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VIRGINIA CENTURIONE BRACELLI SCHOOL GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Daughters of Our Lady on Mount Calvary
Name: Lawrence Motin Poctoy, Odiongan, Romblon
MODULE 1 – 4TH QUARTER
S.Y. 2021-2022
S.Y. 2019-2020
LESSON 1 CONTROL SYSTEM
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Discuss the conrol system
The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells
that provide support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to neurons. A neuron can be
compared to an electrical wire – it transmits a signal from one place to another. Glia can be compared to the workers at the electric
company who make sure wires go to the right places, maintain the wires, and take odwn wires that are broken.
The brain is the part of the central nervous system that is contained in the cranial cavity of the skull. It includes the cerebral cortex,
limbic system, basa ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, brainstem, and retinas. There are three different ways that a brain can be
sectioned in order to view internal structures: a coronal section cuts the brain front to back, a sagittal section cuts the brain left to right, and
a horizontal section cuts the brain top to bottom.
The outermost part of the brain is a thick piece of nervous system tissue called the cerebral cortex, which is folded into hills called
gyri and valleys called sulci. The cortex is made up of two hemispheres – right and left – which are separated by a large sulcus. A thick
fiber bundle called the corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres and allows information to be passed from one side to the other.
Each cortical hemisphere contains regions called lobes that are involved in different functions.
 The frontal lobe is located at the front of the brain, over the eyes. This lobe contains the olfactory bulb, which processes smells. The
frontal lobe also contains the motor cortex, which is important for planning and implementing movement.
 The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain. Neurons in the parietal lobe are involved in speech and also reading. Two of the
parietal lobe’s main functions are processing somatosensation – touch sensatios like pressure, pain, heat, cold – and processing
proprioception – the sense of how parts of the body are oriented in space. The parietal lobe contains a somatosensory map of the
body similar to the motor cortex.
 The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain. It is primarily involved in vision – seeing, reognizing, and identifying the
visual world.
 The temporal lobe is located at the base of the brain by your ears and is primarily involved in processing and interpreting sounds. It
also contains the hippocampus (Greek for “seahorse”) – a structure that processes memory formation.
Connecting to the brainstem and extending down the body through the spinal column is the spinal cord. The spinal cord is a thick
bundle of nerve tissue that carries information about the body to the brain and from the brain to the body.
The spinal cord also controls motor reflexes. These reflexes are quick, unconscious movements – like automatically removing a
hand from a hot object. Reflexes are so fast because they involve local synaptic connections. For example, the knee reflex that a doctor tests
during a routine physical ics controlled by a single synapse between a sensry neuron and a motor neuron. While reflex may only require the
involvement of one or two synapses, synapses with interneurons in the spinal colum transmit information to the brain to convey what
happend (the knee jerked, or the hand was hot).
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and is covered with three protective coverings calle dmeninges
(from the Greek word for membrane). The brain floats in cerebospinal fluid (CSF), which acts as a cusion and shock absorber and makes
the brain neutrally bouyant. CSF also functions to circulate chemical substances throughout the brain and into the spinal cord.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the connection between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. The CNS is
like the power plant of the nervous system. It creates the signals to control the functions of the body. The PNS is like the wires that go to
individual houses. Without those “wires,” the signals produced by the CNS could not control the body(and the CNS would not be able to
receive sensory information from body either). The PNS can be broken down into the autonomic nervous system, which controls bodily
functions without conscious control, and the sensory-somatic nervous system, which transmits sensory information from the skin, muscles,
and sensory organs to the CNS and sends motor commands from the CNS to the muscles.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system serves as the relay between the CNS and the internal growth. It controls the lungs, the heart,
smooth muscle, and exocrine and endocrine glands. The autonomic nervous system controls these organs largely without conscious control;
it can continuously monitor the conditions of these different systems and implement changes as needed. Signaling to the target tissue
usually involves two synapses: a preganglionic neuron (originating in the CNS) synapses to a neuron in a ganglion that, in turn, synapses on
the target organ. There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system that often have opposing effects: the sympathetic nervous system
and the parasympathetic nervous system.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the “fight or flight” response that occurs when an animal encounters a
dangerous situation. One way to remember this is to think of the surprise a person feels when encountering a snake (“snake” and
“sympathetic” both begins with “s”).
Examples of functions controlled by the sympathetic nervous system include an accelerated heart rate and inhibited digestion.
These functions help prepare an organism’s body for the physical strain required.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
While the parasympathetic nervous system is activated in stressful situations the parasympathetic system allows an animal to “rest
and digest.” One way to remember this is to think that during a restful situation like a picnic, the parasympathetic nervous system is in
control (“picnic” and “parasympathetic” both start with “p’). Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons have cell bodies located in the
brainstem and in the sacral (toward the bottom) spinal cord. The axons of the preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine on the
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postganglionic neurons, which are generally located very near the target organs. The parasympathetic nervous system resets organ function
after the sympathetic nervous system is activated (the common adrenaline dump you feel after a ‘fight-or-flight’ event). Effects of
acetylcholine release on target organs include slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, and stimulation of digestion.

