B. Sc.

Final (Semester V)
M-9 Analysis
Unit I
Fourier series, Even & Odd functions, Dirichlet’s condition, Half Range Fourier Sine and Cosine
series.
Text Books:
1. Differential Equations with Applications and Historical Notes (Second Edition) by G. F.
Simmons, McGraw-Hill International Editions,1991.
Scope: Chapter 6 (articles 33, 34, 35, 36)

Fourier series
Application of Fourier series
The Fourier series has many applications in
 Signal processing,
 Image processing,
 Electrical engineering,
 Approximation Theory
 Optics,
 Quantum mechanics,
 Vibration analysis, etc.
.
Fourier series:
Consider the trigonometric series of the form
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 ) -------- (1)
2

Where the function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined and integrable on the closed interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
We find the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛
Integrating (1) term by term within the interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 we have
𝜋 𝑎0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
∫−𝜋 𝑑𝑥 + ∑∞𝑛=1[𝑎𝑛 ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋 𝜋
Since ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0, for 𝑛 = 1,2,3 ⋯ --- (2)
we have
𝜋 𝑎0
∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥]𝜋−𝜋 = 𝑎0 𝜋
2
1 𝜋
⇒ 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ------- (3)

Again multiplying (1) by cos 𝑛𝑥 and integrating term by term within the interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
we have
𝜋 𝑎0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
∫−𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎1 ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎2 ∫−𝜋 cos 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
+𝑏1 ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏2 ∫−𝜋 sin 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ +𝑏𝑛 ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯------ (4)
𝜋
Since ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 --------- (5)
𝜋 1 𝜋
{∫−𝜋 sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−𝜋[sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥
1 cos(𝑚+𝑛)𝑥 cos(𝑚−𝑛)𝑥 𝜋
= 2 [− (𝑚+𝑛)
− (𝑚−𝑛)
] = 0}
−𝜋
𝜋
∫−𝜋 cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 for 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 ----------- (6)
𝜋 1 𝜋
{∫−𝜋 cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−𝜋[𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑚 + 𝑛) 𝑥 + cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥
1 sin(𝑚+𝑛)𝑥 sin(𝑚−𝑛)𝑥 𝜋
= 2[ (𝑚+𝑛)
+ (𝑚−𝑛)
] = 0}
−𝜋

Hence equation (4) gives

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1+cos 2𝑛𝑥
∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 ∫−𝜋 cos 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 ∫−𝜋 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛 sin 2𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [𝑥 + ] = 𝑎𝑛 𝜋
2 2𝑛 −𝜋
1 𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ------- (7)
𝜋
Now, multiplying (1) by sin 𝑛𝑥 and integrating term by term within the interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 we
have
𝜋 𝑎0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎1 ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎2 ∫−𝜋 cos 2𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
+𝑎𝑛 ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏2 ∫−𝜋 sin 2𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯
𝜋
+𝑏𝑛 ∫−𝜋 sin2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ -------- (8)
𝜋 𝜋
Since ∫−𝜋 cos 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 for 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 ----------- (9)
𝜋 1 𝜋
{∫−𝜋 sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−𝜋[𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑚 − 𝑛) 𝑥 − cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]𝑑𝑥
1 sin(𝑚−𝑛)𝑥 sin(𝑚+𝑛)𝑥 𝜋
= 2[ (𝑚−𝑛)
− (𝑚+𝑛)
] = 0}
−𝜋

Hence equation (8) gives

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1−cos 2𝑛𝑥
∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 ∫−𝜋 sin2 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 ∫−𝜋 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑏𝑛 sin 2𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [𝑥 − ] = 𝑏𝑛 𝜋
2 2𝑛 −𝜋
1 𝜋
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ------- (10)
𝜋

The series (1) is called the Fourier series of the function 𝑓(𝑥) and the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛
given by equations (3), (7) and (10) are called the Fourier coefficients of the function 𝑓(𝑥).
Fourier series is thus a special kind of trigonometric series, whose coefficients are obtained by
1 𝜋
applying formulas 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3 ⋯ and
1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 ⋯
Examples:
1. Find the Fourier series of the function (𝑥 ) = 𝑥, −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
Solution: Let the Fourier series of the given function is
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 ) ----------- (1)
2

