3.

0 FLUID DYNAMICS
3.1 Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams
When a fluid flows over a solid surface, or other boundary, whether stationary or moving, the
velocity of the fluid in contact with the boundary must be the same as that of the boundary
and the velocity gradient is created at right angles to the boundary.

The resulting change of velocity from layer to layer of fluid flowing parallel to the boundary
gives rise to shear stresses in the fluid. Individual particles of fluid move as a result of action
of forces set up by difference of pressure or elevation. Their motion is controlled by their
inertia and the effect of their shear stresses exerted by the surrounding fluid. The resulting
motion is not easily analysed mathematically, and it is often necessary to supplement theory
by experiment.

Definitions
Pathline: A trace showing the position at successive intervals of time of a particle which
started from a given point.

Figure 3.1 Pathline

Streamline: An imaginary curve in the fluid across which, at a given instant, there is no
flow. Thus, the velocity of every particle of the fluid along the streamline is tangential to it at
that moment. A streamline is hence an instantaneous pattern. When fluid is flowing past a
solid boundary, e.g., the surface of an aerofoil or the wall of a pipe, fluid obviously does not
flow into or out of the surface. So very close to a boundary wall the flow direction must be
parallel to the boundary. In fact, the boundary wall itself is also a streamline by definition.

Some further remarks about streamlines

 Because the fluid is moving in the same direction as the streamlines, fluid cannot cross a
streamline.
 Streamlines cannot cross each other. If they were to cross, this would indicate two
different velocities at the same point. This is not physically possible.

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 The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting on one streamline will stay on
that same streamline throughout the fluid.
 A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part of the total fluid in
isolation from the rest. This can be done by imagining a tubular surface formed by
streamlines along which the fluid flows. This tubular surface is known as a stream tube,
which is a tube whose walls are streamlines. Since the velocity is tangent to a streamline,
no fluid can cross the walls of a stream tube.

Figure 3.2 Stream tube

3.2 Uniform Flow and Steady Flow
Flow is described as ‘Uniform’ if the velocity at a given instant is the same in magnitude and
direction at every point in the fluid. If at any given instant the velocity changes from point to
point, the flow is described as ‘non-uniform’

‘Steady flow’ is one in which velocity, pressure and X-section of a stream may vary from
point to point but do not change with time. If at a given point conditions do change with time,
the flow is described as ‘unsteady’.

Note: In practice, there will always be slight variations of velocity and pressure, but if the
average values are constant, the flow is considered to be steady. There are therefore four
possible types of flow; namely:

Steady-uniform flow: Conditions do not change with position or time. The velocity and X-
sectional area of the stream of fluid are the same at each X-section; e.g. flow of a liquid
through a pipe of uniform bore running completely full at constant velocity.

Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point but not with time. The
velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream may vary from cross-section to cross-section,
but for each cross-section they will not vary with time; e.g. flow of a liquid at constant rate
through a tapering pipe running completely full.

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Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant of time, the velocity at every point is the same,
but this velocity will change with time; e.g. accelerating flow of a liquid through a pipe of
uniform bore running full such as would occur when a pump is started up.

Unsteady non-uniform flow: The cross-sectional area and velocity vary from point to point
and also change with time; e.g. a wave travelling along a channel.

3.3 Frame of Reference

Whether a given flow is described as steady or unsteady will depend upon the observer, since
motion is relative and can only be described in terms of some frame of reference determined
by the observer.

If a wave travels along a channel, then to an observer on the bank, the flow in the channel
will appear to vary with time and therefore be unsteady. If, however, the observer were
travelling on the crest of the wave, conditions would not appear to the observer to change
with time, and the flow would be steady according to the observer’s frame of reference.

3.4 Real and Ideal Fluids

When a real fluid flows past a solid boundary, the fluid immediately in contact with the
boundary will have the same velocity as the boundary. The velocity of successive layers of
the fluid will increase with distance from the boundary. Beyond a certain point in the fluid,
the velocity will approximate to the free stream velocity, and the drag exerted by the
boundary will have no effect. A real fluid is a fluid that possesses viscosity. All fluids in
practice are real fluids.

