III

MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

Identification- determination of the individuality of a person or thing.

Locard’s Principle- is the cornerstone of Forensic Science. According to Edmund Locard,

whenever there is an interaction between the criminal suspect and the victim in the crime scene,
trace evidence will be taken away or be left behind in the crime scene. Locard’s Exchange
Principle states that “ Every Contact Leaves its Trace”.

Importance of Identification:
1. Prosecution of the criminal offense.
2. Facilitate settlement of an estate, retirement, and insurance and other social
benefits. Art. 390 Civil Code requires the lapse of 7 years before a person can be
presumed dead; for the purpose of succession- 10 years, however if he
disappeared at age 74, an absence of 5 yrs will be sufficient. Art. 391 requires 4
yrs absence for the following- missing in airplane or vessel, or a soldier in war.
Art. 41 Family Code requires 4 consecutive years disappearance for a spouse and
2 yrs if the spouse is in danger of death.
3. Resolves anxiety of the next-of-kin, relatives and friends.
4. For transaction reasons.

Principles in Identification:
1. Law of Multiplicity of Evidence in Identification- the greater the number of
points of similarities and dissimilarities of two items compared, the greater is the
probability for the conclusion to be correct.
2. Visual recognition by relative or friends may be lesser value compared with
fingerprints or dental comparison.
3. The longer the interval between the death and the examination of remains for
purposes of identification, the greater is the need for experts in establishing
identity.
4. When the object to be identified is perishable, it is necessary for the team to act
in the shortest time with accuracy.

Methods of Identification:
1. Ordinary Methods:
- Physical appearance (hair, beard, mustache, facies, complexion, stature,
body built, etc)
- Movements (gait, mannerisms, speech, right / left handedness)
- Marks (occupational marks, tattoos, birth marks, moles, scars, tribal
marks)
- Extrinsic items (ornamentations, apparel, personal belongings)
- Portrait Parle (spoken words/ speaking likeness) is a verbal, accurate
and picturesque description of the person identified.
 Bertillon anthropometrical system of personal identification by
French Forensic Scientist Alphonse Bertillon:
a. the bodily measurements
b. the morphological description of the appearance and shape of the body
and its measured parts as they are related to movements and even the
most characteristic mental and moral qualities
c. a description of peculiar marks observed on the surface of the body
resulting from disease, accident, deformity or artificial disfigurement,
such as moles, warts, scars tattoos, etc.

anthropometric measurements of
different parts of the body.
Bertillon Card

“Identikit” invented by Hugh McDonald during the Second World

War, was better than the Bertillon system. It resulted in proper
identification of criminals through drawings as described by witnesses. It
included 33 mouth forms and 32 nose forms.
Photo-Facial Identification Technique (Photo-FIT) developed by
Jacques Penry, an Englishman, utilizes photographs instead of drawings.
This technique was more detailed that it included 101 mouth forms, 81
nose forms. It became possible to construct 15 billion different faces with
this technique.
 -Factors affecting identification:
- eyesight
- lighting – 100 yards in broad daylight
- 10 to 17 yards in moonlight / starlight

(Justice Panganiban, Third Division, People v. Limpangog, G.R. No. 141438-40,Feb 3)

While eyewitness identification is significant, it is not as accurate and
authoritative as the scientific forms of identification evidence such as the
fingerprint or the DNA test result. Some authors even describe eyewitness
evidence as “inherently suspect”. Known causes of misidentification have been
identified as follows: “Identification testimony has at least 3 components. First,
witnessing a crime, whether as a victim or a bystander, involves perception of an
event actually occurring. Second, the witness must memorize details of the event.
Third, the witness must be able to recall and communicate accurately. Dangers of
unreliability in eyewitness testimony arise at each of these three stages, for
whatever people attempt to acquire, retain and retrieve information accurately,
they are limited by human fallibilities and suggestive influences.

2. Scientific Methods: 1. Fingerprinting

2. Odontology
3. Handwriting
4. Anthropology
5. DNA
6. Biometrics
FINGERPRINTING
- In 1870, William Herschel, a British official in India experimented with fingerprints
as a hobby. He realized that no two people had exactly the same fingerprint. He used
it for a system to prevent payroll fraud.
- In 1902, Henry Jackson, became to be the first person to be convicted in Great
Britain on fingerprint evidence. He left a fingerprint in wet paint at the scene of the
crime.
- In 1911, Cesar Cella, accused of robbery, became the first case in the USA wherein
fingerprint identification at the crime scene was accepted in court.
- Dactylography-an art and study of recording fingerprints as a means of
identification.
- Dactyloscopy- art of identification by comparison of fingerprints
- Fingerprint ridges are formed during the third to fourth month of fetal development.
- Naegeli Syndrome-a rare congenital disease classified under Ectodermal Dysplasia
Syndrome wherein fingerprints and toeprints are absent. Other clinical features
include thin hair, brittle ridged nails, mottled skin and inability to sweat (prone to heat
stroke). Passed down through female side of the family.
- Oddly, newborn infants often have more creases than clearly defined ridge detail in
their barefoot prints. The creases are unique, but change relatively rapidly and often
disappear as the infant grows.

- Methods of Exposing Fingerprints:

1) Dusting- the most common method; a fine carbon powder (vegetable black) is
dusted over smooth, firm light colored surfaces while aluminum or lanconide
(white) powder is used for dark surfaces. The powder sticks to the skin oils
left on the surface by the fingers.
2) Laser- a room is flooded with laser light; chemicals in any fingerprint will
fluoresce.
3) Impression- with the use of rubber roller with ink in it, fingers are depressed
on a piece of white paper
4) Chemical injection- in cases where pulps of the fingers are shriveled,
chemicals like glycerin is injected under the skin to smoothen the finger
surface.
5) Chemical soaking- in cases where the papillary ridges are not prominent, the
area of the fingerprint is excised and soaked in a solution of formaldehyde.
The excised skin is placed on the examiner’s fingers and rolled with ink and
an impression is taken.

Fingerprint Classification:
- A fingerprint is the impression made by the papillary ridges on the ends of the
fingers and thumbs. The ridge arrangement on every finger of every
human being is unique and does not alter with growth or age.
-English scientist Sir Francis Galton suggested the first elementary
system for classifying fingerprints based on grouping the patterns into:
 1) Loop- concentric hairpin or staple-shaped ridges and are described as
“radial” (loops towards the thumb) or “ulnar” (loop slopes
toward the little finger). Loops constitute about 65% of the total
fingerprint pattern.
2) Arch- have a moundlike contour. Tented arches have a spikelike or
steeplelike appearance in the center. Arches account for 5 percent
of fingerprint patterns.
3) Whorl- usually circular or spiral in shape. Whorls make up about 30%
of fingerprint patterns.
- The most common pattern is the ulnar loop.
- Galton’s system served as the basis for the fingerprint classification systems
developed by Sir Edward Henry, who became chief commissioner of the London
metropolitan police.
- The Galton-Henry system of fingerprint classification was adopted by law
enforcement agencies in the English-speaking countries.

