Examiners' Commentaries 2018: MT2116 Abstract Mathematics

Examiners’ commentaries 2018

MT2116 Abstract mathematics
Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for this course in the
academic year 2017–18. The format and structure of the examination may change in future years,
and any such changes will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).
Information about the subject guide and the Essential reading

references
Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the subject guide (2011).
You should always attempt to use the most recent edition of any Essential reading textbook, even if
the commentary and/or online reading list and/or subject guide refer to an earlier edition. If
different editions of Essential reading are listed, please check the VLE for reading supplements – if
none are available, please use the contents list and index of the new edition to find the relevant
section.
General remarks
Learning outcomes
At the end of this course and having completed the Essential reading and activities you should:
• have used basic mathematical concepts in discrete mathematics, algebra and real analysis to
solve mathematical problems in this subject
• be able to use formal notation correctly and in connection with precise statements in English
• be able to demonstrate an understanding of the underlying principle of the subjects
• be able to solve unseen mathematical problems in discrete mathematics, algebra and real
analysis
• be able to prove statements and formulate precise mathematical arguments.
Showing your working
We start by emphasising that you should always include your working. This means two things.
First, you should not simply write down the answer in the examination script, but you should
explain the method by which it is obtained. Secondly, you should include rough working (even if it is
messy!). The examiners want you to get the right answers, of course, but it is more important that
you prove you know what you are doing: that is what is really being examined.
We also stress that if you have not completely solved a problem, you may still be awarded marks for
a partial, incomplete, or slightly wrong, solution; but, if you have written down a wrong answer and
nothing else, no marks can be awarded. So it is certainly in your interests to include all your
workings.
1
Knowing the definitions
In this course, precision and clarity are extremely important. It is vital that you know the key
definitions and theorems exactly, so that you can quote them and use them. It is simply not possible
to prove something using a formal definition if you only have a vague and incorrect recollection of
what that definition is. How could you use the formal definition of convergence of a sequence to
prove that a sequence converges if you do not know what it is that you need to establish, because
you do not know the definition? Well, you cannot. It is so important to know the definitions, and
there are a number of marks to be picked up simply for knowing them.
Covering the syllabus and choosing questions
You should ensure that you have covered the bulk of the syllabus in order to perform well in the
examination: it is bad practice to concentrate only on a small range of major topics in the
expectation that there will be lots of marks obtainable for questions on these topics. The
examination paper has some element of choice: your best six questions (out of eight) count. If you
have not covered the whole syllabus, then you will be limiting your choice. Assuming you have,
however, covered the whole syllabus, it is a very good idea to take a little time to choose carefully: it
could be that a question on your favourite topic is in fact more difficult than a question on another
topic.
Expectations of the examination paper
Every examination paper is different. You should not assume that your examination will be almost
identical to the previous year’s: for instance, just because there was a question, or a part of a
question, on a certain topic last year, you should not assume there will be one on the same topic this
year. Each year, the examiners want to test that candidates can reason precisely mathematically,
and that they know and understand a number of mathematical concepts and methods. In setting an
examination paper, they try to test whether the candidate does indeed know the methods,
understands them, and is able to use them, and not merely whether he or she vaguely remembers
them. Because of this, every year there are some questions which are likely to seem unfamiliar, or
different from previous years’ questions. You should expect to be surprised by some of the questions.
Of course, you will only be examined on material in the syllabus, so all questions can be answered
using the material of the course.
Examination revision strategy
Many candidates are disappointed to find that their examination performance is poorer than they
expected. This may be due to a number of reasons, but one particular failing is ‘question
spotting’, that is, confining your examination preparation to a few questions and/or topics which
have come up in past papers for the course. This can have serious consequences.
We recognise that candidates might not cover all topics in the syllabus in the same depth, but you
need to be aware that examiners are free to set questions on any aspect of the syllabus. This
means that you need to study enough of the syllabus to enable you to answer the required number of
examination questions.
The syllabus can be found in the Course information sheet available on the VLE. You should read
the syllabus carefully and ensure that you cover sufficient material in preparation for the
examination. Examiners will vary the topics and questions from year to year and may well set
questions that have not appeared in past papers. Examination papers may legitimately include
2
questions on any topic in the syllabus. So, although past papers can be helpful during your revision,
you cannot assume that topics or specific questions that have come up in past examinations will
occur again.
If you rely on a question-spotting strategy, it is likely you will find yourself in difficulties
when you sit the examination. We strongly advise you not to adopt this strategy.
3

Important note

references
section.
Comments on specific questions – Zone A
Candidates should answer SIX of the following EIGHT questions: THREE from Section A and
THREE from Section B. If additional questions are answered, only your best THREE answers
from Section A and your best THREE answers from Section B will count towards the final mark.
All questions carry equal marks.
Section A
Answer any three questions from this section.
Question 1
(a) Let p, q and r be statements. Construct the truth table for the statement
(p =⇒ r) ∨ (q =⇒ r). Is this statement logically equivalent to the statement
(p ∨ q) =⇒ r? Justify your answer.
Reading for this question
All parts of this question use the material in Chapter 2 of the subject guide.
Approaching the question
Let S1 be (p =⇒ r) ∨ (q =⇒ r) and S2 be (p ∨ q) =⇒ r.
4
p q r p =⇒ r q =⇒ r S1 p∨q S2
T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F
T F T T T T T T
F T T T T T T T
T F F F T T T F
F T F T F T T F
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T T F T
It can be seen that the statements are not logically equivalent since there are truth
assignments to p, q, r on which they take different values.
(b) Let S be the following statement about natural numbers m and n:

If m is even or n is even, then mn is even.
(i) Prove that S is true.
(ii) Write down the converse of S.
(iii) Write down the contrapositive of the converse of S.
(iv) Is the converse of S true or false? Justify your answer.
(v) Write down the contrapositive of S.

(i) Suppose (without loss of generality) that m is even. Then m = 2k, for some integer k.
Then, mn = (2k)n = 2(kn), which is even.
(ii) The converse is: if mn is even, then m is even or n is even.
(iii) The contrapositive of the converse is: if m and n are odd, then mn is odd.
(iv) We prove the contrapositive of the converse: if m = 2k + 1 and n = 2l + 1, then:
mn = (2k + 1)(2l + 1) = 2(2kl + k + l) + 1,
which is odd.
It follows that the converse is true, since it is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
(v) The contrapositive of S is: if mn is odd, then m is odd and n is odd.
(c) Prove that, for any three sets A, B and C,

(A ∪ B) \ C = (A \ C) ∪ (B \ C).