The part of the flow adjoining the boundary in which this change of velocity occurs is known
as the ‘Boundary layer’. In this region, shear stresses are developed between layers of fluid
moving with different velocities as a result of viscosity and the interchange of momentum
due to turbulence, causing the particles to move from one layer to another.

The ‘thickness of the boundary layer’ is defined as the distance from the boundary at which
the velocity becomes equal to 99% of the free stream velocity. Outside this layer in a ‘Real
fluid’ the effect of shear stresses due to the boundary can be ignored and the fluid be treated
as if it were an ‘Ideal fluid’, which is assumed to have no viscosity and in which there are no
shear stresses. A fluid which is incompressible and having no viscosity is known as ideal
fluids. Ideal fluid is an imaginary fluid, as all fluids that exit have viscosity.

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In situations where the boundary layer is comparatively thin, the assumption that the real
fluid can be treated as an ideal fluid greatly simplifies the analysis of flow and still yields
useful results. Even in problems where the effect of viscosity and turbulence cannot be
neglected, it is often convenient to carry out a mathematical analysis assuming an ideal fluid.
An experimental investigation can then be made to correct the theoretical analysis for the
factors omitted and to bring the results obtained into agreement with the behaviour of a real
fluid.

3.5 Compressible and Incompressible Flow

All fluids are compressible, so that their density will change with pressure, but under steady
flow conditions and provided that the changes of density are small, for simple analysis, it is
assumed that the fluid is incompressible and hence of constant density.

Since liquids are relatively difficult to compress, it is usual to treat them as if they were
incompressible for all cases of steady flow. However, in unsteady flow conditions, high
pressure differences can develop and therefore compressibility of liquids must be taken into
account.

Gases are easily compressed, and, except when changes of pressure and therefore density are
very small, the effects of compressibility and changes of internal energy must be taken into
account.

3.6 One - and Two-dimensional Flow

Flow is described as ‘One-dimensional’ if the factors, such as velocity, pressure and
elevation, describing flow at a given instant vary only along the direction of flow and not
across the cross-section at any point. For example flow through a pipe, but, since in a real
fluid the velocity at any cross-section will vary from zero at the pipe walls (Fig 4.2) to the
maximum at the centre, for higher degree of accuracy, correction will be necessary for
compensation.

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For ‘Two-dimensional flow’ (Fig 3.3), the flow parameters may vary in the direction of flow
and in one other direction at right angles, so that the streamlines are curves lying in a plane
and are identical in all planes parallel to this plane. For example flow over a weir.

Fig 3.3Two-dimensional flow

3.7 Analysing Fluid Flow

In the analysis of fluid flow, we often deal with an endless stream of fluid. To simplify
analysis therefore, there is need to define the system to be studied as a fixed region in space,
or in relation to some frame of reference, known as ‘Control volume’, through which the fluid
flows forming in effect an open system. The boundary of this system is its control surface and
its shape does not change with time.

Note: The control volume for a particular problem is chosen arbitrarily for reasons of
convenience of analysis.

3.7.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Fig 3.4 flow patterns

In the experiment shown above, a dye is injected into the middle of pipe flow of water. The
dye streaks will vary, as shown in (b), depending on the flow rate in the pipe.

The top situation is called laminar flow, and the lower is turbulent flow, occurring when the
flow is sufficiently slow and fast, respectively.

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At low velocities, the particles move in parallel lines; this type of flow is known as ‘Laminar,
Viscous, or Streamline’. In laminar flow the motion of the fluid particles is very orderly with
all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe wall. There is essentially no mixing
of neighbouring fluid particles.

At higher velocities, the fluid particles no longer move in an orderly manner but occupy
different relative positions in successive X-sections. This type of is known as ‘Turbulent
flow’, and is characterised by continuous small fluctuations in magnitude and direction of the
velocity of the fluid particles, which are accompanied by small fluctuations of pressure.
Mixing is very significant in turbulent flow, in which fluid particles move haphazardly in all
directions.

