Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Market potential and development prospects of the solar water heater

field in Algeria
R. Sellami a,n, N. Kasbadji Merzouk a, M. Amirat b, R. Chekrouni a, N. Ouhib a, A. Hadji a
a
Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires, UDES, Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, 42415 Tipaza, Algeria
b
Laboratoire LMFTA, Faculté de Physique, USTHB, BP 32, El Alia, Bab Ezzouar, 16111 Alger, Algeria

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although Algeria prides itself on a huge solar energy radiation potential, such important applications as
Received 18 April 2015 solar water heating have not yet been sufficiently developed in the country. The present paper deals, in
Received in revised form fact, with the analysis of the Algerian case by the examination of the available data and the discussion of
18 March 2016
the main reasons that have led to the insufficient development of the field in the country. An ex-
Accepted 8 July 2016
amination of the installed solar water heater surfaces around the whole country proved that there was
not a significant development of this application. This is mainly due to the availability of natural gas at
Keywords: low price and the expensiveness of solar water heaters which were imported from Europe and neigh-
Solar water heater boring countries. In order to increase citizens’ interest in this application, it is essential to launch a local
Industrial production
production of this device by making good use of the existing industrial capacities based on a sub-
Solar market
contracting production mode.
Potential market
The paper presents, also, a concrete project dealing with the development of a solar water prototype
intended for local industrial reproduction. It was made thanks to narrow partnerships held with local
industrial actors. This practical experience allowed us to provide evidence that local production of this
equipment if associated with the existing incentives would certainly induce a rapid growth and devel-
opment of this important application in Algeria.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
2. State of the Algerian solar water heater field compared to other countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
3. Solar water heater definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
4. Algerian solar water heater market potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
4.1. Natural gas network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
4.2. Currently installed solar water heater facilities and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
4.3. Identified potential sectors for solar water heater use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
4.3.1. Housing sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
4.3.2. Education sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
5. Algerian solar water heater industrial field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
6. Development of the Algerian solar water heater prototype for industrialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
6.1. Context of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
6.2. Choice of solar water heater type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
6.2.1. The solar collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
6.2.2. The storage mantle exchanger tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
6.3. Approach and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
6.4. Partnership with local industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
6.4.1. Solar paint and tank coating material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
6.4.2. Solar glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sellamirabah70@yahoo.fr (R. Sellami).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.07.043
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
618 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
6.4.3. The storage tank manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
6.5. Mounting and final cost of the prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
1. Introduction
The spectacular and rapid growth, in the last few years, of the
world energy demand associated with a sharp rise in oil prices, the
problem of global warming and the continuous decrease in gas
and petrol world reserves have incited experts and scientists to
express their real concern and anxiety about the energetic future
of our planet [1].
This unexpected situation has urged many countries to re-ex-
amine and re-adapt their energy policy by resorting to the di-
versification of energy resources and development of renewable
energies. In fact, in February 2011, the Algerian government has
launched out its own program for the development of renewable
energies and energy efficiency so as to preserve the existing re-
serves of oil and natural gas, to branch out its energy sources and
enters a sustainable energy era [2]. The program aims at reaching
12 GW of electricity that would be produced, by 2030, from re-
newable sources which would correspond to 40% of the whole
national electricity consumption [2]. In terms of energy efficiency,
the adopted strategy intends to largely spread and enhance the
use of more efficient devices, materials and equipment in such
sectors as household, building and tertiary which are identified to
use more than 40% of the whole energy consumed in the country
[3].
The program provides a prominent place to solar water heaters
that should, gradually, substitute for the conventional water hea-
ters working with gas or electricity. It is important to note that, in
Algeria, solar water heaters market penetration is very low be-
cause of the abundance of natural gas at low cost and the ex-
pensiveness of systems that are generally imported from neigh-