- Basic Principles regarding Fingerprints:

1. The chances for two individuals to have identical fingerprints are remote (1
among 64,000,000,000). Among twins, while their fingerprints are generally
similar, they are not identical.
 2. Fingerprints are not changeable.
3. So long as the dermis layer of the bulbs of the fingers remain, fingerprints will
remain unchanged and indestructible.
4. Fingerprints of infants are difficult to impress, this may be due to the
secretions of oils of the fingers. Footprints are better and easily identifiable.
5. Fingerprints on paper, cardboard and unfinished wood can last up to forty
years (as per actual casework histories unless exposed to water).

People v Gallarde [G.R. No. 133025, 27 February 2000, 325 SCRA 835].
A person may be compelled to submit to fingerprinting, photographing, paraffin, blood
and DNA, as there is no testimonial compulsion involved.

Lip creases are also used for identification in victims of bites, because all lip creases have
individual peculiarities.

Palm prints have also been utilized for positive identification. These contain four pattern zones,
namely, thenar, hypothenar, palmar and wrist.

Foot prints have also been utilized for positive identification. These contain six important
zones, namely, ball, plantar, calcar, tibial, fibular and tread areas. Footprints have not been
extensively utilized because most criminals use shoes or slippers.

ODONTOLOGY
- Study of the structure, health and growth of teeth. In the field of Legal Medicine it is
known as Forensic Dentistry.
- In 66 AD, during the time of Nero, Agrippina, Nero’s mother, ordered her soldiers to
kill Lollia Paulina, with instructions to bring back her head as proof of her death.
Agrippina, unable to positively identify the head, examined the front teeth and on
finding the discolored front teeth confirmed the identity of the victim.
- Basic Principles about Teeth in relation to Legal Medicine:
1. Possibility of two people having identical dentition is remote. The tooth has 5
surfaces; an adult has 32 teeth; a child has 20 teeth.
2. The enamel of the teeth is the hardest substance in the body; it outlasts all
other tissues during putrefaction or physical destruction.
3. The more recent the ante-mortem records of the person to be identified, the
more reliable is the comparative mode of identification that can be done.
- PD 1575- requires dental practitioners to keep dental records of their patients. Upon
the lapse of ten years from the last entry date, practitioners are to turn over these
dental records to the NBI for record purposes. In some countries, a common dental
practice is to insert identifying tags into the material of the denture so that this could
easily be traced to a particular dentist.
 - Other information taken from teeth:

a. occupation- formation of groove between incisors found in

seamstress, carpenters, cobblers
- altered teeth position in wind instrument musician
- abrasions over the lip or surface of the teeth in
sandblasters and stonemasons

b. personal traits- smoke marks over lingual surface of the

anterior upper teeth in cigarette smokers
- oval shaped notch at the occlusal surface or irregular gaps
at the angle of the mouth in pipe smokers
- dissolution of the enamel structure of the front teeth in
carbonated / sweet juice drinkers
d) age
6th month old- lower temporary central incisor appears
7th month old- upper temporary central incisor
12th month old- first temporary molars
6 yrs old- first permanent molar
7th yrs old- central permanent incisors
8 to 10 yrs old- calcification at 3rd molar
9 yrs old- 12 permanent teeth
13 yrs old- 28 permanent teeth, no deciduous teeth
17th-18th yrs old- third permanent molars
25 yrs old- root ends of 3rd molar completely calcified

The sizes, shapes, and pattern of the biting edges of the anterior teeth that are
arranged in the upper and lower dental arcades are thought to be specific to that individual.
HANDWRITING
Bibliotics- science of handwriting analysis. Determine its genuineness or
authorship.

Graphology- study of handwriting for the purpose of determining the writer’s

personality, character, and aptitude.

Steganography- the art of covered or hidden writing.

Factors affecting handwriting characteristics:

1) learned through tutelage
2) imitation due to admiration
3) presence or absence of physical abnormalities or defects,
psychological disturbances
4) position of writer
5) external variables: lighting, glasses, writing instrument, paper, ink

Points to observe in handwriting analysis:

1) the baseline, ascending or descending course, alignment
2) loops, slants, last letter raises, angles of letters
3) tremors, pressure, rhythm
4) arrangement of words, letters, paragraphs

How to prove the handwriting of a person under Philippine Laws:

The Rules of Court in Rule 132 Section 22 provides that “The handwriting of a person
may be proved by any witness who believes it to be the hand writing of such person because he
has seen the person write, or has seen the writing purporting to be his upon which the witness has
acted or been charged and has thus acquired knowledge of the handwriting of such person.
Evidence respecting the handwriting may also be given by a comparison, made by the witness or
the court, with writings admitted or treated as genuine by the party against whom the evidence is
offered, or proved to be genuine to the satisfaction of the judge”.

Identification of handwriting- Professor Osborn points out that one of the

principal causes of errors in determining whether the handwriting is genuine or forged, or
in deciding whether a particular handwriting was or was not written by a certain writer is
the incompetence of the observer who bases his conclusion entirely upon general
appearance, or upon “general character” of handwriting as a whole; basing conclusions
on forms or designs of letters alone; mistaking general characteristics of writing or
individual characteristics and basing conclusions thereon; failure to reason correctly
regarding the observed characteristics- he sees the evidence but does not know what it
means. [Citations omitted.] [En Banc, Justice Callejo, Sr., People vs Reyes, G.R. No.
153119. April 13, 2004]
Forgery- Professor Albert S. Osborn, a noted expert on “questioned documents”, stated
that in some measure, a forgery will be like the genuine writing, and there is always
bound to be some variation in the different samples of genuine signatures of the same
writer. He emphasized that the identification of a handwriting, as to its genuineness or
lack of genuineness, or of a continued writing as to whether it was written by a certain
writer, is based upon the fact that handwriting embodies various qualities and
dissimilarities which in combination are sufficiently personal to serve as a basis of
identification. These many attributes and qualities are of varying degrees of force and
evidence of identity, depending upon just what they are and their nature. [Citations
omitted.] [En Banc, Justice Callejo, Sr., People vs Reyes, G.R. No. 153119, April 13,
2004]
The famous Iraq documents that started the War in Iraq.
Intelligence documents that US and British governments said were strong
evidence that Iraq was developing nuclear weapons have been dismissed as forgeries by
UN weapons inspectors. The documents given to International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) Director General Mohamed ElBaradei, indicated that Iraq might have tried to buy
500 tons of uranium from Niger, but the agency said they were “obvious” fakes. Pres.
Bush, in his speech authorizing the invasion of Iraq, said these 16 words based on these
forged documents- “ The British government has learned that Saddam Hussein
recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa”.

