Biological Science Long Bones

Introduction to the Skeletal System - Found in the limbs

Structure, function, and classification of
bones
Skeletal System
Interconnected system of bones
ligaments and tendons
Provide support and protection for
body
Composed of 206 bones
- Each bone is made
of a body (diaphysis)
and two extremities
(epiphyses)
- Wall consists of
dense tissue
- Central canal called
medullary canal is filled with marrow

Functions of Skeletal System Short Bones

1) Support – provides solid axis for muscles - Found in skeleton where strength,
to act against, creating motion. compactness, and limited movement are
desired
2) Protection- bones such as skull provide
- 2 main examples
barrier of protection from external forces
 Tarsus
3) Hematopoiesis- production of red blood
cells
 Carpus

Flat Bones
Types of Bones
- Used in spots where protection or muscular
Bones are divisible into 5 class
attachment is desired
 Long - Main locations are skull and scapula
 Short
Irregular Bones
 Flat
 Irregular - Bones which don’t fit
 Sesamoid into other categories
due to irregular shapes
- Examples: vertebrae
- ; sphenoid; hyoid

Sesamoid (Round) Bones

- Usually small and round.

- Embedded within tendons adjacent to
joints.
- Example: patella (kneecap)
 Bone Formation and Fractures - Human growth hormone
- Begins as mainly cartilage - Somatotropin
- Calcifies in utero - -Both hormones stimulate activity in the
- At birth, fontanels remain epiphyseal plate

Ossification Physical Activity

- Bone production process gives bone
extreme tensile and compressional
strength
- Several things contribute to strength
- Increase in physical exertion on bone tissue
increases bone density and strength
Bone maintenance
 Osteoblasts- constantly producing new
bone tissue
 Osteoclasts – clean out old bone tissue
- Causes holes or tunnels in bone which
osteoblasts then fill in with calcium and
phosphate compounds

Factors which contribute to bone growth

- Nutrition
- Exposure to sunlight
- Hormonal Secretion
- Physical Exercise

Nutrition
- Mainly calcium consumption
- Increased blood calcium triggers release of
calcitonin
- Causes uptake of calcium by osteoblasts
(bone builders)

Nutrition (contd)

- Decrease in calcium triggers release of

Parathyroid hormone
- Triggers osteoclasts to break down bone,
releasing calcium into blood

Exposure to Sunlight

- UV light on the skin causes Vitamin D

production
- Promotes proper absorption of calcium in
the SI

Hormonal Secretion
Fractures
Simple Fracture Greenstick Fracture
- Also called closed - Bone breaks incompletely
- fracture - Common in children due to more collagen
- Bone breaks in bones
cleanly and does
not penetrate skin. Repairing Fractures
- Little chance of Closed reduction = bones are eased back into
infection alignment and “reset”
Compound Fracture Open reduction = bones are surgically reset
- Bone breaks using screws or wires
completely After either, a cast is usually applied to
- Bone ends immobilize the bone; healing begins
protrude
through skin Internal Bone Repair
- Major chance of
1) Hematoma forms from ruptured blood
serious bone
vessels.
infection
2) After new capillaries form, fibrocartilage
Comminuted Fracture callus “splints” broken bone using cartilage and
- Bone breaks into many fragments bony matrix.
- Common in elderly 3) Osteoblasts migrate to area, forming bone
Compression Fracture “patch” over break. Fibrocartilage is replaced by
bony callus.
- Bone is crushed
- Common in porous bones
- Especially common in vertebrae of
osteoporosis patients