boring countries and/or Europe. An imported solar water heater of
200 l capacity costs, in fact, around 1130 € all taxes included. Re-
garding the average income of most Algerian citizens, it is very
expensive and out of reach for the large majority of the population.
Accordingly, the energy and mines ministry intends to subsidize
the acquisition of solar heaters through the establishment of a
national fund (FNME: Fond National de la Maïtrise de l′Energie)
which will be in charge of supporting around 45% of the cost of
mounted solar heaters. This financial tool is managed by APRUE
(Agence Pour la Rationalisation de l′Utilisation de l′Energie) which
is a national agency created by the energy and mines ministry. This
newly established promotional action has been introduced to en-
courage citizens to turn towards the acquisition of solar water
heaters instead of the conventional devices. In fact, the first ex-
perimental operation to test this new formula was initiated in
2011 by the energy and mines ministry through the emission of
400 domestic solar water heaters (DSWH) destined to households.
Surprisingly, only half of the programmed quantity has been dis-
tributed during a period of eighteen months. This prompted us to
carry out a deep analysis of the main reasons that would prevent
such an operation to generate the expected results.
The present work, in fact, focuses on the study and analysis of
the current state of the Algerian solar water heater field and
market, the identification of the constraints, and the presentation
of the development prospects for this application. Proposed so-
lutions that would induce a high growth and development of this
application are, also, discussed. Finally, the analysis is reinforced
by the presentation of a concrete pilot project performed at UDES
(Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires) concerning
the design and construction of a solar heater prototype destined to
local industrialization.
2. State of the Algerian solar water heater field compared to
other countries
Since the awareness, on a worldwide scale, of the importance
and reliability of renewable energy applications, water heating by
solar energy has become an accepted and adopted technique by
populations in many countries. This is due to the fact that several
countries have succeeded in developing their solar water heater
market through encouraging large-scale production of the equip-
ment supported by adapted laws and incentives that are generally
applied and executed in several steps [4]. Table 1 which shows the
level of development and market penetration of solar water hea-
ters in Europe gives a clear idea about the degree of progress the
application has reached in those countries. It is interesting to note
that even though Germany is ranked first regarding the extent of
the mounted surface, Cyprus which is a relatively very small
country lines first in the world in terms of installed surface per
capita (990 m2 per 1000 inhabitants) [5].
With a total area of 487,000 m2 installed solar water heater
surface at the end of the year 2012, Tunisia is the first North
African country which has successfully implemented and executed
a large plan for the popularization of this equipment [6,7]. The
Tunisian program has met a great success thanks to the support of
a well-developed local solar industry which is able, today, to sa-
tisfy the needs of the local Tunisian market and ends up in the
exportation of solar heater systems to neighboring countries such
as Algeria and Libya.
Although Algeria has a huge potential market for the solar
water heater, its development and commercialization remain in
their nucleation phase due to factors such as the absence of a local
specialized industry and the deficiency in specific incentive laws.
Indeed, the first attempt to launch a local manufacturing of solar
water heaters began in the 90s through the establishment of a
pilot production line at UDES [8,9]. The installed fabrication pro-
cess was able to manufacture a dozen of individual solar water
heater units and flat plate collectors per day using manual and
semi-automatic equipment and machines. Although this experi-
ence has served for mastering of the technique and training of
UDES researchers and technicians, the non-integration of this
operation into an overall clear strategy including the distribution
and marketing of the product has not led to the creation of a real
industrial dynamic. Moreover, the absence of incentives did not
Table 1
Solar water heater installed surfaces per country in
Europe [4].
Country Installed solar heater surfaces (m2)
Germany 13,824,000
Greece 4,24,200
Austria 3,836,509
Italy 2,671,730
Cyprus 715,022
 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
Fig. 1. Typical Algerian daily irradiation chart [10].
encourage citizens to turn toward the acquisition of this type of
devices.
As Algeria owns one of the highest solar energy irradiation
potential in the world (Fig. 1), one would consider that it is really
urgent and essential to take advantage of this energy source
abundance through the development of solar energy applications
among which solar water heating is the simplest technique and
the most affordable.
3. Solar water heater definition
A solar water heater is an apparatus that is designed to convert
sunlight into heat which is, then, transmitted to water by heat
transfer phenomena. The hot water is stored in an insulated tank
for use during periods of sunlight absence. The device is, generally,
composed of one or more solar collectors, a storage tank and a
circulation system for the thermal fluid which transfers the heat
generated by the solar collectors to the storage tank. The type
which is largely used around the world is the individual indirect