Caution in Acquiring Handwriting Specimens.

Requiring a person to produce handwriting specimen is equivalent to testimonial
compulsion. According to the Philippine Supreme Court, there is the use of intellectual
and thinking in the process of writing, hence, nobody can be compelled to submit
handwriting specimen without his consent because that will be against his constitutional
right against self-incrimination.
On Identical Handwriting.
No two people write exactly alike and that characteristics reoccur throughout
every person’s writing, although no one writes exactly the same twice.
ANTHROPOLOGY
- Forensic anthropologist or “bone detectives”
-To determine if bones are human or not, specie specific serology test can
be performed, at least if the bones are less than 10 yrs old from the time of
death. DNA testing can also identify it to be human origin.
-To determine if the bones belong to one person or not, it is best to lay out
the skeleton.
- Humans have 206-208 bones (sternum has 3 parts may be 1 bone)
Cranial bones- 8 Facial bones- 14 Middle ears- 6
Throat- 1 Shoulder- 4 Thorax- 23 (25)
Vertebral spine- 24 Arms- 2 Forearms- 4
Hands- 54 Palm- 10 Fingers- 28
Pelvis- 4 Thigh- 2 Legs- 6
Feet- 52 Foot- 10 Toes- 28

- Bones speak:
1) male or female determination done by studying the pelvis, base of the
skull, forehead, and jaw. Males usually have a more prominent brow ridge
and a large mastoid process. The male mandible tends to be larger with a n
outward flaring gonial angle and a square chin. A female chin is more
pointed. If the upper border of the orbit has a knife-like margin, the
individual is likely to be a female. Women have a wider pelvis (length of
the ischium divided by length of the pelvis; a value greater than 0.9
indicates female)
2) age determination by examining the joints, bones, and teeth.
A child’s skull has more separation between the bone plates. The smoother
the skull, the older the person. Examination of wrist development for
children below thirteen. Skeletal maturation of epiphyses to diaphyses is
an accurate guide to age.
a. Thru x-ray, the tibial tuberosity epiphysis of the knee appears at 7-15
yrs old and closes at 19 yrs old.
b. Thru x-ray, the distal radial epiphysis appears at 1 yr old in both sexes
and closes in males at age 19, and age 17 in females.
 3) height determination can be estimated by the following rule of
thumb:
a. multiply by two the length from the vertex (top of the skull) to the
pubic symphysis (upper border of pubic hair), to get the
approximate height of the victim with missing lower limbs
b. multiply by three, the length from the supra sternal notch (midline
notch below the Adam’s apple) to the pubic symphysis.
c. The distance from the tips of the middle fingers with both
shoulders abducted (shoulders outstretched sideways)
4) weight determination by the wear on the bones on certain points

5)racial group determination by examining the width and height

of the nose. Nasal Index calculated by measuring the breath of the
base of the nose divided by the length of the nose, multiplied by
100. If Nasal Index is above 53, the nose is probably that of the
Malayan race. If below 48, probably of the Caucasian race.
The Pelvic Index is calculated by measuring the anteroposterior
diameter of the pelvis divided by the transverse diameter and
multiplied by 100. A Pelvic Index below 85 belongs to Caucasian
race, and index of 86-95 is of the Malayan race.

6)occupation determination usually from the teeth

7)person’s shape / physique is determined by the bone ridges
where muscle attach
8) Right or left-handedness determination by the presence of more
muscle attachment on the bones of the dominant side.
9) Injuries / fractures- by comparing with person’s medical x- rays
10) Violent death determination by signs of trauma like stab marks,
marks on the skull, broken bones, bullets or pellets near the body, hyoid
bone fracture in strangulation.
11) Time of death determination by the amount of soft tissue
remaining
- Bone age (accuracy of plus or minus 1 – 2 years):
1. ossification centers
last to ossify at age 20-21 years old is the clavicle
first to ossify at 1 year of age are the cuneiform, capitate, hamates,
head of humerus, femur, tibia
2. union of bones and epiphyses
1 to 1 ½ years of age- anterior fontanels close
25 years of age- crest of the ilium and the articular facets of the rib
beyond 25 years old- all epiphyses have united
3. teeth
4. obliteration of cranial sutures- earliest to obliterate are anterior sutures (2-8
yrs old); latest to obliterate are posterior sutures (40-80 yrs old).
 - CranioFacial Reconstruction- produces an actual three dimensional model of the
head and face from the skull. The basic idea in reconstruction is that the flesh and
muscles of the face reflect the shape of the bone beneath them. Little pegs at specific
points of the skull and face are equal to the calculated thickness of the muscles and
flesh at that point of the skull and face. Layers of clay simulating the muscles and
flesh are then placed over these pegs and eventually a recognizable face appears.

Pegs are placed in different areas of skull. Clay is placed around pegs to reconstruct
face.

