3.

CFBC BOILERS

Since the 1970s, the circulating fluidized bed (CFB) technology has been applied to
combustion and steam generation. Circulating fluidized bed combustion technology
(CFBC) has been established as reliable and flexible means of energy production. More
than 200 CFBC units are in operation in the world, with a total power exceeding 20,000
MW. CFBC technology offers a number of advantages as compared to conventional
pulverized solid fuel combustion including the possibility to use a wide variety of fuels,
and an easy and efficient control of NOx and SOx emissions.

Previously, the major advantage highlighted in relation to CFB was its capacity to burn
low rank fuels while allowing considerable variability in their characteristics, and
keeping emissions low. CFBC boiler has now proven its performance capability on a
large capacity basis. Several CFBC boiler suppliers can offer 400 MWe with full
guarantees. Several designers suggest that the 400 MWe design can be scaled easily to
600 MWe and beyond. Thus, CFB technology is competing with pulverized coal
technology for utility scale applications.

3.1 Advantages of the CFBC Boiler

 fuel flexibility
The CFBC boiler can efficiently burn a variety of fuels including low-grade solid
fuels rich in ash and moisture. The CFBC boiler has the flexibility of burning
different types of fuel in the same boiler, simultaneously and separately, without
substantial change in capacity and efficiency. A list of fuels burned in operating
CFBC boiler includes:
o Various coals
o Wood wastes
o Bark
o Petroleum coke
o Oil and gas
o Lignites and brown coals
o Peat

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 o Coal washings’ rejects
o Industrial and sewage sludges

 high combustion efficiency

The turbulence in the combustor vapour space, combined with the tumultuous
scouring effect and thermal inertia of the bed material, provide for complete,
controlled and uniform combustion. These factors are key to maximizing thermal
efficiency, minimizing char, and controlling emissions. The high efficiency of a
fluid bed combustor makes it particularly well suited problem fuels with low Btu
value and high moisture characteristics. The superior mixing in the CFB and the
large reaction space afford high combustion efficiencies over an acceptable range
of operating conditions for a wide variety of fuels. CFBC boiler manufacturers
typically report combustion efficiencies in the excess of 98% and often 99%, with
excess air less than 20%.

 efficient sulphur removal

The good contact between gas and solid and the long contact time in the CFB
combustor afford better capture of slphur at a given Ca/S ratio. Compilation of
results reported for several industrial CFBC boilers show an average around 90%
capture at Ca/S ratio of 1.5 to 2 depending on the quality of lime stone.

 low Nox emissions

Owing to the relatively low combustion temperature and to the staged
combustion, which are characteristics of all CFBC boilers, No x emissions can be
kept of 100-3000 vppm.

 favourable ash properties

The high combustion efficiency of a fluid bed results in a reduced amount of
inorganic material as fine ash. The remaining larger material consists mainly of
non-combustibles, such as rocks and wire brought in with the fuel, and coarse

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 sand-like neutral particles. Low combustion temperatures in the fluidized bed
minimize the formation of toxic material that might go in to the ash.

 simpler fuel handling and feed systems

In contrast to the conventional PC boiler, CFBC boiler receive solid fuels in the
fairly coarse sizes. This simplifies upstream feed preparation. But perhaps the
main advantage of the CFBC boiler (especially relative to its bubbling
counterpart) is in the need for only one (industrial size boiler) or few (for larger
utility boilers) feed points. The high degree of lateral mixing in the turbulent zone
at the bottom of the CFB combustor ensures uniform distribution of the feed
within the bed. Besides, the large effective height of the combustor tends to
correct any mal-distribution that may occurred at the bottom.

 high heat release rates

Most of the commercial CFBC boilers run at gas velocities of around 6-8m/s. This
results in rather high heat transfer rates (around 5MWth/m2), and also accounts in
part for the relatively small floor area that the CFBC boiler requires, even in
comparison with conventional PC boilers.

 capability for a good turndown and load following

The relatively high fluidizing gas velocity and the use of combustion permit a
fairly good turndown ratio by simply reducing proportionally the amounts of air
and fuel. Most commercial plants report turndown capability for their plants 3-
4:1. Manufacturers often report running their plants at 15-20% of the load for long
durations. Also, CFB can easily achieve a load following capability of around 4%
per minute.

 high availability
As befitting boilers in service of the industry, the availability records for
operating CFBC boilers is impressive. Figures in the excess of 90% are generally
quoted. Some boilers have also reported availability of the order of 99%.

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  low operating costs
The lack of moving parts in a fluid bed reduces maintenance costs and down time.
CFB units have achieved operating availabilities above 98% and have kept
operating costs relatively low given the difficult fuels they are burning.