thermo siphon solar water heater which is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Individual domestic solar water heater (DSWH) working principle.
619
4. Algerian solar water heater market potential
4.1. Natural gas network
With its 2,381,740 km2 area, Algeria is a very vast country
possessing large amounts of natural gas and oil reserves. In terms
of administrative districts, the country is composed of 48 counties
(wilayas) and 1541municipalities (communes). The vastness of the
country added to the remoteness of communities living in
mountainous areas and far south have rendered the connection of
populations to the natural gas distribution network very difficult
and very expensive. A glance at the natural gas network map in-
dicates that the majority of the concerned populations by natural
gas connection live in the urban areas of the northern part of the
country. The remaining citizens residing the rural, mountainous
and remote areas are, unfortunately, deprived of this valuable and
vital energy source even if the level of gas penetration is in con-
stant development in the country (Figs. 3 and 4). In addition to
that, supplying those regions with propane gas cylinders and
diesel is very tricky due to problems related to transport, re-
moteness and difficult access regarding the natural topography of
these regions.
The analysis of these data clearly points out the existence of a
big market potential for the development and use of solar water
heaters as an alternative solution to the unavailability of natural
gas in many regions of the country. Because of the numerous ad-
vantages it offers as autonomy, low cost of maintenance and de-
centralization, this technique would be able to meet, efficiently
and at lower cost, the needs in hot water of remote and in-
accessible regions which are known to have a high level of solar
radiation and hence well adapted to this kind of clean systems.
Data published by SONELGAZ, the national company of gas and
electricity, for the year 2010 show, also, that Algeria counts
6.5 million electricity customers against 3.4 million for natural gas
[11]. These figures illustrate the fact that a large part of the con-
nected population to the electricity network is not yet connected
to natural gas which is considered as the primary energy source
for heating. Therefore, even the northern region of the country
would be concerned by solar water heater development.
620 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
Fig. 3. State of the natural gas network destined for households supply [11].
Fig. 4. Evolution of household natural gas degree of penetration for the last decade.
4.2. Currently installed solar water heater facilities and systems
During the last twenty years, many facilities of solar water
heaters intended for the production of sanitary hot water have
been mounted in many regions of the country. These installations
have been constructed by public institutions for experimental
aims. Most of the mounted systems are of individual thermo si-
phon type because of their simplicity and easiness to be installed.
Concerning collective systems, only three installations of big ca-
pacities (3000–6000 l) were mounted using multiple combined
connections (series and parallel) of individual systems to create
batteries of solar water heaters with high storage capacity. How-
ever, no real collective installation has been constructed yet. In
terms of mounted facilities distribution, one can notice, as illu-
strated in Figs. 5 and 6, that the whole capacity is concentrated in
the northern region of the country where the need for this type of
facilities is less important. Algiers which is the capital of the
country comprises the highest level of mounted solar water heater
systems.
4.3. Identified potential sectors for solar water heater use
A thorough analysis of the existing potential requests in terms
of hot water and heating shows that the solar water heater would
take up a prominent position in meeting the needs of many po-
tential sectors. A review of the national energy balance, edited in
2010 by the energy and mines ministry, showed that the house-
hold and the service sectors account for about 40% of the final
country energy consumption [3]. It is relevant to note, that a big
Fig. 5. Total installed surfaces of domestic solar water heater per city.
amount of this energy is intended to hot water production and
space heating which are well known to be high energy consuming.
The solar water heater, therefore, can meet a large part of the
needs of many key sectors such as households, education, health
services and tourism. To get an idea of the extent of the existing
potential for solar water heater future development, we set out in
the following sections some figures and data concerning im-
portant sectors as housing and education in which a big potential
is clearly identified.
4.3.1. Housing sector
According to the data published by the National Statistics Office
(ONS), the national real estate is mainly composed of individual
and traditional houses [12]. In fact, Fig. 7 clearly shows that 74.6%
of the Algerian houses are of individual or traditional types for
which the individual solar water heater is highly suitable and
appropriate. Moreover, the given data confirm the fact that the
majority of the Algerian population would prefer individual habi-
tations which are equipped with easily manageable individual
installations and facilities.
4.3.2. Education sector
With 24,209 owned facilities (primary schools, colleges, sec-
ondary schools and offices) across the country, education appears
to be a sector in which there exists a big heating demand espe-
cially for classrooms comfort. Fig. 8 shows that the number of
primary schools which are settled in all the villages of the country
is predominant as compared with the number of schools used for
 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625 621