We first find the Fourier coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛

1 𝜋
For 𝑛 = 0, we have 𝑎0 = ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫−𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1 𝑥2
= 𝜋[2]
−𝜋
1
= 2𝜋 [𝜋 2 − (−𝜋)2 ] = 0
 1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫−𝜋𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋 {[𝑥 ∙ ] − ∫−𝜋 𝑑𝑥 }
𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛

1 1 −cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 {0 − 𝑛 [ ] }
𝑛 −𝜋
1
= {cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝑛𝜋)}
𝑛2 𝜋
1
= 𝑛2𝜋 {cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋)} = 0
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋
= ∫−𝜋 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋 {[𝑥 ∙ (− )] − ∫−𝜋 (− ) 𝑑𝑥 }
𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛

1 −πcos 𝑛𝜋 − πcos 𝑛𝜋 1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= 𝜋{ + +𝑛[ ] }
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝜋
2 2
= − 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜋) = − 𝑛 (−1)𝑛
2
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛 (−1)𝑛+1
Now substituting these results in (1), we get Fourier series of the given function as
2
𝑥 = ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 = ∑∞𝑛=1 ( (−1)𝑛+1 ) sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛
2 1 2 1 2 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 3 sin 3𝑥 − 2 sin 4𝑥 + 5 sin 5𝑥 − 3 sin 6𝑥 + 7 sin 7𝑥 − 4 sin 8𝑥 + ⋯
sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 sin 4𝑥 sin 5𝑥 sin 6𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 (sin 𝑥 − + − + − +⋯)
2 3 4 5 6

2. Find the Fourier series of the function defined by

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0, −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 0;
. = 𝜋, 0≤𝑥<𝜋
Solution: Let the Fourier series of the given function is
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 ) ----------- (1)
2

We first find the Fourier coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛

1 𝜋
For 𝑛 = 0, we have 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝜋 𝑑𝑥] = [𝑥 ]𝜋0 = 𝜋
 1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0 ∙ cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
=[ ] =0
𝑛 0
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= [∫−𝜋 0 ∙ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝜋

cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 1 1
= [− ] = − [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1] = [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
𝑛 0 𝑛 𝑛
1
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]

Since the nth even number is 2n and nth odd number is 2n-1, we have
2 2 2
𝑏2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑏2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛−1 i.e. 𝑏2 = 𝑏4 = 𝑏6 = ⋯ 0 and 𝑏1 = 2, 𝑏3 = 3 , 𝑏5 = 5 ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Substituting these values in (1) we obtain the required Fourier series,

𝜋 sin 3𝑥 sin 5𝑥 sin 7𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 2 (sin 𝑥 + + + + ⋯)
3 5 7
PROBLEMS {Page No 256-257, Differential Equations with Applications and Historical Notes
by George F. Simmons, Second Edition McGRAW-HALL INTERNATIONAL EDITIONS}
The problem of convergence:
If 𝑓(𝑥) is given, then we can determine the Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) computing the Fourier
coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 . Now the question arises whether the Fourier series will converge and
will it represent 𝑓(𝑥) everywhere in the interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 and outside the interval. The
Dirichlet’s theorem establishes the desired convergence behavior for very large class of
functions.
We state here some basic definitions

Periodic functions:
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be periodic if 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all value of 𝑥, where 𝑝 is a positive
constant. Any positive number 𝑝 with this property is called a period of 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝑝 is a period of
function 𝑓(𝑥), then 2𝑝, 3𝑝, 4𝑝 etc are also periods.
i.e. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3𝑝) = ⋯
For example, sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥 are periodic functions having a period of 2𝜋, 4𝜋, ⋯ .
sin 𝑛𝑥, cos 𝑛𝑥 are periodic functions with period 2𝜋⁄𝑛 and 2𝜋.
Finite Discontinuity:
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 if
lim 𝑓 (𝑥0 − 𝜖 ) = lim 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝜖 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) , 𝜖 > 0, or 𝑓(𝑥0 −) = 𝑓(𝑥0 +) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝜖→0 𝜖→0
If both the limits i.e. left hand limit and right hand limit exist and are finite but not equal i.e.
𝑓 (𝑥0 −) ≠ 𝑓 (𝑥0 +) then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to have finite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 . This means that
𝑓(𝑥) approaches finite but different limits from the left side of 𝑥0 and from the right side as
shown in fig.
Y

