuous operation); temperature coefficient of perature of the heated RTD increased and eventually reached the
resistance (TCR) is 0.385 Ω/K; tolerance class is F0.15; tolerance de steady state when the amount of heat that dissipated balanced with
finition is ± (0.15 + 0.002|T–273.15|) Ω, where T is the absolute value that of input heat. The system was regarded to have reached the
of temperature in K; and dimensions are 2.3 mm × 2.1 mm × 0.9 mm steady state when the temperature fluctuations for 1 min were less
for the package and 10 mm × ø0.2 mm for the lead wires. Aluminum than 0.1 K. Note that the temperatures of the RTDs were monitored
electrolytic capacitors (AECs) with low equivalent series resistance by measuring their resistances using a multimeter. EIS was con
(ESR) were used (Panasonic Corporation, Japan). They have capaci ducted after the system reached the steady state. The temperature of
tances of 33, 330, 1000, and 3300 μF; their working temperatures the heated RTD was varied by tuning the power supply to the Peltier
range from 233.15 to 378.15 K. In addition, conventional AECs with element.
capacitances of 0.22 μF and 33,000 μF were used in these experi A summary of the experiments conducted is shown in Fig. 5.
ments with the same working temperature. Exps. 1–4 correspond to the single to quadruple RC parallel circuits,
For the EIS device, a 1287A potentiostat/galvanostat and a 1255B respectively. Since this was a feasibility study, the temperature range
frequency response analyzer (Solartron Analytical, U.K) were used. was set to 290–360 K, which is close to room temperature. Because
Its margin of error was 0.10% ± 0.05% of range. A multimeter the characteristic time of the RC parallel circuits used in this study
VOAC87 (IWATSU, Japan) with a wide measurement range and was on the order ranged from 10−5 to 1 s, the frequency range of the
a ± 100 mΩ margin of error was used. EIS measurement was set to be 10−2 – 105 Hz. The measurement
4
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Table 1
Equivalent circuit models used for four experiments.
5
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 6. (a) Nyquist plot for single RC circuit with 33 μF capacitor in Exp. 1 at different temperatures. (b) Raw impedance data with corresponding fitting curve in Experiment 1
(measurement at room temperature).
Fig. 7. Temperatures measured using multimeter and by proposed method with EIS in single RC circuit (Experiment 1) (a) using proposed equivalent circuit model shown in
Table 2 and (b) when ESR elements are ignored in equivalent circuit model.
6
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 8. Raw impedance data with corresponding fitting curve obtained in Exps. (a) 2, (b) 3, and (c) 4 (measurement at room temperature).
the mean and maximum errors for the RC circuit with all capacitors
tend to increase, especially for the 0.22 µF capacitor. This shows that
the effect of ESR is large when capacitance is small; therefore, it is
better to add ESR elements into the equivalent circuit model.
7
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Fig. 10. Temperatures measured using multimeter and by proposed method using EIS in (a) double RC circuit (Exp. 2), (b) triple RC circuits (Exp. 3), and (d) quadruple RC circuits
(Exp. 4).
with 0.22 μF modeled using a variable ESR. The figure also shows Exps. 2–4. Nevertheless, the proposed method was validated to be
that ESR increases with decreasing capacitance. Since the effect of feasible for performing multipoint temperature measurements.
ESR on the temperature measurement is expected to be larger in a By comparing the result of Exps. 1–4, we found that the mean
capacitor with smaller capacitance, the variable ESR model is used errors in Exps. 2–4, in which multiple RC circuits were used, were
for the capacitor with the smallest capacitance 0.22 μF during the larger than that in Exp. 1, where a single RC was used. In Exp. 2–4,
fitting process. the mean errors of individual RTDs were similar and not significantly
related to the number of the RC circuits or the order of connection.