We have:
x ∈ (A ∪ B) \ C ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B, x 6∈ C
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A, x 6∈ C) or (x ∈ B, x 6∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A \ C) or (x ∈ B \ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A \ C) ∪ (B \ C).
This proves the sets on the right-hand and left-hand sides are equal. An alternative
approach would be to prove, separately, that each is contained in the other.
5
Question 2
(a) Use the method of induction to prove that the following statement is true for all
natural numbers n:
n
X 1
(−1)r r = ((−1)n (2n + 1) − 1) .
r=1
4

Proof by induction is discussed in Chapter 3 of the subject guide.
The base case n = 1 is easily seen to be true because when n = 1, both expressions equal
−1. Assume, inductively, that k ≥ 1 and that:
n
X 1
(−1)r r = ((−1)n (2n + 1) − 1) .
r=1
4
We have:
n
X n
X
(−1)r r = (−1)k+1 (k + 1) + (−1)r r
r=1 r=1
1
= (−1)k+1 (k + 1) + ((−1)n (2n + 1) − 1)
4
1
(−1)k (2k + 1) + 4(−1)k+1 (k + 1) − 1

=
4
1
(−1)k+1 (4k + 4 − 2k − 1) − 1

=
4
1
(−1)k+1 (2k + 3) − 1

=
4
1
(−1)k+1 (2(k + 1) + 1) − 1

=
4
as required.
(b) Use the method of induction to prove that the following statement is true for all
natural numbers n:
n
X 1
r(n2 − r 2 ) = n2 (n2 − 1).
r=1
4

When n = 1, both sides are 0, so the base case holds.
Suppose, inductively, that k ≥ 1 and that:
k
X 1 2 2
r(n2 − r2 ) = k (k − 1).
r=1
4
Then, we have to prove that:

k+1
X 1
r((k + 1)2 − r2 ) = (k + 1)2 ((k + 1)2 − 1).
r=1
4
6
We have:
k+1
X k
X
r((k + 1)2 − r2 ) = r((k + 1)2 − r2 )
r=1 r=1
k+1
X
= r((k 2 + 2k + 1)2 − r2 )
r=1
k+1
X
r(k 2 − r2 ) + (2k + 1)r

=
r=1
k
X 1
= (2k + 1) r + k 2 (k 2 − 1)
r=1
4
1 1
= (2k + 1) k(k + 1) + k 2 (k 2 − 1)
2 4
1 1
= (2k + 1) k(k + 1) + k 2 (k − 1)(k + 1)
2 4
1
= k(k + 1) [2(2k + 1) + k(k − 1)]
4
1
= k(k + 1) k 2 + 3k + 2

4
1
= k(k + 1)(k + 1)(k + 2)
4
1
= (k + 1)2 (k 2 + 2k)
4
1
= (k + 1)2 ((k + 1)2 − 1)
4
as required.
(c) Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor of 403 and 182.

The Euclidean Algorithm is covered in Chapter 6 of the subject guide.

This is a standard, easy, question.
We have:
403 = 2.182 + 39
182 = 4.39 + 26
39 = 1.26 + 13
26 = 2.13
So the greatest common divisor is 13.
7
Question 3
(a) The function f : R → R is defined as follows:
x2 − 1

if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−x2 − 1 if x < 0.
Prove that f is a bijection and determine a formula for the inverse function f −1 .

Functions and their properties are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the subject guide.

First, we show f is injective. Suppose f (x) = f (y) = z. If z ≥ −1, then we must have
x, y ≥ 0 and f (x) = x2 − 1, f (y) = y 2 − 1. (For, if x < 0, then f (x) < −1.) But x, y ≥ 0 and
x2 − 1 = y 2 − 1 implies x = y. If z < −1 then x, y < 0 and
f (x) = −x2 − 1 = f (y) = −y 2 − 1, so x = y.
Now we show f is surjective.
√ √ Suppose y ≥ −1. Then y = x2 − 1 where x ≥ 0 is given by
√ y). If y < −1, then y = −x2 − 1 where x < 0 is given by
1 + y. So, y = f ( 1 +√
− −1 − y. So, y = f (− −1 − y).
(b) A positive integer n is a perfect square if n = m2 for some positive integer m.

The relation R is defined on N9 = {n ∈ N | 1 ≤ n ≤ 9} by:
a R b if and only if ab is a perfect square.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation on N9 .
Determine all the equivalence classes of R on N9 .

Equivalence relations are discussed in Chapter 5 of the subject guide.

R is an equivalence relation if:
• R is reflexive: for all x ∈ A, x R x.
• R is symmetric: for all x, y ∈ A, x R y implies y R x
• R is transitive: for all x, y, z ∈ A, x R y and y R z imply x R z
The relation is reflexive: x R x because x.x = x2 is a perfect square.
It is symmetric: if xy is a perfect square, so is yx, since these products are the same.
To show it is transitive, suppose that x R y and y R z, meaning there are integers n, m such
that xy = n2 , yz = m2 . We then have xy 2 z = n2 m2 . Consider any prime in the prime
decomposition of the product xz. Then this must appear with an even power in n2 m2 and it
follows (since it either does not appear at all in y 2 or will do so with an even power) that it
appears with an even power in xz. This implies xz is a perfect square, so x R z.
The equivalence classes are:
[1] = [4] = [9] = {1, 4, 9},
[2] = [8] = {2, 8},
[3] = {3}, [5] = {5}, [6] = {6}, [7] = {7}.
8
(c) Find all solutions in Z9 to the following system of equations:
5x + y = 3
3x + 3y = 6.

Modular arithmetic is discussed in Chapter 7 of the subject guide.

Multiplying the first equation by 3 we get 15x + 3y = 9, which is 6x + 3y = 0. Subtracting
the second from this, we obtain (6x + 3y) − (3x + 3y) = 0 − 6 = 3; that is, 3x = 3. The
solutions in Z9 to this are easily seen to be x = 1, 4, 7: this is because 3(1) = 3,
3(4) = 12 = 3 and 3(7) = 21 = 3 and, for all other elements of Z9 , 3x 6= 3. From the first of
the original equations, 3y = 6 − 3x = 3, so we have y = 3 − 5x, and hence (respectively),
y = 3 − 5 = −2 = 7, y = 3 − 5(4) = −17 = 1, y = 3 − 5(7) = −32 = 4. So there are three
possible solutions:
(x, y) = (1, 7), (4, 1), (7, 4),
and these do indeed satisfy the original equations. So there are these three solutions.
Question 4
(a) Express the recurring decimal 0.8765 as a rational number p/q, where p and q
are integers.