Whether the flow is laminar or not depends on the Reynolds number,

ρ vl
Re = μ where; ρ = density, v = viscosity, l = typical dimension which for a pipe is a
diameter
Re {<2,000 laminar flow
Between 2,000 and 4,000 transitional flow
>4,000 turbulent flow }

3.7.2 Discharge and Mean Velocity

The volume of a fluid passing a given cross-section in unit time is called the 'Discharge' or
flow at that section. It can be measured either in terms of mass, in which it is referred to as
¿
m ,kg/s
'mass flow rate' ( ), or in terms of volume, known as 'volume rate of flow' (Q, m3/s).

In an ideal fluid, in which there is no friction, the velocity 'u' of the fluid would be the same
at every point of the cross-section. If the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow
in a unit time is 'A', the volume passing would be 'Au’

Thus, discharge Q= Au
Q
u=
Therefore, mean velocity A

3.7.3 Continuity of Flow

By steadiness, the total mass of fluid contained in the control volume must be invariant with time.
Therefore there must be an exact balance between the total rate of flow into the control volume
and that out of the control volume:

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 Mass of fluid leaving
Mass of fluid entering Control volume

Fig 3.5 Continuity of flow

For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant
Mass of fluid entering per
= unit
Masstime
of fluid leaving per unit time

Now, considering a steady flow in a stream tube (Fig 3.6) having a cross-section small
enough for the velocity to be considered constant over any given cross-section, then

2
2 Fig 3.6 Continuous flow through a stream tube

1 1

For sections 1 and 2, and since there can be no flow through the walls of the stream tube, then
for steady flow,

Mass of fluid entering per unit

= time atof
Mass section 1
fluid leaving per unit time at section 2

ρ1 A1 u1 =ρ2 A 2 u2 = Constant

But ρ1 = ρ2
A 1 u1 A 2 u2
Therefore = = Q = constant

Note: The continuity is flow equation is one of the major tools in fluid mechanics, providing
a means of calculating velocities at different points in the system.

Applying the continuity of flow equation to flow into and out of a junction (Fig 3.7) gives
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 Q2
Q1
Fig 3.7 Flow through a junction
Q3
Total inflow into the junction
= Total outflow from the junction

Q1 =Q2 +Q 3

Or
A 1 u1 = A2 u 2 +A 3 u3
Question
A main pipe of 30cm diameter branches into two pipes whose diameters are 12cm and 8cm
respectively. 60% of the discharge in the main pipe passes through the larger branch pipe.
What will be the discharge through the main pipe if the mean velocity of flow in any pipe is
limited to 4cm/s?

3.8 Momentum Equation and its Application

3.8.1 Momentum and Fluid flow
In mechanics, the momentum of a particle or object is defined as the product of mass 'm' and
its velocity 'v'.

Momentum = m. v

The particles of a fluid will possess momentum, and, whenever the velocity of the stream is
changed in magnitude and direction, there will be a corresponding change in the momentum
of fluid particles.

In accordance with Newton's 2nd law, a force is required to produce this change, which will be
proportional to the rate at which the change of momentum occurs. The force may be provided
by contact between the fluid and the solid boundary (e.g. the blade of a propeller or the wall
of the bend in the pipe), or by one part of the fluid stream acting on another.

By Newton's 3rd law, the fluid will exert an equal and opposite force on the solid boundary or
body of the fluid producing the change of velocity. Such forces are known as 'dynamic
forces', since they arise from the motion of the fluid and are additional to the static forces due
to pressure in the fluid.
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Consider a control volume ABCD (Fig 3.8)