Fig. 6. Distribution of solar water heater installed surfaces over the country.

higher education levels. A big number of these primary schools are

located in remote villages where the solar heater would be highly
efficient and valuable. It is important to note, also, that the in-
tegration of solar water heaters in schools would not only satisfy
the needs for heating and hot water, but it would help the as-
similation of the principles of such techniques.
In terms of universities and high institutes, Algeria comprises a
fairly good number of facilities in which the solar water can be
integrated.

5. Algerian solar water heater industrial field

Although Algeria enjoys one of the highest levels of solar ir-

Fig. 7. Habitations distribution according to construction mode. radiation in the world as shown in Fig. 1, the solar water heater
622 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
Fig. 8. Schools distribution according to the education cycle.
market is almost non-existent and still at its primitive phase [13].
During the last two decades, few attempts have been made to
locally produce solar water heaters. The most important of these
was the pilot production line that was mounted at UDES in the
90's. The designed production process was able to produce ten
direct individual solar water heaters by manual manufacturing
equipment and tools. Direct solar water heaters do not function
with a heat exchanger in contrast to indirect ones. The produced
devices were intended, essentially, for experimental and pilot fa-
cilities due to a lack of efficient commercial and marketing strat-
egy. Recently, THERMOKAD, a private society, and GTP, a public
petroleum company, have made new attempts to produce both
direct and indirect domestic individual solar heaters for com-
mercial aims solely, using, unfortunately, traditional manufactur-
ing methods as no product qualification or certification is avail-
able. It is important to notice that till recent times, the major
mounted solar water heater facilities were achieved using either
systems that were manufactured and tested by UDES or those
imported from Europe and neighboring countries.
In terms of market supporting programs, APRUE (Agence Pour
la Rationalisation de l′Utilisation de l′Energie) which is an orga-
nization under the energy and mines ministry launched in 2011 a
pilot program of 400 individual solar water heaters meant for
housings. Even though the introduction of a subsidy of 45% the
total solar water heater cost that was financed by FNME fund, only
half of them were purchased. In fact, this financial grant did not
contribute to the improvement of the attractiveness of citizens
towards this type of equipment because the proposed imported
systems were very expensive and the difference people had to pay
was around 590€ (60,000 DZD).
In order to insure a better involvement of the population in this
program, it is important and crucial to master and control the final
cost of the proposed device. One efficient way to achieve that
objective would be the local manufacturing of the solar water
heater by using local available material and existing industrial
potentialities with the effective association of the local research
and development institutions. This will induce a better control of
the final cost and would offer the best quality insurance of man-
ufactured products.
For this purpose, the Energy and Mines Ministry and the
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research have initiated
a cooperation project in order to develop a solar water heater
prototype devoted to local industrialization. The main objective of
this operation was the establishment of a local specialized solar
water heater industry based on local existing capacities to master
both the quality and the final cost of the equipment. The objective
of the first phase of the project was to design and build a
reproducible solar water heater prototype with a high local in-
tegration level. In a second phase, the developed prototype would
be industrially produced in specially designed assembly line which
would be established on a subcontracting basis for the provision of
the necessary components and materials.
6. Development of the Algerian solar water heater prototype
for industrialization
6.1. Context of the project
This project which fits the fundamental missions of UDES co-
incides with the starting of the program for renewable energy
development and energy efficiency launched by the Algerian
government. It deals, in fact, with the study, design and con-
struction of a solar water heater prototype meant for industrial
reproduction complying with similar quality standards as im-
ported systems.
Indeed, the most important criteria that were considered when
designing the prototype are listed as follows:
1. Use of locally available materials.
2. Components and parts should be locally manufactured using
existing equipments and techniques.
3. Easiness of assembly because components will be manufactured
on a subcontracting basis.
4. Aesthetically attractive.
Considering the importance of the project, three institutions
have been involved in its implementation. Given its long experi-
ence in the study and development of solar equipment, UDES was
in charge of the design and construction of the prototype. NEAL
SPA, representing the Energy and Mines Ministry, has undertaken
to ensure the industrialization of the prototype. The task of testing
the performance of the prototype has been given to the center of
development of renewable energies (CDER).
6.2. Choice of solar water heater type
The chosen solar water heater type is an individual thermo
siphon system with a mantle heat exchanger tank as illustrated in
Fig. 2. This configuration was adopted on the basis of previous
studies that revealed the high suitability of individual heaters to
local needs [14,15]. In addition to that, mantle or annular heat
exchanger tanks are highly recommended for individual thermo
siphon solar water heaters because they are easy to construct and