See Chapter 8 of the subject guide.

Let us write 0.8765 = 0.8 + x, where x = 0.0765 is the repeating part. We should see
immediately that 0.8 = 8/10. For x we write 1000 x = 76.5765, hence:
765
999 x = 1000 x − x = 76.5765 − 0.0765 = 76.5 = .
10
This leads to:
765 765
x= =
10 × 999 9990
and all together we obtain:
8 765 999 × 8 + 765 8757

0.8765 = 0.8 + 0.0765 = + = = .
10 9990 9990 9990
√
(b) (i) Prove that 6 is irrational.
(ii) Prove that if a is rational and b is irrational, then a + b is irrational.
(iii) Prove that if x is rational, then x2 is rational.
√ √
(iv) Prove that 2 + 3 is irrational.

See Chapter 8 of the subject guide for a discussion of rational and irrational numbers.
9

√ √
(i) Suppose 6 was rational and that 6 = a/b where a, b are coprime integers. Then
a2 = 6b2 , so 6 divides a2 and, hence (since the primes 2 and 3 must therefore appear in
the prime decomposition of a2 and hence a), 6 divides a. So we may write a = 6c and
deduce that 36c2 = 6b2 . So b2 = 6c2 and a similar argument establishes that 6 divides b.
But this contradicts a, b being coprime.
(ii) Suppose a is rational and a + b is rational. Then, (a + b) − a = b must be rational. This
establishes (ii).
(iii) If x = a/b where a, b are integers, then x2 = a2 /b2 , which is rational.
√ √ √ √ √ √
(iv) Let x = 2 + 3. Then x2 = 2 + 3 + 2 2 3 = 5 + 2 6. Since 5 is rational and 2 6 is
irrational, x2 is irrational (by (ii)). Then, by (iii), x must be irrational.
(c) Suppose a ∈ R. Find all solutions in C to z 4 = −a4 . Hence, or otherwise,

express the polynomial z 4 + a4 as a product of two quadratic polynomials with
real coefficients.

Complex numbers are discussed in Chapter 8 of the subject guide.

If z = reiθ and z 4 = −a4 , then r4 = a4 , so r = a, and eiθ = −1 = eπi+2kπi where k ∈ Z. So
there are four solutions:
z = aeiπ/4 , ae7iπ/4 , ae3iπ/4 , ae5iπ/4 .
These may be written as

z = α, ᾱ, β, β̄.
Since (z − α)(z − ᾱ) = z − 2 Re(α) + |α| , and since Re(aeiθ ) = a cos θ, it follows that:
2 2
√ √
z 4 + a4 = (z − α)(z − ᾱ)(z − β)(z − β̄) = (z 2 − 2az + a2 )(z 2 + 2az + a2 ).
Section B
Question 5
(a) (i) For a set A of real numbers, what does it mean to say that s is an upper
bound for A?
What does it mean to say that s is the supremum of A?
(ii) For a set A of real numbers, set M (A) = {|a| | a ∈ A}. Suppose that A is a
non-empty bounded set of real numbers, with sup A > 0 > inf A and
sup A + inf A ≥ 0.
Show that sup M (A) = sup A.
Is it necessarily true that inf M (A) = 0?
Justify your answer with a proof or counterexample.

See Chapter 9 of the subject guide for the background material to this part of the question.
10
(i) To say that s is an upper bound for A means that a ≤ s for all a ∈ A. To say that s is
the supremum of A means that s is an upper bound for A and, for any t < s, t is not an
upper bound for A (that is, there is a ∈ A such that t < a ≤ s).
(ii) First we show that sup A is an upper bound on M (A). We know that inf A ≤ a ≤ sup A
for every a ∈ A. Hence:
−sup A ≤ −a ≤ −inf A.
Since sup A + inf A ≥ 0, we have −inf A ≤ sup A. Consequently, −a ≤ −inf A ≤ sup A
and |a| ≤ sup A.
Since sup A > 0, for every t < sup A, we can find a ∈ A such that t < a ≤ sup A and also
a > 0. Then |a| = a, so a ∈ M (A) and hence t is not an upper bound on M (A).
Take A = {−1, 1}. Then sup A = 1 > 0 > −1 = inf A and M (A) = {1}, so inf A = 1 > 0.
(b) (i) State the Intermediate Value Theorem.

For an interval [a, b] ⊂ R, a function f : [a, b] → R is said to be strictly
increasing if, whenever x, y ∈ [a, b] with x < y, we have f (x) < f (y). Let
f : [0, 1] → R be a continuous function with f (0) = 0 and f (x) ≥ 0 for all
x ∈ [0, 1]. Suppose that f is an injection.
(ii) Show that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (0, 1].

(iii) Show that f is strictly increasing.
(Hint: State what it means to say that f is not strictly increasing. Sketch a
graph of f to illustrate this situation, indicating where on your sketch you
have two distinct points y and z with f (y) = f (z). Now write a formal proof,
using the Intermediate Value Theorem.)

See Chapter 11 of the subject guide for relevant background material.
(i) Intermediate Value Theorem (Theorem 11.6 in the subject guide): suppose g is a
continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], and z lies between g(a) and g(b). Then
there is some c ∈ [a, b] with g(c) = z.
(ii) Since f is an injection and f (0) = 0, we must have f (x) 6= 0 for x ∈ (0, 1]. Since
f (x) ≥ 0, this implies that f (x) > 0 for x ∈ (0, 1].
(iii) If f is not strictly increasing, there must be y < z such that f (y) ≥ f (z). We cannot
have f (y) = f (z) because f is an injection. Hence, f (y) > f (z) > 0. This means y > 0
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is 0 < x < y such that f (x) = f (z). Hence, f
cannot be an injection.
Question 6
(n + 1)3/2 − n3/2
(a) Find the following limit: lim .
n→∞ n1/2
(You may use any result from the course.)