Depression fracture
- Broken bones are forced inward
- Common in skull fractures

Impacted Fracture
- Broken bone ends are forced into each
other
- Common in falls (ie. From ladder) where
person attempts to break their fall Spiral
Fracture
The Axial Skeleton
Spiral Fracture
- Occurs from excessive twisting force on Divisions of the Skeletal System
bone
- Common in sports injuries
Skeletal system is divided into two main
division
 Axial – central skeleton that protects
and supports vital organs
 Appendicular – skeleton of the
extremities
Axial Skeleton
- Composed of skull and vertebrae
- Mainly flat and irregular bones
- Serve to protect organs such as brain,
heart, and lungs
- Also helps to support body along central
axis (backbone)
Parts of the axial skeleton
Skull – protects brain
Vertebrae – protect spinal cord; also serves
to keep skeleton upright
Ribs – protect lungs and heart; gives
intercostal muscles a hard surface to move
against for breathing
Divisions of the skull
- Skull is divided into 2 sets of bones
 Cranium – collection of 8 bones
which hold and protect brain
 Facial bones – 14 bones that
make up the face; all but 2 are
paired
Cranium
- Frontal Bone – makes up forehead,
eyebrows, and superior section of eye
orbital
- Parietal Bone – form most of the
superior and lateral walls of cranium
- Temporal bones – lie inferior to parietal
bones
- Occipital bone – forms back and floor of
cranium; foramen magnum (large hole)
allows spinal cord to meet brain
Facial Bones
- Mandible- lower jawbone
- Maxillary bones (maxillae) fuse
together to form upper jaw
- Palatine processes –
directly posterior to
maxillae; forms rear
of hard palate
Facial Bones Contd.
 Zygomatic bones – cheekbones
  Lacrimal bones – inferior
section of orbital bones;
provides passageway for tears
 Ethmoid bone- forms roof of
nasal cavity
More Facial Bones
 Nasal bones- form bridge of
nose
 Vomer – divides nasal cavity in
half
 Inferior conchae- thin curved
bones which project from
interior of nasal cavity
Axial Skeleton
Intervertebral Discs Spinal Curvatures Bony
Thorax
Intervertebral Discs
- Pads of cartilage between each vertebra
- Provide cushioning; reduce shock
- High water content
- As you age, water content lowers, drying
discs
- Can cause herniated (slipped) disc; where
disc protrudes from spine
Bony Thorax
- Made of bones which connect and protect
heart and lungs
- Ribs, Costal Cartilage, and Sternum
Ribs
- 12 pairs of ribs, each connects to a thoracic
vertebra
- First 7 pairs = true ribs; attach directly to
sternum
- Last 5 pairs = false ribs; indirect or no
attachment; last two are floating (no
sternal attachment)
Sternum
Fusion of three bones ⚫ 1) Manubrium
(top) ⚫ 2) Body (middle) ⚫ 3) Xiphoid
Process (bottom) ⚫ Location for rib
attachment ⚫ Surrounded by costal
cartilage Sternal Puncture ⚫ Process by
which marrow is removed from sternum ⚫
Good location because of proximity to body
surface The Spinal Column Intro ⚫
Supports body ⚫ Connects skull to pelvis ⚫
Sends weight down to pelvis, where it is
transmitted through the legs ⚫ Surrounds
and protects spinal cord ⚫ 26 total bones
Divisions of the Spinal Column ⚫ 4 main
divisions 1) Cervical curvature
2)Thoracic curvature 3)Lumbar
curvature 4)Pelvic ⚫Sacrum ⚫Thorax
Cervical curvature ⚫ Begins where skull
meets spine ⚫ Composed of 7 vertebrae ⚫
Labeled C1-C7, starting at skull ⚫ First two
vertebrae (C1 and C2)are different C1 and
C2 ⚫ Perform different jobs than other
vertebrae ⚫ C1 (atlas) has depressions that