provide a large heat transfer area [16]. In terms of locally available
technology, a tank with a mantle exchanger would be easily
manufactured by local industry due to the considerable experience
local manufacturers have acquired during the last decades in the
production of conventional tanks that are, slightly, similar to the
proposed tank.
Solar water heater with mantle heat exchanger has been ex-
tensively investigated by many authors [17–22] and it is the type of
system that is adopted by many countries such as Australia,
Greece, and Spain thanks to its high efficiency and long term
performances in such climate conditions. J. Huang et al. have de-
monstrated experimentally that the mean daily efficiency of this
type of solar water heater is higher than that of glass evacuated
tubular solar heater and they recommended its wide use in China
[23].
6.2.1. The solar collector
The chosen thermal collector is of flat plate type which is the
widely used one around the world. In addition to that, its
 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the developed solar collector.
construction is relatively simple and cheap by using locally avail-
able materials and industrial facilities. It was important to propose
a collector design that meets industrial standards in terms of parts
and components production as well as easiness of final collector
assembling. Fig. 9 gives a schematic illustration of the developed
collector. The construction method is based on bending metal
strips to form resistant profiles that are used then to mount the
collector box. To insure an intimate contact between the copper
tubes and the absorber plate, omega shaped channels are first
formed on the aluminum sheet and then tubes are inserted by
mechanical force. The mounting of the solar glass on the collector
box is performed using a specially designed rectangular rubber
gasket that adheres to both sides.
It is important to note, that each part of the collector can be
manufactured separately and the final assembly of the collector
will be performed, easily, in a separate workshop with simple
tools.
6.2.2. The storage mantle exchanger tank
The constructed storage tank is equipped with a mantle ex-
changer which is relatively easy to manufacture and does not
necessitate specific technological means. This kind of storage tanks
is the most widely produced around the world. A 3D schematic
representation of the developed tank is shown in Fig. 10. The vo-
lume capacity of the tank is 150 l and can withstand pressures up
to 15 bars.
6.3. Approach and methodology
Prior to the design and construction of the components and
parts of the device, a fact sheet was prepared to identify the main
Fig. 10. 3D schematic representation of the developed storage tank.
623
features of the new solar water heater as follows:
● Meet the standards;.
● Aesthetically attractive to compete with imported products;.
● Design of parts and components is based on the use of large
scale production techniques to ensure high quality and
reproducibility.
● Easy assembling of the parts and components;.
● To be constructed by a wide variety of locally available materials.
● Low production cost.
The next step was to identify local industrial fields that would
be associated to the project. In fact, each component and/or part of
the device would be developed in partnership with a specialized
enterprise. Identified industrial sectors that would contribute to
the project are listed as follows:
– Glass manufacturing;
– Paints and adhesives;
– Plastics and rubber industry;
– Metallurgy;
– Insulating materials.
In terms of industrial partnership selection, the main criteria
that have been considered are listed as follows:
– They should be endowed with a research and development
division.
– They should be able to act in response to the requirements and
to the technical data of components and parts as established by
UDES.
6.4. Partnership with local industry
The project would not be able to attain the desired objectives
without an efficient collaboration with local industrial enterprises
that would put their knowledge and their technological facilities at
the service of the partnership. It was very important for the suc-
cess of the project to work with as many partners as possible to
ensure industrial launching supported by an efficient local sub-
contracting. Prior to any manufacturing of a component or mate-
rial, a data sheet, containing technical specifications, was furn-
ished by the UDES research division to the concerned partner.
6.4.1. Solar paint and tank coating material
In a thermal solar collector, the black painted absorber is the
most important part which is responsible for converting solar ir-
radiation into heat. In addition to its ability to absorb the max-
imum of the incident radiation, the coating material should have
the lowest transmittance in IR region. It should, also, withstand
long term severe working conditions. The internal surface of the
hot water tank needs, also, to be protected by a food grade ma-
terial against long-term corrosion. This protecting material should
withstand relatively high temperatures for long periods. It was
then important to develop the appropriate coating materials for
each part in partnership with a highly skilled local company. ENAP
(Entreprise Nationale des Peintures) is, in fact, the leader in this
field and capable of synthesizing, formulating and testing all kinds
of paints and coating materials. Indeed, the company owns a la-
boratory devoted to the development of specific and new pro-
ducts. This partnership has led to the development of four (04)
new products. Two (02) black paints for absorber coating and two
(02) food grade epoxy paints for internal surface coating of the
storage tank. Before final product selection for application to the
solar water heater, important tests have been carried out using IR
camera to get precise information on the behavior of the
624 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625