See Chapter 10 of the subject guide for material related to all parts of this question.
11

We have:
(n + 1)3/2 − n3/2 ((n + 1)3/2 − n3/2 )((n + 1)3/2 + n3/2 )
lim 1/2
= lim
n→∞ n n→∞ n1/2 ((n + 1)3/2 + n3/2 )
(n + 1)3 − n3
= lim
n→∞ n1/2 (((n + 1)3/2 + n3/2 )
n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1 − n3
= lim
n→∞ n2 ((1 + 1/n)3/2 + 1)
3n2 + 3n + 1
= lim
n→∞ n2 ((1 + 1/n)3/2 + 1)
n2 (3 + 3/n + 1/n2 )
= lim
n→∞ n2 ((1 + 1/n)3/2 + 1)
3 + 3/n + 1/n2
= lim
n→∞ (1 + 1/n)3/2 + 1
3 3
= = .
1+1 2
(b) Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers.

(i) What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is increasing?
What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is bounded?
What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is convergent, with limit L?
(ii) Suppose that (an ) is an increasing bounded sequence. Show that (an ) is
convergent.
(iii) Suppose that (an ) is a convergent sequence, with limit L. Suppose also that,
for some N ∈ N and K ∈ R, an > K whenever n > N . Show that L ≥ K.
(iv) State the Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem.
Suppose that (an ) is a bounded sequence of non-negative real numbers, and
that an does not converge to 0. Show that there is a subsequence (akn )
converging to some number L 6= 0.
(Hint: show that there is some ε > 0 and some subsequence (akn ) such that
akn ≥ ε for all n. Then use the Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem.)

(i) A sequence (an ) is increasing if, for every n, an ≤ an+1 .
A sequence (an ) is bounded if there is M such that, for every n, |an | ≤ M .
A sequence (an ) is convergent to L if, for every > 0, there exists N such that for all
n > N we have |an − L| < .
(ii) Let S = {an | n ∈ N}. Then S is non-empty and bounded, hence sup S exists. We show
that (an ) is convergent to sup S.
Let ε > 0. By the second property of the supremum, there is N such that
sup S − ε < AN . Since (an ) is increasing, for any n > N , we have:
sup S − ε < AN ≤ an ≤ sup S < sup S + ε.
(iii) Suppose K > L. For ε = K − L > 0, there exists N1 such that, for n > N1 we have
|an − L| < ε. Hence, for n > max{N, N1 }, we have:
K < an < L + ε = L + (K − L) = K
which is a contradiction.
12
(iv) Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem: every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

Suppose (an ) is bounded by M and not convergent to 0. Hence, there is ε > 0 such that
for every N there is n > N such that |an − 0| ≥ ε.
So, for N = 1, there is k1 > 1 such that |ak1 | ≥ ε; for N = k1 , there is k2 > k1 such that
|ak2 | ≥ ε; and in general, for N = kn−1 , there is kn > kn−1 such that |akn | ≥ ε.
Subsequence (akn ) is also bounded by M , so it has a convergent subsequence (ak`n ), with
limit L. Since ak`n = |ak`n | ≥ ε, by (iii), we have L ≥ ε > 0.
Question 7
(a) Consider the binary operation on R given by a ∗ b = ab + a + b.

Show that ∗ satisfies the associativity property, and the identity property with
identity element 0.
Explain why (R; ∗) is nevertheless not a group.

See Chapters 12, 13 and 14 of the subject guide for relevant reading for this question.
Associativity: For every a, b, c ∈ R, we have:
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a ∗ b)c + (a ∗ b) + c
= (ab + a + b)c + ab + a + b + c
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc
and:
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (bc + b + c)
= a(bc + b + c) + a + (bc + b + c)
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc.
Hence (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
Identity: 0 is an identity element because for all a ∈ R, we have:
a ∗ 0 = a0 + a + 0 = 0 + a + 0 = a
and:
0 ∗ a = 0a + 0 + a = 0 + 0 + a = a.
(G, ∗) is not a group because −1 does not have an inverse: −1 ∗ a = −1a − 1 + a = −1 6= 0
for every a.
(b) Let (G; ?) be a group, with identity element e.

(i) What does it mean to say that a subset H of G is a subgroup?
(ii) For an element g ∈ G, and a subgroup H of G, define the left coset g ? H.
Show that, if H is finite, then each left coset has the same cardinality as H.
(iii) Consider the group (C; ×) of non-zero complex numbers under
multiplication. Let S denote the set of complex numbers of modulus 1. Show
that S is a subgroup of (C; ×).
Let w be a complex number of modulus r > 0. Find the left coset w × S, and
sketch it on the complex plane.
You may use any properties that you require of the modulus of a complex
number.
13


(i) H is a subgroup of G if H is non-empty, for all a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H and a−1 ∈ H.
(ii) The left coset g ∗ H = {g ? h | h ∈ H}.
If H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm }, then g ∗ hi = g ∗ hj ⇔ g −1 ∗ (g ∗ hi ) = g −1 ∗ (g ∗ hj ) ⇔
(g −1 ∗ g) ∗ hi = (g −1 ∗ g) ∗ hj ⇔ e ∗ hi = e ∗ hj ⇔ hi = hj ⇔ i = j. Hence H and g ∗ H
have the same cardinality.
(iii) S is non-empty: 1 = 1 + 0i ∈ S because |1 + 0i| = 1.
S is closed under multiplication: if a, b ∈ S, then |a|, |b| = 1, and
a × b| = |a||b| = 1 · 1 = 1. Hence a × b ∈ S.
S is closed under taking inverse: if a ∈ S, then |a| = 1, hence a 6= 0 and
|a−1 | = |1/a| = 1/|a| = 1/1 = 1. Hence a−1 ∈ S.
Take any z ∈ w × S. Then z = w × s for some s ∈ S. Hence,
|z| = |w × s| = |w||s| = r · 1 = r.
On the other hand, suppose that |z| = r. Then z = w × (z/w), where
|z/w| = |z|/|w| = r/r = 1. We have that z/w ∈ S and z ∈ w × S.
We conclude that w × S is the set of all complex numbers with modulus r. This is the
circle of radius r centred at the origin of the complex plane.
Question 8
(a) Let H be a group with identity e. Prove that if x2 = e for every x ∈ H then H
is abelian.


Since x2 = e, we have (by the uniqueness of the inverse) that x = x−1 for every x.
Then xy = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = yx, so H is Abelian.
(b) Define what is meant by the order of an element of a finite group.