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 (𝑥0 +)

𝑓 (𝑥0 −)

𝑥0 − 𝜖 𝑥0 𝑥0 + 𝜖 X

At the point of discontinuity 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , the function converges to the arithmetic mean of the two
limits i. e. it converges to
1
[𝑓(𝑥0 −) + 𝑓(𝑥0 +)]
2
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑥0, then
1
[𝑓(𝑥0 −) + 𝑓(𝑥0 +)] = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ).
2
Thus the Fourier series of converges to
1
[𝑓(𝑥0 −) + 𝑓(𝑥0 +)], ∀𝑥.
2
Hence the following Dirichlet’s theorem is useful to establish the convergence of the
function𝑓 (𝑥).
Dirichlet’s theorem: Assume that 𝑓(𝑥 ) is defined and bounded for
−𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋 and also that it has only finite number of discontinuities and only a finite number of
maxima and minima on this interval. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for other values of 𝑥 by the periodicity
condition 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ). Then the Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) converges to
1
[𝑓(𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)]
2
at every point of 𝑥, and therefore it converges to 𝑓 (𝑥 ) at every point of continuity of the
function. Thus, if at every point of discontinuity the value of the function is redefined as the
average of its two one-sided limits there,
1
[𝑓(𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)]
2
Then the Fourier series represents the function everywhere.
The conditions imposed on 𝑓 (𝑥 ) in this theorem are called Dirichlet condition.
Examples:
1. Find the Fourier series of the periodic function defined by
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0, −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥, 0≤𝑥<𝜋
Sketch the graph of the sum of each of the Fourier series on the interval −3𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3𝜋.
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
Prove that ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ = 8
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
Hence deduce ∑∞𝑛=1 2
= 1 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ⋯ =
𝑛 6
Sol.: First we find 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛
1 𝜋
We have 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1 0 𝜋 1 𝑥2 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] = 𝜋 [ 2 ] = ⇒ 𝑎0 = ---------- (1)
0 2 2
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0 ∙ cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋 {[𝑥 ( )] − ∫0 1 ∙ ( ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛 0 𝑛

1 𝜋
= − 𝑛𝜋 {∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥}
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= − 𝑛𝜋 {[− ] }
𝑛 0
1
= 𝑛2 𝜋 [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1]
1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝜋 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
−2
⇒ 𝑎2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑎2𝑛−1 = (2𝑛−1)2 𝜋 ---------- (2)
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 0 ∙ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋 {[𝑥 (− )] − ∫0 1 ∙ (− ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛 0 𝑛

1 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋{ +𝑛[ ] }
𝑛 𝑛 0
1 1 (−1)𝑛+1
= − 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜋) = − 𝑛 (−1)𝑛 = 𝑛
(−1)𝑛+1
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = ---------- (3)
𝑛

The Fourier series is therefore

𝜋 2 cos(2𝑛−1)𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
+ ∑∞𝑛=1(−1)𝑛+1 --- (4)
𝑛

The graph of the sum of the Fourier series is as shown in fig.

Y

−3𝜋 −2𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 X
By Dirichlet’s theorem Fourier series (4) converges to function 𝑓(𝑥 ) at every point of continuity
1
and converges to [𝑓 (𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)]
2

at each point of discontinuity. At the point of discontinuity 𝑥 = 𝜋, the series converges to

1 1 𝜋
[𝑓(𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)] = [𝜋 + 0] =
2 2 2

Substituting 𝑥 = 𝜋 in (4) we get

𝜋 𝜋 2 1
= 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
2

1 1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ = 8

The same sum is obtained at the point of continuity 𝑥 = 0 i.e. putting 𝑥 = 0 in (4) we get
𝜋 2 1
0 = 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ = .
8