accept the occipital codyles (“yes nod”) ⚫
C2 (axis) acts as pivot point for skull (“ no ”
head shake) Thoracic Curvature ⚫ 12
bones ⚫ T1-T12 ⚫ Costal demifacet – point
of attachment of ribs Lumbar Vertebrae ⚫
5 vertebrae ⚫ (L1-L5) ⚫ Sturdiest because
under the most stress Sacrum ⚫ 1 bone
composed of 5 fused vertebrae ⚫ “wing-
like” alae connect laterally with hip bones
(forms sacroiliac joints) ⚫ Makes up
posterior wall of pelvis Coccyx ⚫ 1 bone
formed by fusion of 3 vertebrae ⚫ Tailbone
⚫ Thought to be left over from when our
ancestors had tails Spinal Curvatures
⚫Scoliosis- lateral curvature ⚫Lordosis-
Apex towards anterior (ie. Lumbar
curvature) ⚫Kyphosis- Apex towards
posterior (Osteoporosis patients)
Appendicular Skeleton Pelvic Girdle Pelvis
⚫ Juncture point for axial skeleton and
lower body ⚫ Holds internal organs ⚫
Distributes weight down legs ⚫ 3 fused
bones ⚫ Obturator foramenlarge hole
through which nerves and muscles pass
Bones of the Pelvis ⚫Ilium ⚫Ischium
⚫Pubis ⚫Become fused into “pelvis” at
puberty Ilium ⚫Makes up top of hip (iliac
crest) ⚫Lateral portions of the pelvis
⚫Contains hip socket Features of the Ilium
⚫ Iliac crest – rounded projection on
superior surface; makes up “hip” ⚫
Acetabulum- joint between femure and
pelvis ⚫ Width from crest to crest = false
pelvis ⚫ Width of actual inlet = true pelvis
Ischium ⚫Inferior portion of pelvis ⚫Ischial
Tuberosity – point of muscle attachment;
“sit bones” Pubis ⚫Anterior portion of
pelvis ⚫Joined medially by pubic symphysis
Leg bones Hands and Feet Appendicular
Skeleton Superior Extremities Shoulder
Girdle ⚫ Also called pectoral girdle ⚫
Composed of only two bones Clavicle
Scapula Clavicle ⚫ Collar bone ⚫ Double-
curved ⚫ Attaches medially to manubrium
of sternum ⚫ Attaches laterally to scapula
⚫ Acts as a brace, keeping arm away from
thorax ⚫ Also prevents shoulder
dislocation Scapula ⚫ Shoulder Blade ⚫
Main function is attachment of shoulder ⚫
Major point of muscle attachment for
movement of arms ⚫ Weakly attached to
thorax, so moves easily Major Processes of
the Scapulae ⚫ 1)Acromion – extends from
spine of scapulae Point of attachment of
clavicle ⚫ 2)Coracoid- main site of arm
muscle attachment Glenoid Cavity ⚫
Socket of arm joint ⚫ Shallow ⚫ Allows for
great range of motion ⚫ Also dislocates
easily Movement in the Shoulder Girdle ⚫
Very free moving because 1)Only attaches
at one point to axial skeleton 2)Loose
attachment of scapula allows it to slide
3)Glenoid cavity very shallow Arm Bones
⚫ Arms composed of long bones ⚫
Humerus (upper arm) ⚫ Radius and Ulna
(forearm) Humerus ⚫ Simple long bone ⚫
Greater and lesser tubercle allow for
muscle attachment ⚫ Deltoid
tuberosityplace of attachment for deltoid
muscle Attachment to the forearm ⚫
Trochlea articulates against bones of
forearm ⚫ Olecranon fossa shaped like
spoon Forearm bones ⚫ Ulna – pinkie-side
of forearm ⚫ Radius – Thumb side of
forearm Processes of the ulna ⚫ Olecranon
process attaches to humerus at olecranon
fossa ⚫ Allows for articulation between
upper and lower arm Hands and Feet Joints
Intro ⚫ Any point where bones meet ⚫
Also called articulations ⚫ Every bone
(except hyoid) articulates with at least 1
other bone Classifications of Joints ⚫ Can
be classified by mobility, or by the type of
tissue which connects the bones Joint
classification by Mobility ⚫ Can be one of
three types. 1) Synarthroses – immovable
joint 2)amphiarthroses- slightly moveable
joint 3)diarthroses- freely movable
Classification by connective tissue type ⚫
