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Metal Forming

Week # 1&2 Fundamentals of Metal forming

Dr. Sarah Elnekhaily

Assessment
30 marks : coursework assignments (quizzes- problem
solving)

-midterm exam

30 marks: oral-presentations /practical

90 marks: final written exam (3h)

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References

Main Textbook

• Dieter, George E. Mechanical Metallurgy, SI Metric Edition, McGraw-Hill Series

in Material Science and Engineering.

Auxiliary Textbook

G.W. Rowe Principles of Industrial Metalworking Processes, 2017

Objectives and course scope

The course will cover the following:

 Fundamentals of metal forming

 Forging
 Rolling
 Extrusion
 Drawing
 Sheet metal forming

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Fundamentals of metal forming

Metal Forming

 Metal forming is a permanent change in material shape

either by plastic deformation or by machining
Metal forming by plastic deformation:
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed yield strength of metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of
the die

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Classification of forming processes

According to type of stresses applied

• Direct-compression-type processes
• Indirect-compression processes
• Tension-type processes
• Bending processes
• Shearing processes

According to workpiece volume

Bulk and sheet metal forming
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Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
• Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)

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Types of Deformation Processes

According to workpiece volume

1. Bulk deformation • Characterized by significant deformations

• Rolling and massive shape changes
• Forging • Low surface area-to-volume ratios
• Extrusion • Starting work shapes include cylindrical
• Wire and bar drawing billets and rectangular bars

2. Sheet metalworking • Forming and related operations performed

• Bending on metal sheets, strips, and coils
• Deep drawing • High surface area-to-volume ratio
• Cutting
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Rolling Forging

Bulk deformation processes

Direct-compression-type processes
Primary mechanical working processes (from ingot or billet to a
simple shape, such as sheet, plate, and bar) 10

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Extrusion Wire and Bar and tube Drawing

Bulk deformation processes

InDirect-compression-type processes
Primary mechanical working processes (from ingot or billet to a
simple shape) 11

Sheet Metal Bending Deep Drawing

Shearing

Sheet metalworking operations

Secondary mechanical working processes. Gives final product
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Mechanics of metalworking
stress, strain and strain rate are obtained from the deformation conditions(Ex:flow curve
differs in different temperature)

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Working zone is the area

where the workpiece is in
contact with the die and
where deformation is
obtained
MECHANICS OF METALWORKING
‫ﯾﻌﻧﻲ ﺗﺑﻘﻲ اﻛﺑر ﻣﻧﮫ‬
 The applied forces must
Working Zone develop yielding in the
material but the stresses
must not locally create
fracture.
 Neglect elastic strains
 In hot-working, strain
hardening is often
neglected.
 Determining the forces
required to produce a given
deformation
 Friction is important 14

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In metal forming processes the true stress-strain curve (flow curve - Natural curve ) is used

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING
σ=k€^n is only for plastic area

For plastic deformation-----constant-volume relationship is assumed

True strain is additive

For example, if a line element stretches in two steps from lengths L1 to L2 to

L3 , the total true strain is:

Compressive stresses and strains often predominate in

metalworking processes. Thus, positive sign is adopted for
compressive based metalworking.
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MECHANICS OF METALWORKING

Initial height ho is compressed to h1

ho h1

From the volume constancy

True strain Engineering strain
Ao ho = A1 h1

Reduction

h1
Initial area Ao
Final area A1 ho 16

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MECHANICS OF METALWORKING

 Mechanics of materials tends to predict of the stresses,

strains, and velocities at every point in the deformed
region of the workpiece.

The slab method to simplify

 assumes that the metal deforms uniformly in the
deformation zone. ‫اﻟﺟزء اﻟﻠﻲ ﻋﺎﻟﺳطﺢ ھﯾﺗﺷﻛل زﯾﮫ زي اﻟﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻠب اﻟﺳﻼب‬
 assumes homogeneous deformation
No friction

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the deformation is done by tapered die

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING The slab method

Equilibrium of forces in the x direction

In longitudinal direction

Due to the die pressure

not stresses
Taking the equilibrium of forces in the x direction and
neglecting the product

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MECHANICS OF METALWORKING The slab method

Equation 1

We need to find a relation between (σx and P) and (σy and P)

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MECHANICS OF METALWORKING The slab method

Equilibrium of forces in the y direction

From Mises and Tresca criteria for plain strain condition: (Flow criteria)
critical resolved shear stress

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‫اﻧﺎ ﻋﺎوز اﺟﯾب ﻋﻼﻗﮫ ﺑﯾن ال‬

h and σ

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING The slab method

Substituting into equation 1

By integration

at entrance
From boundary condition: at x = b; h = hb , the axial stress =0. Therefore,
constant = ln hb

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING The slab method

 o ln  b 
h
dh 2 h
 x =  o'   
hb h 3 h

At the exit: frictionless deformation

h  2
 o ln  b    o ln 
2 1 
x  
3  ha  3 1 r 

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work = energy

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING

What is the amount of work done per unit volume in a metal

working process?
Example

The strain hardening of an annealed metal is expressed by

where stress is in MPa. A 25-mm-diam bar is drawn down to 20

mm and 15 mm in two steps using tapered cylindrical dies.
Determine the plastic work per unit volume for each reduction.