Now we write
1 1 1
∑∞𝑛=1 = ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛)2 + ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
𝑛2

1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛2 = 4 ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛2 + 8
1 1 𝜋2
⇒ (1 − 4) ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛2 = 8
 1 𝜋2 4 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛2 = (3) =
8 6
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 2 = 1+ 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ =
𝑛 2 3 4 6

2. Find the Fourier series of the periodic function defined by

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −𝜋, −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥, 0≤𝑥<𝜋
Sketch the graph of the sum of this series on the interval −5𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5𝜋 and find what
numerical sums are implied by the convergence behavior at the points of discontinuity 𝑥 = 0 and
𝑥 = 𝜋.
Sol.: First we find 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛
1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋
We have 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [∫−𝜋(−𝜋) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝜋
1 𝑥2 1 1 1 𝜋
= 𝜋 {−𝜋[𝑥]0−𝜋 + [ 2 ] } = 𝜋 {−𝜋[0 + 𝜋] + 2 [𝜋 2 ]} = −𝜋 + 2 𝜋 = − 2
0
𝜋
⇒ 𝑎0 = − 2 ---------- (1)
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋(−𝜋) ∙ cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

1 sin 𝑛𝑥 0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥

= 𝜋 {[(−𝜋) ( )] + [𝑥 ( )] − ∫0 1 ∙ ( ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 0 𝑛

1 𝜋
= − 𝑛𝜋 {∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥}
1 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= − 𝑛𝜋 {[− ] }
𝑛 0
1
= 𝑛2 𝜋 [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1]
1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝜋 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
−2
⇒ 𝑎2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑎2𝑛−1 = (2𝑛−1)2 𝜋 ---------- (2)
1 𝜋
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 𝜋
= 𝜋 [∫−𝜋(−𝜋) ∙ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

1 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥

= 𝜋 {(−𝜋) [(− )] + [𝑥 (− )] − ∫0 1 ∙ (− ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛 −𝜋 𝑛 0 𝑛

1 𝜋 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 1 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 {𝑛 [1 − cos(−𝑛𝜋)] + +𝑛[ ] }
𝑛 𝑛 0
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋 {𝑛 − 𝑛 cos(𝑛𝜋) − 𝑛 cos(𝑛𝜋) + 0}
1
= (1 − 2(−1)𝑛 )
𝑛
 1
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛 [1 − 2(−1)𝑛 ]
3 1
⇒ 𝑏2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛−1, ⇒ 𝑏2𝑛 = − 2𝑛 ---------- (3)
The Fourier series is therefore
𝜋 2 cos(2𝑛−1)𝑥 sin(2𝑛−1)𝑥 sin(2𝑛)𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1) 2
+ 3 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)
− ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛)
------ (4)

The graph of the sum of this series on the interval −5𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5𝜋 is as shown below
Y

−5𝜋 −3𝜋 −2𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 X

By Dirichlet’s theorem Fourier series (4) converges to function 𝑓(𝑥 ) at every point of continuity
1
and converges to [𝑓 (𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)] at each point of discontinuity.
2

At the point of discontinuity 𝑥 = 0, the series converges to

1 1 𝜋
[𝑓(𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)] = [−𝜋 + 0] = −
2 2 2

Substituting 𝑥 = 0 in (4) we get

𝜋 𝜋 2 1
− 2 = − 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ = 8

The same sum is obtained at the point of discontinuity 𝑥 = 𝜋.

At the point of discontinuity 𝑥 = 𝜋, the series converges to
1 1
[𝑓(𝑥 −) + 𝑓 (𝑥 +)] = [𝜋 + (−𝜋)] = 0
2 2

Substituting 𝑥 = 𝜋 in (4) we get

𝜋 2 cos(2𝑛−1)𝜋
0 = − 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2

𝜋 2 (−1)
⇒ 0 = − 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2
1 1 1 1 𝜋2
⇒ ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯ = 8
Even and Odd Functions Cosine and Sine Series
A function 𝑓(𝑥 ) defined on a interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 or any symmetrically placed interval
−𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 is said to be even if
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ---- (1)
and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is said to be odd if
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (𝑥 ) ---- (2)
For example 𝑥 2 and cos 𝑥 are even and 𝑥 3 and sin 𝑥 are odd. The graph of the even function is
symmetric about the y-axis and the graph of the odd function is skew-symmetric as shown in the
figure (1) and figure (2)
Fig. 1 Y Fig-2 Y
X
X