D N A “FINGERPRINTING”
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid is the fundamental building block of all living matter.
Functioning as “blue print” for living structures. Present in cells. Carries all
information for protein synthesis and replication of cells. In living organisms, it is
organized in chromosomes and is located in the nucleus and mitochondria of each
cell. Nuclear DNA is typically analyzed in evidence containing blood, semen, saliva,
body tissues, and hairs that have tissues at their root ends. The father’s sperm
contributes only nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is typically analyzed in evidence
containing naturally shed hairs, hair fragments, bones, and teeth. The main advantage
of mitochondrial DNA is that there is a high copy number in each cell caused by the
high number of mitochondria present in most cells. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally
inherited. All mothers have the same mitochondrial DNA as their daughters. It cannot
be used to distinguish between siblings. Humans have 46 pairs of chromosomes (2
sets of 23 chromosomes).
- There are no nuclei and hence no DNA in adult red blood cells.
- DNA Fingerprinting developed by English geneticist Alec Jeffreys
- Nov. 22, 1983, Lynda Mann, 15, was found raped and murdered. Killer rapist left a
small sample of semen. July 31, 1987, Dawn Ashcroft, 15, was raped and strangled
to death. Police believed the same man committed the crime. A dishwasher admitted
to the second killing. However, his admission could not be used because his
testimony was incoherent and contradictory. DNA fingerprinting was done on all
suspects. Colin Pitchfork was eventually arrested for the crimes.
- Chimerism- an extremely rare disorder where the presence of “two sets of DNA” or
organs that do not match the DNA of the rest of the organism. Everyone accumulates
small changes to their DNA in their lifetime, most of which aren’t harmful. These
changes are called mutations, and can be caused by environmental factors such as
medication and diet.
- In the Philippines, DNA determination was first applied to the case of Jurry and
Ricardo Andal and Edwin Mendoza for raping 22 year old Nancy Siscar, a
teacher, in 1994. Specimen was highly contaminated. Inconclusive result. Sentence
was reduced from death to life imprisonment.
- The first real breakthrough of DNA as admissible and authoritative evidence in
Philippine jurisprudence came in 2002 in People v. Vallejo [G.R. No. 144656, 9 May
2002, 382 SCRA 192] where the murder victim’s DNA samples from the
bloodstained clothes of the accused were admitted in evidence. A match was
established; the accused conviction of rape was affirmed.
- In the USA, Evans Simmons Clark had served 24 years in prison when he was proven
innocent through a post-conviction DNA testing. He was the 164th person proved
innocent thru the testing. A remedy for the convict in our contry’s Rule on DNA
Evidence.
- The 2007 Rules on DNA Evidence took effect in 15 October 2007.
- Structure- consists of two chains like strands arranged in a twisted ladder double
helix form. The sides are made up of alternating sections of phosphate and
deoxyribose. The inner strands are pairs of thymine with adenosine, and guanine with
cytosine.

THE DNA HELICAL STRUCTURE. The inner strands DNA linkages-

Guanine linked to Cytosine, Thymine to
Adenine

- With the exception of identical siblings, the DNA of each person is unique.
- A person’s DNA never changes during ones lifetime.
- Each person’s DNA Code has about 3 billion places that tell us our traits. Because all
of us belong to the same specie, a large amount of our codes are identical. Each
person has a difference at 10 million spots along the DNA strand. One in every 300
spots will be unique. These unique places are called DNA markers and are used in
forensic science to identify people.

- How can a dead body be identified?

Through its mitochondrial DNA which can only be passed on in the egg and so
only from the mother. By comparing the dead body’s DNA with any female or
male relative in the maternal side, one can be sure with certainty that the body is
that of someone related to them. Of the many techniques of DNA analysis, the
mitochondrial DNA analysis is the most effective for identification although
technically the most challenging.

- Steps in DNA Fingerprinting:

1. Extracting DNA from a sample thru a detergent or mechanical pressure
2. Sample is segmented using restriction enzymes, which cut points where
nitrogen bases occur. Everyone has these patterns in their DNA but not at the
same places. The length of a fragment differs from person to person.
3. DNA is poured into a gel (agarose).
4. Electrical charge is applied to the gel (electrophoresis); positive charge to the
bottom, negative on top. DNA has a slightly negative charge, so, DNA will be
attracted to the bottom. Smaller DNA pieces will move farther down the
bottom compared to larger pieces.
5. DNA is denatured in the gel, rendering the DNA a single strand by heating or
chemicals.
6. DNA is blotted- i.e. fractionated DNA is applied to a nitrocellulose paper
and baked thereby being permanently attached to the sheet.
7. DNA is analyzed. If patterns from two DNA samples are matched, they very
likely came from the same person.

- How is DNA typing done?

Only one-tenth of a single percent of DNA (about 3 million bases) differs from one
person to the next. Forensic scientists scan 13 DNA regions/ markers that vary from
person to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual
(sometimes called a DNA fingerprint / profile). Scientists find the markers in a DNA
sample by designing small pieces of DNA (probes) that will each seek out and bind to
a complementary DNA sequence in the sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA
sample creates a distinctive pattern for an individual. A marker by itself usually is not
unique to an individual; if, however, two DNA samples are alike at four or five
regions/ markers, odds are great that the samples are from the same person.

- Five Techniques in DNA Typing:

a. RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism)- An enzyme, a restriction
endonuclease, cuts DNA at a specific sequence pattern known as a restriction
endonuclease recognition site. This generates variable lengths of DNA fragments.
 These sites are hybridized with DNA probes. Requires large amounts of DNA; no
longer used. Degraded samples do not work well with this method.
b. Reverse Dot Blot
c. DNA Process
d. VNTR (Variable Number Tandem Repeats)
e. PCR (Polymerase) Chain reaction based STR (Short Tandem Repeats)- the
most recent. PCR is the process of replicating / copying DNA in an evidence
sample a million times through repeated cycling of a reaction involving the DNA
polymerase enzyme. STR takes measurements in 13 separate places and can match
two samples with a reported theoretical error rate of less than one in a trillion.

- In very rare instances when two people may have the same pattern of fragment
lengths, samples are tested with more than one enzyme. The probability to produce
the same pattern cut by two or more restriction enzymes is very small.

- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can be used to examine the DNA from samples that
cannot be analyzed by RFLP or STR, old biological samples that lack nucleus like
hair, bones and teeth. In investigation of cases that have been unsolved for many
years, mtDNA is extremely valuable.

- Nuclear DNA (nDNA) can be extracted from samples for use in RFLP, PCR and
STR.

- The condition of DNA samples taken from cadavers depends greatly on the
conditions that the cadaver had been exposed to. The more the bacterial and fungal
decomposition that has occurred, the less the chance of obtaining good typeable
DNA. In an embalmed cadaver, the formaldehyde causes crosslinking of DNA
proteins and makes DNA genotyping difficult.

- With soiled clothing, the blood, semen or saliva stains may be good samples.
- The Y-chromosome, passed directly from father to son, is useful for tracing
relationships among males or for analyzing biological evidence involving multiple
contributors.

- CODIS (Combined DNA Index System) is a national DNA data bank in the USA. It
has two indices, namely, Convicted Offender Index and Forensic Index. The
Convicted Offender Index contains DNA profiles of individuals convicted of felony,
sex crimes and other violent crimes. The Forensic Index contains DNA profiles
developed from crime scene evidence.

En Banc, Per Curiam, People v. Vallejo, G.R. No. 144656, May 9, 2002).
DNA Testing.
The purpose of DNA testing is to ascertain whether an association exists between the
evidence sample and the reference sample. The samples collected are subjected to various
chemical processes to establish their profile. The test may yield 3 possible results:
 1. The samples are different and therefore must have originated from different sources
(exclusion). This conclusion is absolute and requires no further analysis or discussion.
2. It is not possible to be sure, based on the results of the test, whether the samples have
similar DNA types (inconclusive). This might occur for a variety of reasons including
degradation, contamination or failure of some aspect of the protocol. Various parts of
the analysis might then be repeated with the same or different sample, to obtain a
more conclusive result.
3. The samples are similar, and could have originated from the same source (inclusion).
In such a case, the samples are found to be similar, the analyst proceeds to determine
the statistical significance of the similarity.