3.2 CFBC Boiler configuration

The basic boiler configuration of major CFBC boiler manufacturers such as Ahlstrom,
Lurgi, and Foster Wheeler are similar, with the main components being the furnace with
water wall, cyclone and return leg, and back pass. The main design differences are in the
external heat exchanger, grid design and ash handling systems. The Lurgi design usually
features an external heat exchanger, where as the foster wheeler design has an INTREX
internal heat exchanger.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the design of Ahlstrom Pyropower. The combustion chamber is
enclosed with water –cooled tubes and a gas-tight membrane. The lower section of the
combustor is covered with refractory, with openings for introducing fuel, limestone,
secondary air, recycled ash, one or more gas or oil burners for start-up and bottom ash
drains. Most of the combustion occurs in the lower section while heat transfer to the
furnace wall is achieved mainly by particle convection and radiation in the upper section
of the combustor. The cyclone is refractory-lined and is designed to separate the
entrained solids from the hot flue gas and return them through the return leg and loop
seal. The loop seal prevents the backflow of gas form the riser up the standpipe and has
no movable mechanical parts. The gas velocity employed in CFB is usually in the range
4.5 to 6 m/s. Air is fed to the unit as primary air, secondary air, transport air for the fuel
and lime stone feed, air to the loop seal and fluidizing air to the ash classifier. The bottom
ash classifier is designed to remove large bed particles and recycle small particles back to
the combustor for improved heat transfer. The operating bed temperature is usually in the
range of 850-900oC. This temperature range is chosen to optimize the sulfur efficiency of
limestone. Figure 3.2 illustrates the design of Lurgi.

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Figure 3.1 CFB boiler scheme of Pyroflow

Figure 3.2 CFB boiler schematic of Lurgi

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A CFB boiler may be divided into two regions, the primary loop and secondary loop.

Primary loop
The main components of Primary loop are;
- Combustion Chamber
- Cyclone Separator
- Return leg
- Loop seal (or L-valve) for recirculating of the bed particles.

Secondary loop
The CFB’s secondary loop includes the convective backpass and air heater heating
surfaces. The secondary loop is the section of gas pass between the exit of the cyclone
separator and the exit of the air heater.

3.2.1 Combustion chamber

The combustion chamber is a gas-tight enclosure fabricated from fully water-cooled
walls. The lower combustion chamber is a refractory lined, water-cooled enclosure.
Openings are provided in the combustion chamber walls to allow for the connections of
solid return inlets, ash outlets, limestone inlets, air inlets, burner inlets, instrument
penetration, gas ducts to cyclones and superheat tubes.

The floor of the combustor is a refractory lined, water cooled tubes. Stainless steel
(pigtail) nozzles are welded to the membrane fins between the water cooled floor tubes.
Primary air from windbox flows through these nozzles to provide combustion air and
fluidization of the bed material.

Walls of the combustion chamber are also made from membrane tubes. The walls of the
lower section are covered with a cement-like wear-resistant material. All combustion air
and fuel are brought into the combustion chamber in this area. Secondary air is injected at

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two levels. The lower level is at about 0.5 m above the fluidizing air nozzles. The upper
level is at about 2.3 m above the grid. Start-up burners are found about 2 m above the
fluidizing nozzles.

The complete combustion chamber assembly is arranged for natural circulation. Saturated
water from the drum is delivered via downcomers to the downcomer bottles. From the
downcomer bottles, supply pipes feed the combustion chamber lower headers by natural
circulation, eliminating the need for circulation pumps and reducing mechanical
complexity.

The steam/water from the combustion chamber wall tubes is collected in the upper
combustion chamber headers and returned to the steam drum via riser pipes.

The combustion chamber operates at a positive pressure and the membrane walls
incorporate buckstays and tie bars.

Combustor Design
The Combustor design is based on optimizing the combustion efficiency of the fuel and
the emission characteristics. The gas velocity and the excess air level are normally
predetermined, while the combustor height is defined by the operating temperature and
the necessary heat transfer surfaces in the combustor. It must also provide enough
residence time for combustion of the fuel. CFB boilers normally operate with 20-25%
excess air and superficial velocity of 4.5-6m/s.

Steam and feed water conditions define the split of sensible heat, evaporation and
superheat duty. For example steam conditions of 103 bars and 513 oC, the heat duty for
sensible heat, evaporation and superheat is distributed into 30%, 50% and 20%
respectively. With consideration of the fuel type, the allocation of heat transfer surfaces
in the furnace and in the backpass (or convective pass) are determined. The backpass
layout of in-line or over-the-top design is the designer’s choice. The in-line design for the
backpass is one with the backpass on the same side of cyclone relative to the combustor

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as shown in Figure 3.1. On the other hand, the over-the-top design for the backpass on
the opposite side of the cyclone relative to the combustor. An over-the-top design saves
some space but increases the height of the combustor. The boiler furnace is made up of
insulated, gas-tight, vertical membrane walls with either a top or bottom supported
structure is normally used. The cyclone and return leg are constructed of steel plate and
shell with refractory-lining. In order to minimize the height of the combustor for cost
control, evaporative surfaces such as wing walls or omega panels may be used.