It is clear from the figure that

𝑎 𝑎
∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) is even --- (3)
𝑎
∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 if 𝑓(𝑥) is odd ------ (4)
The products of even and odd functions have the simple properties
(even)(even) = even, (even)(odd)= odd, (odd)(odd)=even
The product of even and odd function is odd
Consider the function 𝐹(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) is even and 𝑔(𝑥) is odd. Then
𝐹(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ [−𝑔(𝑥 )] = −𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 ) = −𝐹 (𝑥 )
⇒ 𝐹(𝑥 ) is odd. Thus the product of even and odd function is odd.
The product of two odd function is even
Consider the function 𝐹(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are odd. Then
𝐹(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = [−𝑓(𝑥 )] ∙ [−𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 (𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥)
⇒ 𝐹(𝑥 ) is even. Thus the product of two odd function is even.
The product of two even function is even
Consider the function 𝐹(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are even. Then
𝐹(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(−𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐹(𝑥 )
⇒ 𝐹(𝑥 ) is even. Thus the product of two even function is even.
Them: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be an integrable function defined on the interval −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋. If 𝑓(𝑥) is even,
then its Fourier series has only cosine terms and the coefficients are given by
2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏𝑛 = 0 ------- (5)

and if 𝑓(𝑥) is odd, then its Fourier series has only sine terms and the coefficients are given by
2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 0, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ------- (6)

Proof: Let us assume that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is even. Then 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 is even as the product of two even
function is even and by (3) we have
1 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

On the other hand, 𝑓 (𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 is odd as product of even and odd function is odd and hence
using (4) we have
1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Now let us assume that 𝑓(𝑥 ) is odd. Then 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 is odd as the product of odd and even
function is odd and hence by (4) we have
1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Also 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 is even, as the product of two odd functions is even and hence using (3) we
have
1 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥,

which proves the theorem.

Example: Find the sine series and also the cosine series for the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥,
0≤𝑥≤𝜋.
Solution: For the sine series we have
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 0, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

For 𝑛 = 1, we have 𝑏1 = 0 and for 𝑛 > 1 we have

2 𝜋 2 𝜋1
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 [sin(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 +sin (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
2
1 − cos(𝑛+1)𝑥 − cos(𝑛−1)𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 [( )+( )]
𝑛+1 𝑛−1 0
1 (−1)n+1 (−1)n+1 1 1
= −𝜋[ + − (𝑛+1) − (𝑛−1 )]
𝑛+1 𝑛−1
 1 1 1 1 1
= − 𝜋 [(−1)n+1 (𝑛+1 + 𝑛−1) − (𝑛+1 ) − (𝑛−1)]
1 2n 2n
= − 𝜋 [(−1)n+1 (𝑛2−1) − (𝑛2−1)]
1 2n
= − 𝜋 (𝑛2−1) [(−1)n+1 − 1]
1 2n
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 (𝑛2−1 ) [(−1)n+2 + 1]
8 16
𝑏1 = 0, 𝑏2 = 3𝜋 , 𝑏3 = 0 , 𝑏4 = 15𝜋 , − − −
1 8n
⇒ 𝑏2𝑛−1 = 0, 𝑏2𝑛 = 𝜋 (4𝑛2 −1)

So the sine series for cos 𝑥 is

8 nsin 2nx
cos 𝑥 = 𝜋 ∑∞
1 0<𝑥<𝜋
4𝑛 2 −1

To obtain cosine series, we have

2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 0, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋 2 𝜋1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 [cos(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 +cos (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
2

1 sin(𝑛+1)𝑥 sin(𝑛−1)𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋[ + ] = 0 for 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝑛+1 𝑛−1 0

for 𝑛 = 1
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑎1 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝑥
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2
1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 (1 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 sin 2𝑥 𝜋 1
⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝜋 [𝑥 − ] = [𝜋 ] = 1
2 𝜋0