LESSON 2 CIRCULATION
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Discuss the blood circulation
BLOOD CIRCULATION
Most animals are complex multicellular organisms that require a mechanism for transporting nutrients throughout their bodies and removing
waste products. The circulatorsy system has evolved over time from simple diffusion through cells in the early evolution of animals to a complex network
of blood vessels that reach all parts of the human body. This extensive network supplies the cells, tissues, and organs with oxygen and nutrients, and
removes carbon dioxide and waste, which are byproducts of respiration.
The circulatory system is effectively a network of cylindrical vessels: the arteries, veins, and capillaries that emanate from a pump, the heart.
Blood is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature,
osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a
protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of
infection.
Blood coming from all parts of the body is received by the right atrium of the heart by way of the blood vessel called vena cava. Contraction of
the right atrium sends blood to the right ventricle. At this point, the tricuspid valves are open. Contraction of the right ventricle forces blood to the lungs for
oxygenation by way of the pulmonary artery. At this point, the pulmonic valves are open, while the tricuspid valves are closed to prevent the back flow of
blood in the right atrium.
From the lungs, oxygenated blood goes back to the left atrium of the heart via blood vessels called pulmonary veins. Contraction of the left
atrium forces blood to the left ventricle. At this point, the bicuspid are open. Contraction of the left ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body by way of
the aorta , the largest artery. At this point, the aortic valves are open while the bicuspid valve are closed to prevent the backflow of blood in the left atrium.
GAS EXCHANGE. The primary function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the cells of the body’s tissues and remove carbon dioxide, a cell
waste product. The main structures of the human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, the trachea, and lungs.
SKIN AND GILLS. Earthworms and amphibians use their skin (integument) as a respiratory organ. A dense network of capillaries lies just below the skin
and facilitates gas exchange between the external environment and the circulatory system. The respiratory surface must be kept moist in order fro the gases
to dissolve and diffuse accross cell membranes. Organisms that live in water need to obtain oxygen from the water. Oxygen dissolves in water but at a
lower concentration than in the atmosphere. In water, the oxygen concentration is much smaller. Fish and many other aquatic organisms have evolved gills
to take up the dissolved oxygen. Gills are thin tissue filaments that are highly branched and folded. When water passes over the gills, the dissolved oxygen
in water rapidly diffuses across the gills into the bloodstream. The circulatory system can then carry oxygenated blood to the other parts of the body.
TRACHEAL SYSTEM. Insects have specialized type of respiratory system called the tracheal system, which consists of a network of small tubes that
carries oxygen to the entire body. The tracheal system is the most direct and efficient respiratory system in active animals. The tubes in the tracheal system
are made of a polymeric material called chitin.
Insect bodies have openings, called spiracles, along the thorax and abdomen. These openings connect to the tubular network, allowing oxygen to
pass into the body and regulating the diffusion of CO2 and water vapor. Air enters and leaves the tracheal system with body movements.
MAMMALIAN SYSTEMS. In mammals, pulmonary ventilation occurs via inhalation (breathing). During inhalation, air enters the body through the
nasal cavity located just inside the nose. As air passes through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified. The respiratory tract
is coated with mucus to seal the tissues from direct contact with air. Mucus is high in water. As air crosses these surfaces of the mucous membranes, it
picks up water.