U=
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Note: the resulted flow stress from any curve is the average of σ1,2,3
this is also applied on strain.

MECHANICS OF METALWORKING
25 20 15
Example, solution

For the 1st reduction ε1 ε2

For the 2nd reduction In reality: Total work is

higher than the theoretically
calculated
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MECHANICS OF METALWORKING

‫ﺷﻐل ﻣﺑذول ﻻ ﯾؤﺛر ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺗﺷﻛﯾل‬

Total work = Ideal work + Friction work + Redundant work

The efficiency of a process

ideal/total

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Determination of the flow curves

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Compression --> whole specimen is compressed
plane strain compression --> specimen is compressed part by part

Determination of the flow curves

 Determination of the flow curves from:

 Tensile test,
must be carried out under
 compression test, controlled conditions of
 plane strain compression test, temperature and true
 torsion test and strain rate
 shear test.

 Friction and Lubrication in the metals forming

processes.
 Effect of the deformation temperature (cold and hot
deformation), and strain rate on metals forming.
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Tensile test has no friction -- plane strain compression gives accurate flow curve to be used in
rolling and forging

Determination of the flow curves

Very high stiffness and so
no deformation happened Classes of metals behavior
Rigid – ideal plastic
Elastic –
real strengthening
Elastic – ideal plastic
Rigid-strengthening
softening
Rigid –
linear strengthening
Elastic-strengthening
Elastic – softening
linear strengthening
Rigid- viscoplastic
Elastic-viscoplastic
Rigid –
real strengthening
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‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛﯾرف اﻟدﻛﺗوره ھﺗدﯾﻧﺎ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﮫ ﻧﺷﺗﻐل ﺑﯾﮭﺎ‬correction ‫ﻟو ﻓﻲ‬

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Flow curve --> True stress strain curve

Determination of the flow curves

Engineering and true stress–strain curves from a tension test on hot-

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rolled AISI 1020 steel.

Determination of the flow curves

Material Behavior in Metal

Forming

 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is of primary interest

because material is plastically deformed.
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow
curve:

 where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening

exponent
 Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain
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the hashed area is called dead zone and is not deformed due to friction(sticking) and so
barreling phenomenon occurs
High D/h ratio --> barreling due to wide dead zone
Low D/h ratio --> buckling

Effect of the Do/ho ratio on the deformation resistance

Compression test is a much better test for measuring the flow stress in
metalworking applications than tensile test.
F

D0 F

h0

Undeformed regions (shaded) due to friction

at end of a compression specimen
D0/h0 =< ~ 0.5 ------buckling Load deformation curve for compression
Test with different D0/h0 values
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How to resolve compression issues?

1- changing the compression surface to be tapered to eliminate the dead zone creating
homogenous deformation (also the die is not flat)

The cone angel  must be chosen that, to

be equal the friction angel . Then the
friction value µ will be:

  tan    

El-Magd
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Ataya

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‫ واﺿﻐط ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﺑس ھﻧﺎ ھﺿﻐط ﺷوﯾﮫ واﺳﯾب ﺷوﯾﮫ ﻣﺿﻐطش ﻣره واﺣده واﻓﺿل اﺣط ﻣﻧﮫ ﻛل ﺷوﯾﮫ‬lubricant ‫ﺑﻌﻣل اﻟﺛﻘب ده واﻣﻼه‬

Rastegaev method

Compression specimen
with lubrication pocket

Lubrication Materials:
For cold tests Lubricant
Paraffin is recommended
For hot tests
•Teflon as lubricant up to ~ 300°C
•Past of graphite based lubricant up to ~ 400°C
•Past of born nitride based lubricant up to ~ 800°C
Kopp
•Lubricant of glass base 800 up to 1300°C Ataya
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‫ ﺻﻔﺣﺎت‬5 ‫ﻻ ﯾزﯾد ﻋن‬

techniques - application - advantage - disadvantage

Projects (Due March 28)

1- Lubrication in metal forming

2- Cross wedge rolling
3- Electromagnetic Sheet Forming
4- Punching
5- Stamping
6- Residual stresses in metal forming
7- Explosive metal forming
8- Severe plastic deformation
9- Hydroforming
10- Thixoforming

A) Write a report about one of the previous items

B) Prepare a presentation (~ 10 min) to illustrate your report. 34

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