Fig. 11. IR thermograph of the developed solar paints.

Fig. 12. Solar Glass manufactured and mounted at MFG factory.

developed solar paints. The thermograph presented in Fig. 11
shows two absorber plates painted respectively by polyurethane
and silicone based paints then exposed to sun radiation to assess
their losses through IR radiation. The thermograph shows that the
silicone based paint is more suited for this application since losses
are relatively lower in the right plate as compared to that on the
left which is painted with polyurethane. In addition to that, sili-
cone based paints are known to be more resistant to long term
high temperatures.

6.4.2. Solar glass

The glass cover in a thermal collector plays a major role in heat
conservation through greenhouse effect. Because of its intrinsic
physical properties, glass material allows visible light to pass
through; however, it stops IR radiation and hence traps radiant
heat from the absorber. For this reason, the glass cover used in
thermal collectors should be of very high transparency associated
to excellent mechanical and physical properties to withstand long Fig. 13. Hydrostatic testing of the tank in the production factory.
term outdoor service conditions. MFG which is a subsidiary of
Cevital group has been involved in this part of the project and has
played a major role in the development of this important com-
ponent. It is to note that this factory is currently producing flat
glass sheets for building and automotive applications. A very high
quality tempered glass of 4 mm thickness has been manufactured
and tested for the construction of the prototype (Fig. 12).