The order of x is the smallest integer n such that xn = e.
(c) Complete the following partial group table. (You should explain how you
determined the entries in the table, but you do not have to justify that your
final answer represents a group.)
* a b c d
a a
b a
c a
d
14

Since a2 = a, by uniqueness of the inverse, we see that a is the identity. Thus we have:
* a b c d
a a b c d
b b a
c c a
d d
Furthermore, b = b−1 and c = c−1 . Thus, bc 6= a. Also, we cannot have bc = b or c because a

is the identity. So bc = d. Similarly, we get that cb = d.
Repeating the above argument for bd and cd, we get that bd = db = c and cd = dc = b.
Since also a = a−1 and the inverse is unique, we must have d−1 6= a, b, c, so d = d−1 , and
d2 = a.
* a b c d
a a b c d
b b a d c
c c d a b
d d c b a
(d) Let p be a prime and let G be a group of order p2 .

Prove that G contains an element of order p.
Is it true that G must also contain an element of order p2 ?
Justify your answer by giving either a counter-example or a proof.

Take any non-identity element a of G. By a consequence of Lagrange Theorem, the order of
a must divide p2 , so it is 1, p or p2 . If it is p, we are done, it is not identity, so it cannot be
1, hence assume that it is p2 .
2
But then ap , a2p , . . . , ap(p − 1) 6= e and ap·p = ap = e, so order of ap is p.
The group from part (c) has order 22 and each element has order 1 or 2.
15

Important note

references
section.
Comments on specific questions – Zone B
Candidates should answer SIX of the following EIGHT questions: THREE from Section A and
THREE from Section B. If additional questions are answered, only your best THREE answers
from Section A and your best THREE answers from Section B will count towards the final mark.
All questions carry equal marks.
Section A
Question 1
(a) Let p, q and r be statements. Construct the truth table for the statement
(p =⇒ r) ∨ (q =⇒ r). Is this statement logically equivalent to the statement
(p ∨ q) =⇒ r? Justify your answer.
All parts of this question uses the material in Chapter 2 of the subject guide.
Let S1 be (p =⇒ r) ∨ (q =⇒ r) and S2 be (p ∨ q) =⇒ r.
16
p q r p =⇒ r q =⇒ r S1 p∨q S2
T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F
T F T T T T T T
F T T T T T T T
T F F F T T T F
F T F T F T T F
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T T F T
It can be seen that the statements are not logically equivalent since there are truth
assignments to p, q, r on which they take different values.
(b) Let S be the following statement about natural numbers m and n:

If m and n are even, then m + n is even.
(i) Prove that S is true.
(ii) Write down the converse of S. Is the converse of S true or false? Justify
your answer.
(iii) Write down the contrapositive of S. Is the contrapositive of S true or false?
Justify your answer.
(iv) Write down the contrapositive of the converse of S.

(i) If m, n are even then, for some integers k, l, m = 2k, n = 2l. Then, m + n = 2(k + l),
which is even.
(ii) The converse is: if m + n is even, then m and n are even. This is false. For example,
1 + 1 is even but 1 is not even.
(iii) The contrapositive of S is: if m + n is odd, then m is odd or n is odd.
This is true because the contrapositive is logically equivalent to S, which is true. (In
fact, something stronger is true, as can easily be seen: if m + n is odd, then precisely one
of m, n is odd, which implies the weaker condition that m is odd or n is odd.)
(iv) The contrapositive of the converse is: if m or n is odd, then m + n is odd.
(c) Prove that, for any three sets A, B and C,
(A ∩ B) \ C = (A \ C) ∩ (B \ C).

We have:
x ∈ (A ∩ B) \ C ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B, x 6∈ C
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and (x 6∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A \ C) and (x ∈ B \ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A \ C) ∩ (B \ C).
This proves the sets on the right and left hand sides are equal. An alternative approach
would be to prove, separately, that each is contained in the other.
17
Question 2
(a) Use the method of induction to prove that the following statement is true for all
natural numbers n:
n
X 2r + 1 (−1)n−1
(−1)r−1 =1+ .
r=1
r(r + 1) n+1

When n = 1, both sides are equal to 3/2, so the base case is true.
Assume, inductively, that k ≥ 1 and that:
k
X 2r + 1 (−1)k−1
(−1)r−1 =1+ .
r=1
r(r + 1) k+1
Then:
k k
X 2r + 1 2(k + 1) + 1 X 2r + 1
(−1)r−1 = (−1)k + (−1)r−1
r=1
r(r + 1) (k + 1)(k + 1 + 1) r=1 r(r + 1)
2k + 3 (−1)k−1
= (−1)k +1+
(k + 1)(k + 2) k+1
1
= 1 + (−1)k [−(2k + 3) + (k + 2)]
(k + 1)(k + 2)
1
= 1 + (−1)k (−k − 1)
(k + 1)(k + 2)
(−1)k+1
=1+
(k + 2)
as required.
(b) Use the method of induction to prove that the following statement is true for all
natural numbers n:
n
X 1
r(n2 − r 2 ) = n2 (n2 − 1).
r=1
4

When n = 1, both sides are 0, so the base case holds.
Suppose, inductively, that k ≥ 1 and that:
k
X 1 2 2
r(n2 − r2 ) = k (k − 1).
r=1
4
Then, we have to prove that:

k+1
X 1
r((k + 1)2 − r2 ) = (k + 1)2 ((k + 1)2 − 1).
r=1
4
18
We have:
k+1
X k
X
r((k + 1)2 − r2 ) = r((k + 1)2 − r2 )
r=1 r=1
k+1
X
= r((k 2 + 2k + 1)2 − r2 )
r=1
k+1
X
r(k 2 − r2 ) + (2k + 1)r

=
r=1
k
X 1
= (2k + 1) r + k 2 (k 2 − 1)
r=1
4
1 1
= (2k + 1) k(k + 1) + k 2 (k 2 − 1)
2 4
1 1
= (2k + 1) k(k + 1) + k 2 (k − 1)(k + 1)
2 4
1
= k(k + 1) [2(2k + 1) + k(k − 1)]
4
1
= k(k + 1) k 2 + 3k + 2

4
1
= k(k + 1)(k + 1)(k + 2)
4
1
= (k + 1)2 (k 2 + 2k)
4
1
= (k + 1)2 ((k + 1)2 − 1)
4
as required.
(c) Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor of 341 and 154.

The Euclidean Algorithm is covered in Chapter 6 of the subject guide.