4.2.3. Feasibility and accuracy of multiple-sensor measurement The accuracy of the proposed methodology estimated on the basis of
The EIS data fitting for multiple-sensor measurements was suc the conventional RTD measurement was 0.7 K in the tested tem
cessfully conducted, the results of which are presented in Fig. 8 in a perature range in Exps. 2–4 as shown in Table 2. The accuracy of
green line. The fitted green curves fairly match their experimental 0.7 K was obtained by averaging the mean error of each RTD sum
counterparts. The RTD resistances were extracted from the fitted marized in Table 2. Considering the operating temperature range of
results and converted to temperature using Eq. (4). The tempera the capacitors used (about 240–380 K), if the combination of RC
tures obtained by EIS measurements are compared with those ob circuits employed in this study is used, the possible applications of
tained using a multimeter in Fig. 10(a)–(c), for Exps. 2–4, the proposed method include the temperature measurements of
respectively. Note that the capacitors used in each experiment are electrochemical devices that operate at relatively low temperatures,
summarized in Table 2. The capacitor with the smallest capacitance such as lithium-ion batteries, because their operating temperatures
of 0.22 μF was modeled with a variable ESR model, whereas the are within the operating temperature of the capacitors used. The
others were modeled with the constant ESR model in the fitting main factors affecting the accuracy of the proposed method are the
process. accuracies of EIS, data fitting, and the RTD itself. Since these factors
The results obtained by the proposed method fairly agree with are not markedly affected by the temperature range, the proposed
the data obtained using a conventional multimeter: all data plots are method has a potential to be applied in a wider temperature range,
close to the zero-error line in the figures. The mean errors of all RTDs the confirmation of which remains as a future work. It should be
are shown in Table 2. The mean errors are generally higher than that noted that it is necessary to develop a novel capacitor that is smaller
observed in Exp. 1, reflecting the constant ESR model employed in in physical size and has a higher operating temperature range to
8
R. Mao, M. Kishimoto and H. Iwai Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 331 (2021) 113051
Table 3
Comparison of the proposed methodology with the conventional and the advanced method under development for invasive multipoint temperature measurement.
Thermocouples • Inexpensive 2 for each sensor • Many thermocouples require excessive connecting
• Interchangeable cables, which may alter the thermal field
• A wide temperature range
RTDs • High linearity and stability 2 for each sensor • Many RTDs require excessive connecting cables, which
• High accuracy may alter the thermal field
• A wide temperature range
Thermocouple-based grid • Reduced connecting cables 8 for 16 sensors • Usually thermocouple has a lower accuracy than RTD
sensor [10,14] • Transient temperature measurement element
• A wide temperature range • Weld part of the wire are possible to fall off
Proposed method • Usually RTD element has a better accuracy 2 (minimum) for n • EIS equipment is expensive
than thermocouple sensors • Not applicable for transient temperature measurement
• Further reduced connecting cables • Large electrolytic capacitors are needed
widen the applicability of the proposed method, such as tempera conventional measurement using RTDs for the proposed metho
ture measurement of high-temperature solid oxide fuel cells. dology was confirmed to be 0.7 K at temperatures of 290–360 K. If
Compared with the conventional approaches using RTDs or the combination of RC circuits employed in this study is used within
thermocouples, the advantage of the proposed methodology is the the temperature range tested, the proposed method can be used for
reduction in the number of connected cables in multipoint tem steady or quasi-steady state measurements of electrochemical de
perature measurement. It is particularly effective when the RC cir vices that operate at relatively low temperatures, such as lithium-ion
cuit is sufficiently smaller than the measuring object such that it can batteries. In addition, the proposed method has a potential to be
be implemented in the object as shown in Fig. 1(c), requiring only applied in a wider temperature range with a shorter measuring time,
two outer cables. which remains as a future work. However, when multiple RC circuits
Table 3 shows the comparison of the proposed methodology with were used, their mean error was larger than that when a single RC
the conventional and the advanced method under development in was used. In addition, the results show that the mean errors of in
the literature [10,14]. Compared with conventional methods of dividual RTDs were similar and not significantly related to the
thermocouples or RTDs, the proposed method can measure multi number of RC circuits or the order of connections.
point temperature in one single measurement with the reduction in
the number of connected cables in the measurement. In addition, CRediT authorship contribution statement
compared with the advanced method under development, the pro
posed method further reduced connecting cables, and in most cases, Runze Mao: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis,
the RTD elements used in this work have better accuracy than the Investigation, Writing – original draft, Visualization. Masashi
thermocouple elements used in the advanced method under de Kishimoto: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing,
velopment. Furthermore, the proposed method can be applied not Supervision. Hiroshi Iwai: Conceptualization, Writing – review &
only to multipoint temperature measurement but also to single- editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
point multi-physical quantity measurement. If there are sensors
whose resistance is related to physical quantities such as tempera Declaration of Competing Interest
ture, concentration and pressure, they can be measured simulta
neously with the proposed method in principle. The authors declare that they have no known competing fi
However, the proposed method also has some limitations. First, nancial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
EIS equipment is relatively expensive compared with resistance to influence the work reported in this paper.
measurement devices such as the multimeter. Then, it takes a long
time to measure the low frequency region in the EIS, therefore the Acknowledgment
proposed method generally has a longer measurement time than
conventional methods, particularly when a large capacitor is em This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
ployed. Subsequently, electrolytic capacitors are needed because 19H02077.
they have larger capacitance than most other types of capacitors to
include more RTDs. Electrolytic capacitors have large size and lim References
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Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway in 2019. He is currently a
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229070 1996 and 1999, all from Kyoto University, Japan. After working as a postdoctoral re
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prietary sensory techniques versus commercial thermocouples, Appl. Energy sociate professor in Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics in 2007. He is cur
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10