The furnace cross-sectional area is determined from the air flow rate, the gas velocity and
the fuel type. In order to maintain good fluidization in the lower furnace, some designers
use tapered lower section. The taper helps to increase the superficial velocity near grid,
there by minimizing the chance of segregation and clinker formation. Some designers use
the same cross section in the lower furnace to maintain the denser bed at the bottom. The
lower furnace is refractory-lined to protect it from erosion, with introduction of
secondary air and return of solids via a loop seal. The proper sizes and number of
openings and their location in this section are basic design parameters.

3.2.2 Hot cyclones and loopseal

The hot cyclone separator and loopseals are fabricated from carbon steel complete with
gussets, supports and access openings. The inlet to the cyclone is equipped with a high
temperature expansion joint. The cyclones and seals are lined with multi-layer refractory.
There is a layer of insulating refractory 180 mm thick adjacent to the plate and a layer of
heat/wear resistant refractory 120 mm thick adjacent to the flue gases.

The loop seal is a metal ”U-shaped”, refractory lined device. It acts to seal the positive
pressure in the lower combustion chamber from the negative pressure in the hot cyclones
created by the ID fans. It also prevents the backward flow of flue gas through the
cyclone. The ash in the loop seal is fluidized by air coming through nozzles located on
the floor and sidewalls of the loop seal. Fuel is fed to the boiler through the loop seal
return legs where it mixes with the returning bed material before entering the combustion
chamber.

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3.2.3 Refractory
One of the major concern for CFB boilers is erosion related to the materials required to
withstand the high gas temperature and high velocity of particles. This concern has been
alleviated by adopting the Foster Wheeler philosophy of eliminating any unnecessary
discontinuities that would change the direction of downward and upward flowing bed
particles. In locations where such discontinuities must exist erosion protection is designed
into the systems with shielding, or weld overlay, or refractory coverage, or a combination
of protection methods. The particles in the lower combustion chamber are very abrasive.
The refractory is started from the grid floor to the transition from the combustion
chamber vertical wall to the slopped wall. Experience of FW has shown that erosion of
water-cooled walls in this area can be avoided by using kick-out pipes, as shown in
Figure 3.3. The combustion chamber flue gas exits are subjected to gas and bed material
changing direction. As can be seen in Figure 3.4, the tubes adjacent to the inlet on either
side and above and below are protected with refractory. In-furnace heat transfer surfaces -
wingwalls, refractory is applied at the bottom of the wingwalls (Figure 3.5) on the section
of the tubes that are bent and run perpendicular to the flow of bed particles. Other areas
(pressure parts, loop seal, crossover etc.) have refractory only if that area is subjected to
high velocity flows or changing the direction of flow.

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 Figure 3.3 Kick-out pipes

Figure 3.4 Refractory of outlet combustion chamber

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 Figure 3.5 Part of wing walls

3.2.4 Convection cage and primary superheater

The convection cage is constructed of gas tight, membrane walls braced with buckstays
and tie bars. It is cooled with dry saturated steam from the steam drum. The convection
cage membrane tubes are arranged such that steam from the steam drum enters the
convection cage upper sidewall headers, flows down the sidewalls, up to rear wall and
dawn the front wall.

The primary superheater section consists of horizontal ”double omega” type tubes that
penetrate the combustion chamber front wall and rear wall. This type of tube is used to
minimize tube erosion in the combustion chamber by presenting a smooth face in the gas
and solids stream. The leading edge of the first tube and trailing edge of the last tube is
protected from erosion by cover plates.

3.2.5 Secondary and final superheaters

The secondary wing wall superheater is located in the upper portion of the combustion
chamber. The secondary superheater consists of multiple banks of membrane wing walls
perpendicular and flush with the upper from wall of the combustion chamber. Steam from
the primary superheater is distributed to the secondary superheater inlet headers, passes
through the wing walls to the outlet headers, and on to the final superheater.

The final superheater is a convective superheat section located as the second section in
the convection cage (below the final reheater section).

The convective reheater is arranged in multiple banks and located in the convective pass.
Reheat steam is distributed to the inlet header, passes through two stages of reheat, and
on to the intermediate pressure turbine. The final reheat stage is located above the final
superheater bank.

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