This is a standard, easy, question.
We have:
341 = 2.154 + 33
154 = 4.33 + 22
33 = 1.22 + 11
22 = 2.11
So the greatest common divisor is 11.
Question 3
19
(a) The function f : R → R is defined as follows:

(
x2 + 1 if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
1 − x2 if x < 0.
Prove that f is a bijection and determine a formula for the inverse function f −1 .

Functions and their properties are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the subject guide.
First, we show f is injective. Suppose f (x) = f (y) = z. If z ≥ 1, then we must have x, y ≥ 0
and f (x) = x2 + 1, f (y) = y 2 + 1. (For, if x < 0, then f (x) < 1.) But x, y ≥ 0 and
x2 + 1 = y 2 + 1 implies x = y. If z < 1 then x, y < 0 and f (x) = 1 − x2 = f (y) = 1 − y 2 , so
x = y.
Now
√ we show f is surjective.
√ Suppose y ≥ 1. Then y = x2 + 1 where x ≥ 0 is given
√ by
So, y = f ( y − 1). If y < 1, then y = 1 − x2 where x < 0 is given by − 1 − y. So,
y − 1. √
y = f (− 1 − y).
(b) A positive integer n is a perfect square if n = m2 for some positive integer m.

The relation R is defined on N9 = {n ∈ N | 1 ≤ n ≤ 9} by:
a R b if and only if ab is a perfect square.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation on N9 .
Determine all the equivalence classes of R on N9 .

Equivalence relations are discussed in Chapter 5 of the subject guide.
R is an equivalence relation if:
• R is reflexive: for all x ∈ A, x R x.
• R is symmetric: for all x, y ∈ A, x R y implies y R x
• R is transitive: for all x, y, z ∈ A, x R y and y R z imply x R z
The relation is reflexive: x R x because x.x = x2 is a perfect square.
It is symmetric: if xy is a perfect square, so is yx, since these products are the same.
To show it is transitive, suppose that x R y and y R z, meaning there are integers n, m such
that xy = n2 , yz = m2 . We then have xy 2 z = n2 m2 . Consider any prime in the prime
decomposition of the product xz. Then this must appear with an even power in n2 m2 and it
follows (since it either does not appear at all in y 2 or will do so with an even power) that it
appears with an even power in xz. This implies xz is a perfect square, so x R z.
The equivalence classes are:
[1] = [4] = [9] = {1, 4, 9},
[2] = [8] = {2, 8},
[3] = {3}, [5] = {5}, [6] = {6}, [7] = {7}.
(c) Find all solutions in Z6 of the system of equations
2x + y = 3
x + 2y = 3.
20

Modular arithmetic is discussed in Chapter 7 of the subject guide.
Multiplying the first equation by 2 gives 4x + 2y = 6. Subtracting the second equation gives
3x = 3. One obvious solution is x = 1, but there are others. Checking each element of Z6 in
turn, other solutions are 3 and 5. (For example, in Z6 , 3(3) = 3 because
3(3) = 9 ≡ 3 (mod 6).) Now, we have y = 3 − 2x. Taking the three values of x in turn gives
1, −3, −7 = 1, 3, 5. So potential solutions are:
(x, y) = (1, 1), (3, 3), (5, 5).
For a complete answer, it should be checked whether each of these is in fact a solution, and
they all are indeed solutions of the system.
Question 4
(a) Find positive integers r and s such that r/s is equal to the repeating decimal
0.30024.
[You need not give the answer in its ‘lowest terms’.]

Let us write 0.30024 = 0.3 + x, where x = 0.00024 is the repeating part. We should see
immediately that 0.3 = 3/10. For x we write 100x = 0.02424, so:
24
100x − x = 0.02424 − 0.0024 = 0.024 = .
1000
So we therefore have:
24 24
x= = .
99(1000) 99000
So:
3 24 3 × 9900 + 24 29724
0.30024 = + = = .
10 99000 99000 99000
√
(b) (i) Prove that 6 is irrational.
(ii) Prove that if a is rational and b is irrational, then a + b is irrational.
(iii) Prove that if x is rational, then x2 is rational.
√ √
(iv) Prove that 2 + 3 is irrational.

See Chapter 8 of the subject guide for a discussion of rational and irrational numbers.
√ √
(i) Suppose 6 was rational and that 6 = a/b where a, b are coprime integers. Then
a2 = 6b2 , so 6 divides a2 and, hence (since the primes 2 and 3 must therefore appear in
the prime decomposition of a2 and hence a), 6 divides a. So we may write a = 6c and
deduce that 36c2 = 6b2 . So b2 = 6c2 and a similar argument establishes that 6 divides b.
But this contradicts a, b being coprime.
21
(ii) Suppose a is rational and a + b is rational. Then, (a + b) − a = b must be rational. This

establishes (ii).
(iii) If x = a/b where a, b are integers, then x2 = a2 /b2 , which is rational.
√ √ √ √ √ √
(iv) Let x = 2 + 3. Then x2 = 2 + 3 + 2 2 3 = 5 + 2 6. Since 5 is rational and 2 6 is
irrational, x2 is irrational (by (ii)). Then, by (iii), x must be irrational.
(c) Suppose a ∈ R. Find all solutions in C to z 4 = −a4 . Hence, or otherwise,

express the polynomial z 4 + a4 as a product of two quadratic polynomials with
real coefficients.

Complex numbers are discussed in Chapter 8 of the subject guide.

If z = reiθ and z 4 = −a4 , then r4 = a4 , so r = a, and eiθ = −1 = eπi+2kπi where k ∈ Z. So
there are four solutions:
z = aeiπ/4 , ae7iπ/4 , ae3iπ/4 , ae5iπ/4 .
These may be written as

z = α, ᾱ, β, β̄.
Since (z − α)(z − ᾱ) = z 2 − 2 Re(α) + |α|2 , and since Re(aeiθ ) = a cos θ, it follows that:
√ √
z 4 + a4 = (z − α)(z − ᾱ)(z − β)(z − β̄) = (z 2 − 2az + a2 )(z 2 + 2az + a2 ).
Section B
Question 5
(a) (i) For a set A of real numbers, what does it mean to say that s is a lower bound
for A?
What does it mean to say that s is the infimum of A?
(ii) For a set A of real numbers, set M (A) = {−|a| | a ∈ A}. Suppose that A is a
non-empty bounded set of real numbers, with sup A > 0 > inf A and
sup A + inf A ≥ 0.
Show that inf M (A) = −sup A.
Is it necessarily true that sup M (A) = 0?
Justify your answer with a proof or counterexample.