ACTIVITY SHEET
NAME: Lawrence Sean Motin GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 -MODULE 1 – 4TH QUARTER

ACTIVITY 1-A
Directions: Tell whether the following situations are effects of B – parasympathetic or W – sympathetic.
B 1. Constricts pupils W 6. Inhibits salivation
B 2. Stimulates digestion B 7. Causes bladder to contract
W 3. Dilates bronchi W 8. Dilates pupil
W 4. Stimulates bile secretion B 9. Stimulates salivation
B 5. Slows heart rate B 10. Stimulates digestion

ACTIVITY 1-C
Answer the following questions:
a. Why is it important to take care of your spine? Give five.
I. It can help control quick movement essential for protection and survival.

II. It serves to provide support for your head.

III. It protects the spinal cord and associated nerve roots.

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IV. It provides structural support and balance to maintain an upright posture
 V. It enables flexible motion.

ACTIVITY 1-D
Directions: Write M if the statement is correct otherwise underline and change the word that makes it wrong.
Nervous 1. The circulatory system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and transmit
chemical or electrical signals.
Brain 2. The spinal cord is the part of the central nervous system that is contained in the cranial cavity
of the skull.
M 3. Motor reflex is when we automatically remove our hand from a hot object.
Central 4. The peripheral nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord
Information 5. The spinal cord is a thick bundle of nerve tissue that carries blood about the body to the brain
and from the brain to the body.
M 6. The brain floats in cerebrospinal fluid which makes the brain neutrally bouyant.
M 7. The peripheral nervous system is the connection between the central nervous system and the
rest of the body.
_______________8. The sensory-somatic nervous system controls the lungs, the heart, smooth muscle, and exocrine
and endocrine glands.
Sympathetic 9. A person feels when encountering a snake is an example of parasympathetic nervous system.
Fight or flight 10. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the “face-to-face” response.
M 11. Parasympathetic nervous system is activated in stressful situations.
Rest 12. Parasympathetic system allows an animal to “eat and digest.
Directions: Compare the functions of CNS and PNS to a power plant and wires.
13-15.

The CNS is like the power plant of the nervous system, it creates the signals that controls the functions of the body. The PNS is
like the wires that go to individual houses. Without the wires, the signals produced by the CHS could not control the body and
the CHS would not be able to receive sensory information from the body either.
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PERFORMANCE TASK A:
Directions: Answer the following questions.
1-5. How skin and gills work as a respiratory organ of some organisms such as earthworm and amphibians?

Skin and gills helps absorb oxygen from water, facilitating gas exchange between
the external environment and the circulatory system. When the water passes over the skin and gills, the dissolved oxygen in water
rapidly diffuses across the skin and
gills into the bloodstream.

6-8. How tracheal system works in insects?

Insects have specialized type of respiratory system called the tracheal system, which consists of a network of small tubes that carries oxygen to the
entire body. Insect bodies have openings, called spiracles, along the thorax and abdomen. These openings connect to the tubular network, allowing
oxygen to pass into the body and regulating the diffusion of CO2 and water vapor. Air enters and leaves the tracheal system with body movements.

9-15. How the respiratory system works in human?

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help us breathe. This system helps our body absorb oxygen from the air
so that our organs can work. This system also helps remove metabolic waste products and keep pH levels in check.

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Prepared by: Sir Karl Yrick M. Indonila