Q1 Q2 Fig 3.8 Momentum in a flowing fluid

B
C

Assuming flow to be steady and non-uniform, and applying the continuity of flow equation,
¿
ρ1 A1 u1 =ρ2 A 2 u2 = m
ρ2 A2 u 2 u2
The rate at which momentum exits the control volume across boundary CD =
similarly,
ρ1 A1 u1 u 1
The rate at which momentum enters the control volume across boundary AB =
ρ 2 A 2 u 2 u2 ρ 1 A 1 u1 u 1
Rate of change of momentum = -
OR from the continuity of mass flow equation,
¿
ρ1 A1 u1 ( u2 −u1 ) m ( u2 −u1 )
=
= (Mass flow per unit time) x (Change of velocity)
Note: This is the increase of momentum per unit time in the direction of motion, and
according to Newton's 2nd law, will be caused by a force 'F' such that
¿

F = ( 2 1 ) ……………………………………………(3.1)
m u −u
F = the resultant force acting on the fluid element ABCD in the direction of motion

3.8.2 Momentum Equation for Two and Three-Dimensional Flow along a Stream Tube
(Fig 3.9) shows a 2-dimensional problem in which ‘ v 1 ’ makes an angle ‘ θ ’ to the x-axis,
while ‘ v 2 ’ makes a corresponding angle ‘ φ ’. Analysis is done by resolving the force into
components 'Fx' and 'Fy' for the element ABCD and then applying equation (3.1) to give;

Fx = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction

= (mass per unit time) x (change of velocity in x-direction)
¿
m ( v 2 cos φ−v 1 cos θ )
=
¿
m ( v x 2 −v x 1 )
=

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 C

v2
 v y2
vx2
A

D
v1 v y1


A1 v x1 y Fig 3.9 Momentum equation for 2-dimensional flow

x
B
Similarly,
¿
F y = m ( v 2 sin φ−v 1 sin θ )
¿

= ( y 2 y1 )
m v −v
Giving,

Resultant force x y √
F= F 2 +F 2

For three-dimensional flow, the same principle applies, but the fluid will also have velocity

components ' v z ' in the z-direction and the corresponding rate of change of momentum in this
direction will require a force
¿
F z = m ( uz 2 −u z1 )

Summary:
In general,
Rate volume
Total force exerted on the fluid in the control of change
in of momentum
a given in the given directio
direction
=

¿
F=m ( v out −vin )
i.e.
v
Note: The value of ‘F’ is positive in the direction in which ' ' is assumed to be positive.

And for any control volume, the total force ‘F’ which acts upon it in a given direction will be
made up of three component forces; namely:

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F1 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in the control volume by any solid
boundary within the control volume or coinciding with the boundaries of the control
volume

F2 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in the control volume by body forces
such as gravity

F3 = Force exerted in a given direction on the fluid in the control volume by the fluid outside
the control volume.
¿
F=F1 +F 2 +F 3 =m ( v out −v in )
Thus,

3.8.3 Force Exerted by a Jet Striking a Flat Plate

Consider a jet of fluid striking a flat plate that may be perpendicular or inclined to the
direction of the jet, or may be moving in the initial direction of the jet (Fig 3.10)

Plate stationary& normal to jet Plate moving with velocity ‘u’

Jet
v F v u

Control volume

Fig 3.10 Force exerted by a jet

‘u’ for unit time
(a) (b)

In Fig (a), when the jet strikes a stationary plate normally, it does not rebound but spreads
sideways over the surface of the plate. In this case, due to the impingement of the jet on the
surface the velocity component normal to the plate surface becomes zero, destroying the
momentum normal to the plate.
a
If ‘ ’ is the cross-section area of the jet, then
CASE (a)
Volume of jet striking per second = av

Mass of jet striking per second = ρ av

Initial velocity of jet normal to the plate = v

Final velocity of jet on impact = 0

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Therefore,
Force exerted on the plate = Rate of change of momentum of jet
= ρ av⋅( v −0 )
2
= ρ av
CASE (b)
The length of the jet continually increases since the plate is moving in the direction of the jet.
If say the jet is issuing from a nozzle, part of the fluid leaving the nozzle is required to extend
the length of the jet, thus reducing the amount striking the plate.