Section 7 of 2007 Rules on DNA Evidence by the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Probative value of DNA evidence.
In assessing the probative value of DNA evidence, courts should consider, among
other things, the following data:
1) The Chain of custody- how the samples were collected, handled, and possibility of
contamination of the samples.
2) The DNA testing methodology- procedures followed in analyzing the samples,
compliance with standards in conducting the tests
3) The DNA laboratory accreditation by reputable standards-setting institution,
qualification of analyst who conduct tests, relevant experience of laboratory in
forensic casework and credibility
4) The reliability of the testing result.

Section 12 Rule on DNA Evidence by the Supreme Court of the Philippines.

Preservation of DNA Evidence:
The trial court shall preserve the DNA evidence in its totality, including biological
samples, DNA profiles and results or other genetic information obtained from DNA testing. For
this purpose, the court may order the appropriate government agency to preserve the DNA
evidence as follows:
(a) In criminal cases:
i. for not less than the period of time that any person is under trial for an
offense; or,
ii. in case the accused is serving sentence, until such time as the accused has
served his sentence; and
(b) In all other cases, until such time as the decision in the case where the DNA evidence
was introduced has become final and executory. The court may allow the physical
destruction of a biological sample before the expiration of the periods set forth above,
provided that:
i. A court order to that effect has been secured; or
ii. The person from whom the DNA sample was obtained has consented in
writing to the disposal of the DNA evidence.
Andal v. People [307 SCRA 650 (1999)].
DNA test when deemed unnecessary or too late to Consider.
“The issue of DNA tests as a more accurate and authoritative means of identification than eye-witness
identification need not be belabored. The accused were all properly and duly identified by the prosecution’s
principal witness, Olimpio Corrales, a brother-in-law of accused Jurry and Ricardo Andal. DNA testing proposed by
petitioners to have an objective and scientific basis of identification of semen samples to compare with those taken
from the vagina of the victim are thus unnecessary or are forgotten evidence too late to consider now”.

Right against self-incrimination in DNA sampling:

People v. Rondero [G.R. No. 125687, 9 December 1999, 320 SCRA 383]
“A person may be compelled to submit to fingerprinting, photographing, paraffin, blood and
DNA, as there is no testimonial compulsion involved”.
Herrera v. Alba [40 SCRA 197 at 218-219]
“ Obtaining DNA samples from an accused in a criminal case or from the respondent in a paternity case,
contrary to the belief of respondent in this action, will not violate the right against self-incrimination. This privilege
applies only to evidence that is “communicative” in essence taken under duress (People vs. Olvis, 154 SCRA 513,
1987) The Supreme Court has ruled that the right against self-incrimination is just a prohibition on the use of
physical or moral compulsion to extort communication (testimonial evidence) from a defendant, not an exclusion of
evidence taken from his body when it may be material”.

The Writ of Habeas Corpus for Reynaldo de Villa. [G.R. No. 150224, 19 May 2004, 428 SCRA 504]
In De Villa, the convict-petitioner presented DNA results to prove that he is not the father of the child
conceived at the time of the commission of the rape. The Court ruled that a difference between the DNA profile of
the convict-petitioner and the DNA profile of the victim’s child does not preclude the convict-petitioner’s
commission of rape.

In the UK, the Human Tissue Act of 2004, prohibited private individuals from covertly
collecting biological samples (hair, fingernails, etc) for DNA analysis, but excluded medical and criminal
investigations from the offense.

BIOMETRICS
- Definition: Strictly, it is the science that involves the statistical analysis of biological
characteristics. However, with the advent of computers, it has meant to be a
verification of people’s identities using their unique biological characteristics.
- Examples: retina scans, iris scans, face scans, finger or hands print.
- It is unique to a person; it is also convenient and always available, and unlike a
password or PIN, or a card, an individual cannot lose or forget it.
- Uses of biometrics:
1. ATM, ticketing machines that recognize an authorized valid user.
2. Integrated personal identifiers for credit card verification at point-of-sale or
identification of a customer without a credit card.
3. Internet access and computer log-in control
4. Dispensation of entitlements and benefits, including health care and social
services
5. Stationary and mobile platforms for licensing, registration and border security
programs.
6. Privacy systems for database and records protection
7. Portable systems for on-scene recognition of individuals for police and
military use
- Iris identification:
- uses the iris of the eye. No two irises are the same, not even those of identical
twins. b
- iris scans note the distribution of distinguishable characteristics such as
striations, filaments, pits, rings flecks and darkened areas within the eye’s colored
membrane.
- scanning is done with an infrared light that reduces reflection and penetrates
glasses and contact lenses.
- the National Physical Lab in UK compared more than 2M samples with no false
matches.

Infrared light scans iris of the eye. The iris part of the eye. Note
striations, pits, rings, etc.
- Retinal Scans
- focuses on the pattern of blood vessels in the back of the eye and
measures unique patterns scanned by low intensity light source.
- glasses and contact lenses must be removed.

RETINAL SCAN INVOLVES FOCUSING ON THE BLOOD VESSELS IN THE

BACK OF THE EYE. THIS ILLUSTRATES THE INSIDE OF THE EYE IN SIDE
VIEW.
THE RETINA OF THE EYE WITH ITS BLOOD VESSELS.

- Facial Recognition.
- a video or static image is taken of the subject and broken down into
facial plains which are unique to an individual.
- second most widely deployed biometric type for identification and
authentification purposes
- study shows illumination was the biggest factor affecting accuracy-
under uniform lighting there was 1% failure rate that rose to 2%
under outdoor lighting.
- are two-dimensional or 2D in nature
- Veincheck.
- non-invasive computerized comparison of subcutaneous blood vessel
structures (veins) in the back of the hand.
- measured are the shape and size of the veins
- the vein “tree” pattern is picked up by video camera and converted by a
computer into a vector pattern or into a string of numbers.

- Voice Recognition.
- the human voice is unique; no two voices being exactly the same.
- measured are base tones, nasal tones, larynx vibrations, cadence, pitch,
tone, frequency and duration.
- drawback: voice pattern fluctuations due to illness, physical exertion, etc
could affect recognition software.
- currently used for verification purposes in call centers, banking, home
PC, to mention a few.
- less accurate than fingerprint, iris or even some forms of facial
recognition
-compelling a voice sample does not violate fifth amendment rights.
 VOICE RECOGNITION

Other types of biometrics:

1. Gait (walking style)
2. Ear shape
3. Odor
4. Facial Thermography

DOG SCENT IDENTIFICATION

- Canine identification of human scent does not yet have a proper scientific foundation.
There have been no field studies conducted.