See Chapter 9 of the subject guide for the background material to this part of the question.
(i) To say that s is a lower bound for A means that a ≥ s for all a ∈ A. To say that s is the
infimum of A means that s is a lower bound for A and, for any t > s, t is not a lower
bound for A (that is, there is a ∈ A such that t > a ≥ s).
22
(ii) First we show that −sup A is a lower bound on M (A). So, we need to show that
−|a| ≥ −sup A for all a ∈ A. This is the same as to show |a| ≤ sup A.
We know that inf A ≤ a ≤ sup A for every a ∈ A. Hence:
−sup A ≤ −a ≤ −inf A.
Since sup A + inf A ≥ 0, we have −inf A ≤ sup A. Consequently, −a ≤ −inf A ≤ sup A

and |a| ≤ sup A.
Suppose that t > −sup A, that is −t < sup A. Since sup A > 0, we can find a ∈ A such
that −t < a ≤ sup A and also a > 0. Then −|a| = −a < t, hence t is not a lower bound
on M (A).
Take A = {−1, 1}. Then sup A = 1 > 0 > −1 = inf A and M (A) = {−1}, so
sup A = −1 < 0.
(b) (i) State the Intermediate Value Theorem.

For an interval [a, b] ⊂ R, a function f : [a, b] → R is said to be strictly
increasing if, whenever x, y ∈ [a, b] with x < y, we have f (x) < f (y). Let
f : [0, 1] → R be a continuous function with f (1) = 1 and f (x) ≤ 1 for all
x ∈ [0, 1]. Suppose that f is an injection.
(ii) Show that f (x) < 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1).
(iii) Show that f is strictly increasing.
(Hint: State what it means to say that f is not strictly increasing. Sketch a
graph of f to illustrate this situation, indicating where on your sketch you
have two distinct points y and z with f (y) = f (z). Now write a formal proof,
using the Intermediate Value Theorem.)

See Chapter 11 of the subject guide for relevant background material.
(i) Intermediate Value Theorem (Theorem 11.6 in the subject guide): suppose g is a
continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], and z lies between g(a) and g(b). Then
there is some c ∈ [a, b] with g(c) = z.
(ii) Since f is an injection and f (1) = 1, we must have f (x) 6= 1 for x ∈ [0, 1). Since
f (x) ≤ 1, this implies that f (x) < 1 for x ∈ [0, 1).
(iii) If f is not strictly increasing, there must be y < z such that f (y) ≥ f (z). We cannot
have f (y) = f (z) because f is an injection. Hence, f (y) > f (z). Since y < z ≤ 1, we have
f (y) < 1, by (ii), and f (z) < f (y) < 1 = f (1). By IVT, there is y < x < 1 such that
f (x) = f (z). Hence, f cannot be an injection.
Question 6
(n2 + 1)3/2 − n3
(a) Find the following limit: lim .
n→∞ n
(You may use any result from the course.)

See Chapter 10 of the subject guide for material related to all parts of this question.
23

We have:
(n2 + 1)3/2 − n3 ((n2 + 1)3 − n3 )((n2 + 1)3/2 + n3 )
lim = lim
n→∞ n n→∞ n((n2 + 1)3/2 + n3 )
(n2 + 1)3 − n6
= lim
n→∞ n((n2 + 1)3/2 + n3 )
n6 + 3n4 + 3n2 + 1 − n6
= lim
n→∞ n((n2 )3/2 (1 + 1/n2 )3/2 + n3 )
3n4 + 3n2 + 1
= lim
n→∞ n(n3 (1 + 1/n)3/2 + n3 )
n4 (3 + 3/n2 + 1/n4 )
= lim
n→∞ n4 ((1 + 1/n2 )3/2 + 1)
3 + 3/n2 + 1/n4
= lim
n→∞ (1 + 1/n2 )3/2 + 1
3 3
= = .
1+1 2
(b) Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers.

(i) What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is decreasing?
What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is bounded?
What does it mean to say that the sequence (an ) is convergent, with limit L?
(ii) Suppose that (an ) is an decreasing bounded sequence. Show that (an ) is
convergent.
(iii) Suppose that (an ) is a convergent sequence, with limit L. Suppose also that,
for some N ∈ N and K ∈ R, an < K whenever n > N . Show that L ≤ K.
(iv) State the Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem.
Suppose that (an ) is a bounded sequence of negative real numbers, and that
an does not converge to 0. Show that there is a subsequence (akn )
converging to some number L 6= 0.
(Hint: show that there is some ε > 0 and some subsequence (akn ) such that
akn ≤ −ε for all n. Then use the Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem.)

(i) A sequence (an ) is decreasing if, for every n, an ≥ an+1 .
A sequence (an ) is bounded if there is M such that, for every n, |an | ≤ M .
A sequence (an ) is convergent to L if, for every > 0, there exists N such that for all
n > N we have |an − L| < .
(ii) Let S = {an | n ∈ N}. Then S is non-empty and bounded, hence inf S exists. We show
that (an ) is convergent to inf S.
Let ε > 0. By the second property of the infimum, there is N such that inf S + ε > AN .
Since (an ) is decreasing, for any n > N , we have:
inf S − ε < inf S ≤ an ≤ an−1 ≤ · · · ≤ AN < inf S + ε.
(iii) Suppose K < L. For ε = L − K > 0, there exists N1 such that, for n > N1 we have
|an − L| < ε. Hence, for n > max{N, N1 }, we have:
K > an > L − ε = L − (L − K) = K
which is a contradiction.
24
(iv) Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem: every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

Suppose (an ) is bounded by M and not convergent to 0. Hence, there is ε > 0 such that
for every N there is n > N such that |an − 0| ≥ ε.
So, for N = 1, there is k1 > 1 such that |ak1 | ≥ ε; for N = k1 , there is k2 > k1 such that
|ak2 | ≥ ε; and in general, for N = kn−1 , there is kn > kn−1 such that |akn | ≥ ε.
Subsequence (akn ) is also bounded by M , so it has a convergent subsequence (ak`n ), with
limit L. Since ak`n = −|ak`n | ≤ −ε, by (iii), we have L ≤ −ε < 0.
Question 7
(a) Consider the binary operation on R given by a ∗ b = ab + a + b.

Show that ∗ satisfies the associativity property, and the identity property with
identity element 0.
Explain why (R; ∗) is nevertheless not a group.