Joints are connected by either fibrous,
cartilage, or synovial connective tissue. ⚫
Fibrous is usually synarthroses, ⚫ Synovial
– diarthroses Fibrous Joints ⚫ Fibrous
tissue ⚫ Example= sutures of the skull ⚫
Tight fibrous tissue allows for essentially no
movement Cartilaginous Joints ⚫ Cartilage
⚫ Example= intervertebral joints ⚫ Can
express either type of movement Synovial
Joints ⚫ Bones separated by synovial cavity
⚫ Empty pocket serves to reduce friction
between moving bones ⚫ Usually located
in extremities, where movement is
necessary So… What does it mean to be
double-jointed? ⚫ Usually not actually two
joint cavities ⚫ Ligaments are simply less
taut than normal, allowing for more
flexibility ⚫ Can be indicative of serious
genetic defects Joint Problems ⚫
Osteoarthritis – general break-down of
joints, leading to ossification, and then
pain. ⚫ Rheumatoid Arthritis
autoimmune disease where body attacks its
own tissues; cause unknown Features of
the Skull Sutures of the cranium ⚫ Suture –
location where flat bones of the cranium
meet and fuse ⚫ Squamous- fuses
temporal and parietal ⚫ Coronal – fuses
frontal to parietal ⚫ Saggital – fuses plates
of parietal bones ⚫ Lambdoid – fuses
occipital to parietal Bone markings of the
Temporal Bones ⚫ 1) external auditory
meatus – canal which leads to inner ear ⚫
2) styloid process – sharp, needlelike
projections inferior to the e.a.m.;location
of muscle attachment ⚫ 3) zygomatic
processforms cheek bones;forms large hole
which allows jaw muscles to pass through
to mandible Temporal bone markings
(contd.) ⚫ 4) mastoid process – posterior
and inferior to e.a.m.;location of muscle
attachment for muscles of the neck ⚫ 5)
jugular foramen- at junction of occipital
and temporal bones; allows jugular vein to
pass through from brain ⚫ 6) carotid canal
– anterior to j.f. Allows carotid artery to
pass to brain Occipital Condyles ⚫ Lie
lateral to the foramen magnum ⚫ Rest
upon the spinal column ⚫ Provides point of
attachment for skull to spinal column
Cribriform Bones ⚫ Cribriform bones –
“holey” bone plates which make up roof of
nasal cavity;allow for olfactory sensors to
pass from nose to brain Sinuses ⚫ Empty
pocket inside bones which are lines with
mucous membranes ⚫ Paranasal
sinussurrounds nasal cavity ⚫ Lighten skull,
and thought to amplify sounds when
speaking Deformations ⚫ Cleft palate =
when palatine bones fail to properly or
completely fuse. ⚫ Leads to inability to
nurse, due to failure to form a vacuum.
Male vs. Female Skeleton In general ⚫Male
skeleton is larger, with thicker bones
⚫Female bones maintain many
– characteristics of prepubescent skeleton
⚫Male features change at puberty (usually
at points of muscular attachment) Skull ⚫
Male mastoid process more pronounced ⚫
Superior portion of female orbital (brow
ridge) less pronounced ⚫ Female mandible
is pointed, while male is squared Facial
Differences ⚫ Female face wider than male
⚫ Females have more pointed nose, while
males are more blunt ⚫ Female forehead
less sloping ⚫ Eyebrows positioned higher
in females Pelvis ⚫ Female Pelvis wider and
more shallow ⚫ Male iliac crests more
pointed ⚫ Male pelvis more narrow
Sacrum ⚫Female sacrum wider and flatter
⚫Usually more rounded than male The
“Homologous” Limb of Vertebrates
Homology—Two Interpretations
⚫Evolutionists say: Homologous organs
have similar structures because they
evolved from a common ancestor.
⚫Creationists say: Homologous organs
are similar because they were designed and
built following a common plan or common
planner