SEX DETERMINATION:
1) Presumptive evidence- Physical and muscular development (dress, hair,
bodily shape, voice, Adam’s apple, hips, breasts, striae, thighs, skull, etc)
2) Highly probable evidence- internal and external organs (vagina, uterus, penis,
scrotum)
3) Conclusive evidence- internal endocrine organs (ovary, testis)
Chromosomal test for Barr bodies (within the nucleus of a cell – white
cells and buccal mucosal scrapings).
In determining the sex or gender of the severely decomposed cadaver, scrapings from the
buccal mucosa of the oral cavity or from the palate can be examined for Barr bodies under the
microscope. A Barr body is the inactive X chromosome found only in the female gender.
True Hermaphrodism- state of bisexuality. Presence of both sexes gonads.
Pseudohermaphrodites- persons with the gonads of one sex but the behavior of
the opposite sex.
Gonadal agenesis- sex organs (testis or ovary) have never developed.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

An autosomal recessive disease resulting from mutations of genes for enzymes mediating
the biochemical steps of production of cortisol from cholesterol by the adrenal glands. This
condition involve excessive or deficient production of sex steroids and can alter development of
primary or secondary characteristics in some affected infants, children or adults. Cortisol
production begins in the second month of fetal life. Defects causing adrenal hyperplasia are
congenital (i.e. present at birth). Only a small minority of people with CAH can be said to have
intersex condition. Ninety percent of cases eventually identify themselves as female. Gender is
not, should not be assigned prior to birth and without expert care. Parents of the patient are
recommended to raise them as female. Patients who choose to live in the gender other than what
they were assigned may or may not consider themselves transsexual or transgender because they
are primarily self-ascribed labels. The American Psychiatric Association does not diagnose them
as identity disorder.

Cholesterol

Pregnenolone Progesterone Mineralocorticoids

17OH-Preg 17OH-Prog Glucocorticoids

DHEA Androstenedione Androgens & Estrogens

Conditions caused by various forms of CAH:

1. ambiguous genitalia, in some females, such that it can be initially
difficult to determine sex (severe 21-hydroxylase deficiency)
2. vomiting due to salt-wasting leading to dehydration and death
3. early pubic hair and rapid growth in childhood
4. precocious puberty or failure of puberty to occur (sexual infantilism;
absent or delayed puberty)
5. excessive facial hair, virilization, and / or menstrual irregularity in
adolescence
6. infertility due to anovulation
7. hypertension

G.R. No. 166676 Republic of the Philippines vs Jennifer Cagandahan, Sept. 12,
2008. Quisumbing, Morales, Tinga, Velasco Jr, Brion.
Petitioner was born on January 13, 1981 and was registered as a female in the
Certificate of Live Birth but while growing up, she developed secondary male characteristics and
was diagnosed to have CAH which is a condition where persons thus afflicted possess both male
and female characteristics. She was diagnosed to have clitoral hypertrophy in her early years and
at age six, underwent an ultrasound where it was discovered that she has small ovaries. At age
thirteen, tests revealed that her ovarian structures had minimized, she has stopped growing and
she has no breast or menstrual development. She alleges that for all interests and appearances as
well as in mind and emotion, she has become a male person. Dr. Michael Sionzon of the Dept. of
Psychiatry, UP-PGH explained that respondent is genetically female but her body secretes male
hormones, her female organs did not develop normally and she has two sex organs- female and
male. He testified that respondent’s uterus is not fully develop because of lack of female
hormones, and that she has no monthly period. He further testified that respondent’s condition is
permanent. Thus, she prayed that her birth certificate be corrected such that her gender be
changed from female to male and her first name be changed from Jennifer to Jeff.

A person, like respondent, with this condition produces too much androgen, a male
hormone. A newborn who has XX chromosomes coupled with CAH usually has a (1) swollen
clitoris with the urethral opening at the base, an ambiguous genitalia often appearing more male
than female; (2) normal internal structures of the female reproductive tract such as ovaries,
uterus and fallopian tubes; as the child grows older, some features start to appear male, such as
deepening of the voice, facial hair, and failure to menstruate at puberty. About 1 in 10,000 to
18,000 children are born with CAH.

During the twentieth century, medicine adopted the term “intersexuality” to apply to
human beings who cannot be classified as either male or female. It is the state of a living thing of
a gonochoristic species whose sex chromosomes, genitalia, and / or secondary sex characteristics
are determined to be neither exclusively male or female. An organism with intersex may have
biological characteristics of both male and female sexes. An intersex individual is considered as
suffering from a “disorder” which is almost always recommended to be treated, whether by
surgery and / or by taking lifetime medication in order to mold the individual as neatly as
possible into the category of either male or female.

“We are of the view that where a person is biologically or naturally intersex the
determining factor in his gender classification would be what the individual, having reached the
age of majority, with good reason thinks of his ‘ her sex. Respondent here thinks of himself as a
male and considering that his body produces high levels of male hormones (androgen) there is
preponderant biological support for considering him as being male. Sexual development in cases
of intersex persons makes the gender classification at birth inconclusive. It is at maturity that the
gender of such persons is fixed.”

“Respondent here has simply let nature take its course and has not taken unnatural steps
to arrest or interfere with what he was born with. And accordingly, he has already ordered his
life to that of a male. Respondent could have undergone treatment and taken steps, like taking
lifelong medication, to force the body into the categorical mold of a female but he did not. He
chose not to do so. Nature has instead taken its due course in respondent’s development to reveal
more fully his male characteristics.”

“In the absence of a law on the matter, the Court will not dictate on respondent
concerning a matter so innately private as one’s sexuality and lifestyle preferences, much less
whether or not to undergo medical treatment to reverse the male tendency due to CAH. The
Court will not consider respondent as having erred in not choosing to undergo treatment in order
to become or remain as a female. Neither will the Court force respondent to undergo treatment
and to take medication in order to fit the mold of a female, as society commonly currently knows
this gender of the human species. Respondent is the one who has to live with his intersex
anatomy. To him belongs the human right to the pursuit of happiness and of health. Thus, to him
should belong the primordial choice of what courses of action to take along the path of his sexual
development and maturation. In the absence of evidence that respondent is an “incompetent” and
in the absence of evidence to show that classifying respondent as a male will harm other
members of society who are equally entitled to protection under the law, the Court affirms as
valid and justified the respondent’s position and his personal judgment of being a male.”