Associativity: For every a, b, c ∈ R, we have:
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a ∗ b)c + (a ∗ b) + c
= (ab + a + b)c + ab + a + b + c
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc
and:
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (bc + b + c)
= a(bc + b + c) + a + (bc + b + c)
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc.
Hence (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
Identity: 0 is an identity element because for all a ∈ R, we have:
a ∗ 0 = a0 + a + 0 = 0 + a + 0 = a
and:
0 ∗ a = 0a + 0 + a = 0 + 0 + a = a.
(G, ∗) is not a group because −1 does not have an inverse: −1 ∗ a = −1a − 1 + a = −1 6= 0
for every a.
(b) Let (G; ?) be a group, with identity element e.

(i) What does it mean to say that a subset H of G is a subgroup?
(ii) For an element g ∈ G, and a subgroup H of G, define the right coset H ? g.
Show that, if H is finite, then each right coset has the same cardinality as H.
(iii) Consider the group (C; ×) of non-zero complex numbers under
multiplication. Let S denote the set of complex numbers of modulus 1. Show
that S is a subgroup of (C; ×).
Let w be a complex number of modulus r > 0. Find the right coset S × w,
and sketch it on the complex plane.
You may use any properties that you require of the modulus of a complex
number.
25

(i) H is a subgroup of G if H is non-empty, for all a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H and a−1 ∈ H.
(ii) The right coset H ? g = {h ? g | h ∈ H}.
If H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm }, then hi ? g = hj ? g ⇔ (hi ? g) ? g −1 = (hj ? g) ? g −1 ⇔
hi ? (g ? g −1 ) = hj ? (g ? g −1 ) ⇔ hi ? e = hj ? e ⇔ hi = hj ⇔ i = j. Hence H and H ? g
have the same cardinality.
(iii) S is non-empty: 1 = 1 + 0i ∈ S because |1 + 0i| = 1.
S is closed under multiplication: if a, b ∈ S, then |a|, |b| = 1, and
a × b| = |a||b| = 1 · 1 = 1. Hence a × b ∈ S.
S is closed under taking inverse: if a ∈ S, then |a| = 1, hence a 6= 0 and
|a−1 | = |1/a| = 1/|a| = 1/1 = 1. Hence a−1 ∈ S.
Take any z ∈ S × w. Then z = s × s for some s ∈ S. Hence,
|z| = |s × w| = |s||w| = 1 · r = r.
On the other hand, suppose that |z| = r. Then z = (z/w)timesw, where
|z/w| = |z|/|w| = r/r = 1. We have that z/w ∈ S and z ∈ S × w.
We conclude that S × w is the set of all complex numbers with modulus r. This is the
circle of radius r centred at the origin of the complex plane.
Question 8
(a) Let H be a group with identity e. Prove that if x = x−1 for every x ∈ H, then
H is abelian.

Suppose that x = x−1 for every x.
Then xy = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = yx, so H is Abelian.
(b) Define what is meant by the order of an element of a group.

The order of x is the smallest integer n such that xn = e. If no such n exists, we say that x
has infinite order.
(c) Complete the following partial group table. (You should explain how you
determined the entries in the table, but you do not have to justify that your
final answer represents a group.)
* a b c d
a a
b a
c b
d
26

Since a2 = a, by uniqueness of the inverse, we see that a is the identity. Thus we have
* a b c d
a a b c d
b b a
c c b
d d
We cannot have bc = b or c because a is the identity. If bc = a = b2 , then, by multiplying

both sides by b−1 , we get b = c. So bc 6= a. So bc = d. Similarly, we get that cb = d.
Repeating the above argument for bd and cd, we get that bd = db = c.
dc cannot be c or d because neither of c, d is identity. If dc = a, then c is the inverse of d (by
the uniqueness of identity) and b = cd = a – a contradiction. Hence dc = b.
Since a = a−1 , b = b−1 and the inverse is unique, we must have d−1 6= a, b. Also cd = b 6= a,
so d−1 6= c. Hence d−1 = d. Similarly, c−1 = c, and c2 = d2 = a.
* a b c d
a a b c d
b b a d c
c c d a b
d d c b a
(d) Let p be a prime and let G be a group of order p2 .

Prove that G contains an element of order p.
Is it true that G must also contain an element of order p2 ?
Justify your answer by giving either a counter-example or a proof.

Take any non-identity element a of G. By a consequence of Lagrange Theorem, the order of
a must divide p2 , so it is 1, p or p2 . If it is p, we are done, it is not identity, so it cannot be
1, hence assume that it is p2 .
2
But then ap , a2p , . . . , ap(p − 1) 6= e and ap·p = ap = e, so order of ap is p.
The group from part (c) has order 22 and each element has order 1 or 2.
27

Examiners' Commentaries 2018: MT2116 Abstract Mathematics

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Examiners’ commentaries 2018

Examiners’ commentaries 2018

Information about the subject guide and the Essential reading

Showing your working

Knowing the definitions

Covering the syllabus and choosing questions

Expectations of the examination paper

Examination revision strategy

Examiners’ commentaries 2018

Information about the subject guide and the Essential reading

Comments on specific questions – Zone A

Answer any three questions from this section.

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

(b) Let S be the following statement about natural numbers m and n:

Reading for this question

(c) Prove that, for any three sets A, B and C,

Reading for this question

Reading for this question

Reading for this question

Then, we have to prove that:

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

So the greatest common divisor is 13.

(a) The function f : R → R is defined as follows:

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

(b) A positive integer n is a perfect square if n = m2 for some positive integer m.

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

[2] = [8] = {2, 8},

[3] = {3}, [5] = {5}, [6] = {6}, [7] = {7}.

(c) Find all solutions in Z9 to the following system of equations:

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

8 765 999 × 8 + 765 8757

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

(c) Suppose a ∈ R. Find all solutions in C to z 4 = −a4 . Hence, or otherwise,

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

z = aeiπ/4 , ae7iπ/4 , ae3iπ/4 , ae5iπ/4 .

These may be written as

Answer any three questions from this section.

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

(b) (i) State the Intermediate Value Theorem.

(ii) Show that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (0, 1].

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

Reading for this question

Approaching the question

(b) Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers.

Reading for this question

(iv) Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem: every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

(a) Consider the binary operation on R given by a ∗ b = ab + a + b.

Reading for this question

(b) Let (G; ?) be a group, with identity element e.

Reading for this question

Approaching the question