6.4.3. The storage tank manufacturing

After proper sizing and design of the tank by UDES research
group, we got in touch with many companies that are specialized
in conventional tank manufacturing in order to select the en-
terprise that would produce the solar tank in accordance with the
predefined features. Because of the specificity of the newly de-
signed tank (equipped with a mantle heat exchanger), only ALIECO
(a public company specialized in construction of big tanks) has
been able to manufacture the device. A highly qualified technical
staff has been involved in the production and testing of this tank
(see Fig. 13).

6.5. Mounting and final cost of the prototype

Once all the components and parts have been manufactured,
the final mounting of the prototype has been performed at the
UDES workshop. It is useful to note, that each part or component
has been tested and checked prior to final assembling. Other
preliminary quality control tests have been conducted at the
Fig. 14. Flat plate collector outdoor testing at CDER [26].
production facilities of each company. Final device thermal per-
formance tests have been conducted either at UDES and/or at
CDER testing platforms [24–27] (see Fig. 14).
 R. Sellami et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 617–625
Table 2
Detailed cost of the developed prototype.
Part Cost in €
Flat plate collector 210
Storage tank 250
Supporting structure and plumbing 88
Total cost 548
As the prototype was constructed using components and parts
manufactured by local companies, the final cost of the prototype
was very attractive in comparison with imported solar water
heaters of similar storage capacity. In fact, the detailed system cost
which is presented in Table 2 shows clearly that when the solar
water heater is produced locally, its cost can be, easily, divided by
two. One would conclude that if produced at a large scale, the final
cost of the solar water heater would be much more attractive.
7. Conclusions
The present work has allowed us to get to the following
conclusions:
1. A Great potential does exist for the development, at a large
scale, of solar water heaters in Algeria. The application would
meet the population needs for both hot water and space heating
especially in high plateaus and Sahara regions, which represent
80% of the whole country surface.
2. Although Algeria has a huge solar energy potential, the solar
water heater market is still almost nonexistent.
3. The analysis of the Algerian case has shown that without a local
solar water heater industry, solar water market development is
not possible regarding the cost of imported systems as com-
pared to the average citizen life standards.
4. The pilot project that has taken place at UDES has shown that it
is possible to launch a local solar water heater industry simply
by involving existing local industrial fields on a subcontracting
basis to guarantee the supply of materials and components at
low cost.
5. The solar water heater prototype developed at UDES has been
constructed thanks to efficient partnerships and collaborations
with local industry. This is additional evidence that the sub-
contracting mode could be an efficient step in launching a local
specialized solar water heater industry.
6. In view of the recently launched national program for energy
efficiency for the period of 2015–2030 [28], it is clear through
the present study that great opportunities would be offered for
foreign investors to be involved in the satisfaction of the future
demand in terms of high quality solar water systems.
References
[1] World Outlook Energy, IEA. 〈https://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/WEO2015
SUM.pdf〉; 2015.
[2] Programme national des énergies renouvelables et de l'efficacité énergétique,
élaboré par le ministère de l'énergie et des mines, Ed. Satinfo, Mars 2011.
625
[3] Bilan énergétique national de l’année 2010, Ministry of energy and mines.
Edited by Baosem; 2011. p. 22.
[4] Menanteau P. Policy measures to support solar water heating: information:
incentives and regulations. WEC ADEME project on energy efficiency policies,
Mai; 2007.
[5] Solar thermal markets in Europe: Trends and market statistics 2010, Repport
edited by the European Solar Thermal Industry Federation (ESTIF); June 2011.
[6] Gross Cristopher. Le marché solaire thermique en tunisie: situation actuelle et
perspectives. (October). Dutsche Gesellschaft für internationale (GIZ)GmbH
2013:13.
[7] Ghezloun N, Chergui Oucher et S. Energy policy in the context of sustainable
development: case of Algeria and Tunisia. Energy Procedia 2012;18:53–60.
[8] Merzouk M, Rahni N, Kasbadji-Merzouk N. Influence de la Stratification sur les
Performances à Long Terme d′un Chauffe Eau Solaire à Effet Thermosiphon.
Journées Internationales DE Thermiques 91. Monastir–Tunisia; 1991.
[9] Merzouk M, Merzouk N Kasbadji. Le Chauffe-eau Solaire à Usage Domestique
Analyse des Limites Technico - Economiques de l′Expérience Algérienne. Re-
vue des Energies Renouvelables 1999:225–9.
[10] Yaiche MR, Bouhanik A. Atlas solaire Algérien.. Algeria: CDER; 2014.
[11] Ait-Mekideche M. Newsletter of Sonelgaz. (September). . ANEP; 2011.
[12] Résultats de l′enquête nationale à indicateurs multiples, report established by
the national office of statistics and the ministery of health; 2007. p. 27.
[13] Stambouli AB. Promotion of renewable energies in Algeria: Strategies and
perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1169–81.
[14] Merzouk N Kasbadjiet, Merzouk M. Energie Solaire. Les capteurs Solaires
Plans: Conception et Performances. Revue Techniques et Sciences, N° 14. July-
August-September; 1992.
[15] Hakem SA, Merzouk N, Kasbadji, Merzouk M. Performances journalières d′un
chauffe eau solaire, Revue des Energies Renouvelables, 1620cicme’08. Sousse,
Tunisia; 2008. p.153.
[16] Kalogirou Soteris A. Solar engineering processes and systems. Academic Press;
2014. p. 265.
[17] Morrison GL, Nasr A, Behia M, Rosengarten G. Analysis of horizontal mantle
heat exchangers in solar water heating systems. Nos. 1-3. Sol Energy
1998;64:19–31.
[18] Morrison GL, Rosengarten G, Behnia M. Mantle exchangers for horizontal tank
thermosyphon solar water heaters. Sol Energy 1999;67(1–3):53–64.
[19] Andrés AC, Lopez MC. Trnsys model of a thermosiphon solar domestic water
heater with a horizontal store and mantle heat exchanger. Sol Energy 2002;72
(2):89–98.
[20] Knudsen S, Morrison GL, Behnia M, Furbo S. Analysis of the flow structure and
heat transfer in vertical mantle heat exchanger. Sol Energy 2005;78:281–9.
[21] Kenjo L, Inard C, Caccavelli D. Experimental and numerical study of thermal
stratification in a mantle tank of a solar domestic hot water system. Appl
Therm Eng 2007;27:1986–95.
[22] Soo Too YC, Morrison GL, Behnia M. Performance of solar water heaters with
narrow mantle heat exchangers; 2009:83. p. 350–62.
[23] Huang J, Pu S, Gao W, Que Y. Experimental investigation on thermal perfor-
mance of thermosyphon flat-plate solar water heater with a mantle heat
exchanger. Energy 2010;35:3563–8.
[24] Sellami R, Merzouk N. Kasbadji, Omari T. Etude Paramétrique et Conception d′
un Prototype de Capteur Plan pour Chauffe Eau Solaire, IC-WNDT-MI’12. Ain
Turk, Oran; November 2012.
[25] Chikhi M, Sellami R, Debiani K. Transferts thermiques dans la cuve de stockage
d′un chauffe eau solaire avec échangeurs thermique en jaquette. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd internatonal conference on renewable energy (ICRE’2012).
Bejaia, Algeria; April 2012.
[26] Equipe solaire thermique CDER. Tests des capteurs solaires à circulation li-
quide et des chauffe-eau solaires. (June). Bulletin des Énergies Renouvelables
2012;N° 24.
[27] Arbane A, Sellami R, Merzouk M, Merzouk N. Kasbadji. Analysis of experi-
mental test results for the solar water heater of UDES. In: Proceedings of the
international renewable and sustainable energy conference (IRSEC'13). Ouar-
zazat-Morocco; 07–09 March 2013.
[28] 〈http://www.portail.cder.dz/spip.php?article4445〉.