“In so ruling we do no more than give respect to (1) the diversity of nature; and (2) how
an individual deals with what nature has handed out. In other words, we respect respondent’s
congenital condition and his mature decision to be a male. Life is already difficult for the
ordinary person. We cannot but respect how respondent deals with his unordinary state and thus
help make life easier, considering the unique circumstances in this case”.

“As for respondent’s change of name under Rule 103, this Court has held that a change
of name is not a matter of right but of judicial discretion, to be exercised in the light of the
reasons adduced and the consequences that will follow…Considering the consequence that
respondent’s change of name merely recognizes his preferred gender, we find merit in
respondent’s change of name. Such a change will conform with the change of the entry in his
birth certificate from female to male.”

AGE DETERMINATION
1) In products of conception, thru length and organ development.
1 month – 1.0cm length, eyes are seen as two dark spots and limbs as buds
2 months – 4.0cm length, eyes and nose, clavicle, mandible, ribs, and
vertebra show centers of ossification. Eyes and nose are
recognizable. Anus as a dark spot.
3 months – 8.0cm length; nails, sex organs appear
4 months – 13cm length; skull partly ossified with sutures and fontanelles.
Sex can be determined.
5 months – 23cm length; skin with vernix caseosa; dental gum appears
6 months – 30cm length; hair, eyebrows, eyelashes, testicle near the
Kidneys. Meconium seen at the upper part of the large
intestine.
7 months – 38cm length; nails, talus ossification center; viable for
extrauterine life. Eyelids are open. Nails do not reach the
tips of the fingers. Body is dark red and plump. Hair on the
scalp.

8 months – 42cm length; testicle in scrotum. Nails reach end of the

fingers. Skin is slightly wrinkled and flesh colored.
9 months – 45 to 50cm length; femur ossification center. Nails have grown
over the finger tips. Meconium at the end of the large
intestine.

2) For infants (up to 1 year old) thru height and weight

Newborn – 50cm, 2.5 to 3 kg
6 months – 60cm, double birth weight
12 months – 68cm, three times birth weight
Not a useful guide to the rapidity of growth of children nowadays
 3) Childhood to Adulthood
Teeth eruption
6th month – lower central temporary incisor
12th month – first deciduous molar
2nd year – second molars, last deciduous teeth
6th year – first permanent molar
11th to 12th year – second molars
17th to 18th year – third molars
Ossification centers of bones
Epiphyseal union of long bones
Obliteration of cranial sutures
13 yrs old- appearance of pubic hair in females
13-14 yrs old- development of female breast
14 yrs old- appearance of pubic hair in males
16-17 yrs old- growth of thick dark hair on pubis, scrotum and axillae
16-18 yrs old- appearance of mustache and beard; development of low
voice in males

BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS IDENTIFICATION

For a healthy person, approximately 8% of their total weight is blood. For a 70kg person,
the volume of blood would be about 5.6 liters. A 40 percent blood volume loss, internally or/and
externally, is required to produce irreversible shock. A blood loss of 1.5 liters, internally or
externally, is required to cause incapacitation.
The time of death is difficult to ascertain based on the age of a blood stain.
Precipitin Test- determines whether blood is of human origin or not
Defibrinated blood is injected intravenously in the marginal vein of a
rabbit’s ear for 3 to 5 days. Titer of rabbit’s serum is tested with human
serum. Result- ring of haziness at the junction of the two sera.
Forensic Serology is the study of blood, semen, saliva, or sweat in matters
pertaining to the law.

Blood Grouping and Rh factor– Types A, B, AB and O. In 1930, the Viennese

doctor Karl Landsteiner discovered that human blood can be grouped into
four main types. Most major blood groups have at least 2 major
subgroups: O1, O2, A1, A2, etc. He also discovered the Rh factor. He
labeled blood as Rh+ if the antigen was present in the red blood cells and
Rh- if not. If a person has a positive Rh factor, this means that their blood
contains a protein that is also found in Rhesus monkeys. Most people
(about 85%) have a positive Rh factor. Most people are only familiar with
the Rh factor, which is technically the D antigen. It is common for a
forensic scientist to take the percentage distribution of the Rh component,
 which is expressed as plus or minus, to present some of the blood groups
in terms of odds-ratios:
O+ 1 in 3 persons B+ 1 in 12 persons
O- 1 in 15 persons B- 1 in 67 persons
A+ 1 in 3 persons AB+ 1 in 29 persons
A- 1 in 16 persons AB- 1 in 167 persons

Blood Typing and Race- The “O” type is most common among indigenous
people (i.e. Aborigines and native Americans) and Latin Americans. The
“A” type is most common among Caucasians and those of European
descent. The “B” type is most common among African-Americans and
certain Asians (e.g. Thai). The “AB” type is most common among the
Japanese and certain Asians (e.g. Chinese). An interesting phenomenon is
that Middle Easterners are somewhat likely to have nucleated red blood
cells, whereas normally, red blood cells contain no nucleus. Despite some
racial and geographical variation, blood types are normally distributed in a
population as follows:
Type “O” 43-45% Type “A” 40-42%
Type “O+” 39% Type “A+” 35%
Type “O-“ 6% Type “A-“ 5%
Type “B” 10-12% Type “AB” 3-5%
Type “B+” 8% Type “AB+” 4%
Type “B-“ 2% Type “AB-“ 1%
Blood groupings cannot establish paternity, but they can exclude paternity.

Chemical antigens in blood- antigens are chemical structures attached to the

surfaces of red blood cells. There are more than 256 antigens and 23 blood
group systems based on association with these antigens.

Individualization of Blood Types- the possibility of individualized blood types

is based on the typing of proteins and enzymes. Forensic serologists
always do this level of typing. Each of these protein and enzyme variants
as well as all blood subtypes, has known distributions in a population.
Most popular protein is hemoglobin (Hb); among the enzymes are
erythrocyte acid (2-1), esterase D (EsD), adenosine (ADA),
dehydrogenase (PD), etc. There are more than 150 serum proteins and 250
cellular enzymes in the blood. Suppose one had a crime scene sample and
a suspect which both were characterized by blood type A (42%), basic
subtype A2 (25%), protein AK (15%) and enzyme PGM 2 (6%). The
probability of finding two people in the population with this exact type
would be less than 0.000945 (.42 x .25 x .15 x .06). The closer one comes
to producing a number out sixty decimal places, the more one has
achieved saying there is no one else on Earth who could have committed
the crime.
Thanks to discoveries in 1985, DNA technology has replaced the tests for
specific enzymes and proteins.
Arterial Blood – bright red, pulsatile, high oxygen concentration

Venous Blood – dark red, low oxygen concentration

Menstrual Blood – does not clot, presence of vaginal epithelial cells and
Doderlein bacillus
Child’s Blood – nucleated red blood cell, RBC count more than adults

Steps in Bloodstain Analysis:

1. Is the sample blood?
Benzidine Test
Kastle-Meyer Test- uses phenolphthalein, upon contact with hemoglobin (also
potato and horseradish) releases peroxidase enzyme that cause a bright pink
color to form.
Luminol Test- to detect invisible bloodstains. Reveals a slight phosphorescent
light in the dark where bloodstains are present.