Also for 𝑛 = 0
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [sin 𝑥 ]𝜋0 = 0

So the cosine series for cos 𝑥 is

cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
Extension to Arbitrary Intervals:
𝑡 𝑥
We introduce the new variable 𝑡 that runs from – 𝜋 to 𝜋 as 𝑥 runs from −𝐿 to 𝐿. i.e. 𝜋 = 𝐿 so that
𝜋𝑥 𝐿𝑡
𝑡= and 𝑥 = ---- (1)
𝐿 𝜋

The function 𝑓(𝑥) is then transformed into a function of 𝑡,

 𝐿𝑡
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ( 𝜋 ) = 𝑔(𝑡) – 𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝜋,

If we assume that 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies the Dirichlit condition, then so does 𝑔(𝑡). We can therefore
expand 𝑔(𝑡) in a Fourier series of the usual form,
𝑎0
𝑔 (𝑡 ) = + ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑡) ----- (2)
2

Where we use the familiar formulas for the coefficients,

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ----- (3)
𝜋 𝜋

Now we use (1) to transform this into a solution of original problem i.e. we find the expansion of
𝑓(𝑥) on the interval – 𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞𝑛=1 (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) --------- (4)
2 𝐿 𝐿

Where the coefficients are given by

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐿 ∫−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 --- (5)
𝐿 𝐿

We can use formula (5) or by changing the variable 𝑡.

Examples.
1. Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in a Fourier series on the interval −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
and 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2.
Sol. Here we introduce 𝑡 by writing
𝑡 𝑥 𝜋𝑥 2𝑡
= so 𝑡 = and 𝑥 =
𝜋 2 2 𝜋

Then 𝑔(𝑡) = 0 for −𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 < 0 and 𝑔(𝑡) = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝜋 and we hve
1 0 𝜋 1 1
𝑎0 = 𝜋 [∫−𝜋𝑜 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 1 ∙ 𝑑𝑡] = 𝜋 [𝑡]𝜋0 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝜋 = 1
1 0 𝜋 1 sin 𝑛𝑡 𝜋 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 [∫−𝜋 𝑜 ∙ cos 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 1 ∙ cos 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡] = 𝜋 [ ] = (0) = 0 𝑛 ≥ 1
𝑛 0 𝑛𝜋

1 0 𝜋 1 cos 𝑛𝑡 𝜋 1
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 [∫−𝜋𝑜 ∙ sin 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 1 ∙ sin 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡] = 𝜋 [− ] = − (cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1)
𝑛 0 𝑛𝜋
1 2
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛𝜋 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] ⇒ 𝑏2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑏2𝑛−1 = (2𝑛−1)𝜋

We therefore have
𝑎0 1 2 sin(2𝑛−1)𝑡
𝑔 (𝑡 ) = + ∑∞𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑡) = 2 + 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 ( )
2 2𝑛−1
𝜋𝑥
Hence the required expansion is obtained by putting 𝑡 = in the above equation
2
1 2 1 𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 + 𝜋 ∑∞𝑛=1 2𝑛−1 sin(2𝑛 − 1) 2
We can also use formula (5) directly to find Fourier series.
2. Find the Fourier series for the function defined by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 + 𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 and
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 − 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1.
Sol. The Fourier series in the interval −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 1 is given by
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞𝑛=1 (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) ----- (1)
2 1 1
1 1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Where 𝑎𝑛 = 1 ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 ------- (2)
1
1 1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = 1 ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 -------- (3)
1
0 1
We have 𝑎0 = ∫−1(1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 1
𝑥2 𝑥2
= [𝑥 + ] + [𝑥 − ]
2 −1 2 0

1 1 1 1
= 0 − (−1 + 2) + (1 − 2) − 0 = 2 + 2 = 1
0 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−1(1 + 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (1 − 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 0 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {[(1 + 𝑥) ] − ∫−1(1) ( ) 𝑑𝑥} + {[(1 − 𝑥) ] − ∫0 (−1) ( ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋

1 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 1 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1

⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {0 − 𝑛𝜋 [− ] } + {0 + [− ] }
𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0
1 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {𝑛2𝜋2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]} + {− 𝑛2 𝜋2 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]}
2
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝜋2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
4
⇒𝑎2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑎2𝑛−1 = (2𝑛−1)2 𝜋2
0 1
Now 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−1(1 + 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (1 − 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 0 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {[(1 + 𝑥) (− )] − ∫−1(1) (− ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛𝜋

cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥

+ {[(1 − 𝑥) (− )] − ∫0 (−1) (− ) 𝑑𝑥}
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋

1 1 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 1 1 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1

⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {− 𝑛𝜋 + 0 + 𝑛𝜋 [ ] } + {0 + − 𝑛𝜋 [ ] }
𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0
1 1 1 1
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {− 𝑛𝜋 + 𝑛2𝜋2 [0 + 0]} + {𝑛𝜋 − 𝑛2𝜋2 [0 − 0]}

⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 0
Hence the required Fourier series is given by
 1 4 cos(2𝑛−1)𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 + 𝜋2 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2

3. Find the Fourier series for the function defined by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 | for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

Sol. The Fourier series in the interval −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 is given by
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑∞𝑛=1 (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) ----- (1)
2 2 2
1 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Where 𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫−2 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 ------- (2)
2
1 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫−2 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 -------- (3)
2

Now 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 | = −𝑥 for −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 and 𝑓 (𝑥) = |𝑥 | = 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

0 2
0 2 𝑥2 𝑥2
Therefore 𝑎0 = ∫−2(−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [− 2 ] +[2]
−2 0
1 1 1 1
= − 2 [𝑥 2 ]0−2 + 2 [𝑥 2 ]20 = − 2 [0 − 4] + 2 [4 − 0] = 2 + 2 = 4
0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫−2(−𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
sin( ) 0 sin( )
2
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {[(−𝑥) ( 𝑛𝜋 )] − ∫−2(−1) ( 𝑛𝜋2 ) 𝑑𝑥}
( ) ( )
2 −2 2

𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
sin( ) 2 sin( )
2
+ {[𝑥 ( 𝑛𝜋 )] − ∫0 (1) ( 𝑛𝜋2 ) 𝑑𝑥}
( ) ( )
2 0 2

𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2
2 cos( ) 2 cos( )
2 2
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {0 + 𝑛𝜋 [− 𝑛𝜋 ] } + {0 − [− 𝑛𝜋 ] }
( ) 𝑛𝜋 ( )
2 −2 2 0
4 4
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = {− 𝑛2 𝜋2 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]} + {𝑛2 𝜋2 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]}
8
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝜋2 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
8
⇒𝑎2𝑛 = 0 and 𝑎2𝑛−1 = − (2𝑛−1)2
𝜋2
0 2
Now 𝑏𝑛 = ∫−2(−𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
cos( ) 0 cos( )
2
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {[(−𝑥) (− 𝑛𝜋 )] − ∫−2(−1) (− 𝑛𝜋2 ) 𝑑𝑥}
( ) ( )
2 −2 2

𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
cos( ) 2 cos( )
2
+ {[𝑥 (− 𝑛𝜋 )] − ∫0 (1) (− 𝑛𝜋2 ) 𝑑𝑥}
( ) ( )
2 0 2

𝑛𝜋𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2
4 2 sin( ) 4 2 sin( )
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {𝑛𝜋 (−1 )𝑛 − 𝑛𝜋 [ 𝑛𝜋
2
] } + {− (−1 )𝑛 + 𝑛𝜋 [ 𝑛𝜋
2
] }
( ) 𝑛𝜋 ( )
2 −2 2 0
 4 4 4 4
⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = {𝑛𝜋 (−1)𝑛 − 𝑛2 𝜋2 [0 + 0]} + {− 𝑛𝜋 (−1)𝑛 + 𝑛2𝜋2 [0 − 0]} = 0

⇒ 𝑏𝑛 = 0
Hence the required Fourier series is given by
8 1 𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 − 𝜋2 ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2 cos(2𝑛 − 1) 2