Teichman Test, Takayama Test, Wagenhaar Test- crystallizes long dried

bloodstains with varying colors from salmon pink to dark brown
2. Is the sample animal or human blood?
Precipitin test- determines if blood is human.
3. If human, what type?
Blood typing test
 4. Can the sex, age, and race of the source of blood be determined?
Clotting and crystallization tests help estimate age.
Testosterone and chromosome tests help determine sex
Racial genetic markers involving protein and enzyme tests help determine
race

Wet blood or Dried Blood. Which has more value?- wet blood has more value because
more tests can be run. Alcohol and drug content can be determined from wet blood only. Blood
begins to dry after 3-5 minutes of exposure to air.

Blood Pattern Analysis- drops of blood tell height and angle from which the blood fell.
The forensic science of blood spatter analysis says that blood which fell perpendicular to the
floor from a distance of 0-2 feet would make a circular drop with slightly frayed edges. Drops
from a higher distance would have more pronounced tendrils fraying off the edges (a sunburst
pattern). A blood smear on the wall or floor tells the direction of force of blow. The direction of
force is always in the direction towards the tail, or smaller end, of the smear, or splatter. In other
words, the largest area of the smear is the point of origin (a wave cast-off pattern). In addition, a
small separate globule is present in front of the stain, causing a shape like an exclamation point.
 Impact Angle Determination- by accurately measuring the length and width of a
bloodstain, the impact angle can be calculated using the SIN formula below:
SIN < = Width
Length

Low Velocity Impact Spatter- are produced by an external force less than 5 feet per
second (normal gravity); these stains are 3 mm and larger. They are usually the result of blood
dripping from a person who is holding still, walking, or running, or sometimes from cast-off.
Dripping blood often falls at a 90° angle and forms a 360° stain when it hits a flat perpendicular
surface. Larger pools of blood may indicate where the person paused.

Medium Velocity Impact Spatter- is produced by an external force of greater than 5

feet per second and less than 25 feet per second. Stains generally measure 1-3 mm in size. These
are caused by blunt or sharp-force trauma (i.e. knives, hatchets, clubs, fists, artificial spurts, and
sometimes cast-offs).

High Velocity Impact Spatter- produced by an external force greater than 100 feet per
second; stains tend to be less than 1 mm. Created by gunshots or explosives, industrial
machinery, expired air, coughing or sneezing. These droplets travel the least distance because of
the resistance of the air against their small mass.
 Weapon Cast-off- or just plain cast-off blood is flung off the weapon (blunt or sharp
instruments) as a result of centrifugal force as the weapon is swung back over the attacker’s
head. Blood stains tend to be oval or elliptical in shape as the weapon is being swung through an
arc, but becomes round as it strikes at a 90° angle at topdead center over the attacker’s head.
Sometimes confused with arterial spurts.

Arterial Spurts- it starts with a low pressure that increases and then decreases, causing
the arching pulse that results in the distinctive blood pattern. This pattern does not lead far
because the bleeder loses blood volume quickly and goes into shock or dies.
 DNA Extraction from Blood Samples- refrigerated red blood cells have a shelf life of
about 42 days, and the serum containing white blood cells can be refrigerated much longer,
almost up to a year. DNA can be extracted from blood (if white blood cells which always contain
a nucleus are present), and also from sperm, bone marrow, tooth pulp, and hair roots.

HAIR AND FIBERS IDENTIFICATION

A single strand of hair will give the forensic expert the following information:

1) Animal or Human (cross section can be visualized as being like a pencil- the
medulla is the lead, the cortex is the wood, the cuticle is the paint covering the wood).
The medulla in human hair is less than one-third the overall diameter of the hair shaft.
The root of human hairs is commonly club-shaped, whereas the roots of animal hairs
are highly variable between animals.
Animal- air network in medulla in large or small sacks
Human- air network in medulla in fine grains

Animal- cells in medulla easily visible

Human- cells in medulla invisible

Animal- cortex looks like hollow cylinder

Human- cortex like a thick muff

Animal- thick cuticle scales do not overlap one another

 Human- thin cuticle scales overlapping one another
Human hairs are generally consistent in color and pigmentation throughout the length of
the hair shaft, whereas animal hairs may exhibit radical color changes in a short distance called
banding.
2) Race- use of pigments
3) Hair fell out or torn-out
Torn hair has elongated root, skin tissue attachment, and contain pigment
all way down to the root.
Fallen hair has a round root, no skin attachments
Approximately 100 head hairs are shed by the individual each day.
Hair grows at a fairly constant rate of 1.0 mm per day.
The chances of a single hair from a victim being found on a suspect might
be 1/800 that it got there accidentally. If, however, hair from the
suspect is also found on the victim, the probability of an accidental
transfer increases to 1/640,000. Hair should be used to support to
other evidence.
4) Dyed or not
Pigments present in the nodes
Recently grown hair has different color
Hair in other parts of the body has different color
Dyed scalp
5) Location of origin on the body
6) Drug use (arsenic, lead, carbon monoxide, etc)
7) Foreign materials (dirt, lice, etc)
It is not possible to tell whether the hair came from a man or a woman or the age of the person.

Four types of fibers: 1) Animal – wool

2) Vegetable - cotton
3) Mineral – asbestos
4) Man-made or synthetic- acrylics, nylon, polyester

Fiber characteristics- color type- most important for forensic experts

Diameter
Coarseness
Presence of additives or machine marks
Changes to fiber due to the sun or bleaching
Discoloration
Cross-sectional shape

Microspectrophotometer- produces a ‘fingerprint” of the color of fibers.

Most comparisons are done on the microscope. Even if most characteristics of two fibers seem to
be the same, a difference in only one property means that they cannot be matched.
In order to say that the fiber originated from the item of clothing, the clothing either had to be the
only fabric of its type ever produced or still remaining on earth or the transfer of fibers was
directly observed. It can never be stated with certainty that a fiber originated from a particular
garment because other garments were likely produced using the same fiber type and color.