Mass of fluid leaving the nozzle = ρ av

In unit time, the plate moves a distance ‘u’, increasing the volume of fluid in the jet by ‘ au ’
∴ Mass of fluid used to extend the jet/second = ρ au
Initial velocity of jet = v

Final velocity of jet = Velocity of the plate = u

Mass of fluid striking the plate per second = ρ⋅a⋅( v −u )

Thus,
Force on plate = Rate of change of change of momentum of the jet
= (Mass/sec) x (Change of velocity)
= ρ⋅a⋅( v −u )⋅( v−u )
2
ρ⋅a⋅( v −u )
=
Now, consider a series of vanes on say a wheel (Fig 3.11). The average length of the jet from
the nozzle to the point of impact remains constant and all the liquid from the nozzle strikes
one or other of the vanes.

Fig 3.11Series of vanes on a wheel rotating in the direction of the jet

v
u

Assuming that the diameter of wheel is large so that impact is approximately normal, then
Initial velocity of the fluid = v

Mass of fluid striking the vanes/second = ρ av

Final velocity = velocity of vanes = u

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Force of liquid on vane = Rate of change of momentum of jet
= (mass/sec) x (change of velocity)

= ρ⋅a⋅v⋅( v−u )

3.8.4 Force due to the Deflection of a Jet by a Curved Vane

When a stream is deflected by a curved vane (Fig. 3.12), entering and leaving tangentially
without impact, a force will be exerted between the fluid and the surface to cause a change of
momentum.

v1

Ry Control volume Fig 3.12 Force exerted on a curved vane
R
 Rx
v2
Both velocity and momentum are vector quantities and, therefore, even if the magnitude of
velocity remains unchanged, a change in direction of the stream will give rise to change of
momentum. Calculation of the vector components is thus necessary, which when combined
gives the resultant force exerted by the vane on the fluid.

Question
A jet of water from a nozzle is deflected through an angle 60 0 from its original direction by a
curved vane which it enters tangentially without shock, with a mean velocity of 30m/s and
leaves with a mean velocity of 25m/s. If the discharge from the nozzle is 0.8kg/s, calculate
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the vane if the vane is stationary.

3.9 Euler’s Equation of motion along a stream tube

Bernoulli and energy equations
Let us first derive the Bernoulli equation, which is one of the most well-known equations of
motion in fluid mechanics, and yet is often misused. It is thus important to understand its
limitations, and the assumptions made in the derivation.

The assumptions can be summarized as follows:

1. Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
2. Steady flow (unsteady Bernoulli equation will not be discussed in this course)
3. Along a streamline
4. Constant density (incompressible flow)

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 5. No shaft work or heat transfer

The Bernoulli equation is based on the application of Newton's law of motion to a fluid
element on a streamline.

Let us consider the motion of a fluid element of length ds and cross-sectional area dA moving
at a local speed V, and x is a horizontal axis and z is pointing vertically upward. The forces
acting on the element are the pressure forces,pdA, and,(p+dp) dA, and the weight, w, as
shown. Summing forces in the direction of motion, the s-direction, gives;

pdA - (p+dp).dA- ρg.ds.dA.cosθ = ρds.dA.as

Where, as is the acceleration of the element in the s-direction. Since the flow is steady, only
convective acceleration exists, i.e.
dV
a s=V .
ds
dz
Also, it is easy to see that cosθ= . On substituting and dividing the equation by,ρgdA, we
ds
can obtain Euler's equation:
dp VdV
+dz + =0
gρ g
This is known as ‘Euler’s Equation’. Note that Euler's equation is valid also for
compressible flow.

The Euler Equation gives, in differential form, the relationship between pressure ‘p’, velocity
ρ
‘V’, density ‘ ’ and elevation ‘z’, along a streamline for steady flow.

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Integrating the Euler’s equation, along the streamline, gives:
2
p v
+ +gz
ρ 2 =Constant…………………………….…………..……..(3.2)
In terms of energy per unit mass, we have
p v2
+ +z
ρg 2 g
= Constant = H………………………………..…...(3.3)
In which the terms represent energy per unit mass.
Equation (3.3) is known as ‘Bernoulli’s Equation’

Bernoulli’s theorem therefore states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid is
the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point.
2
v
p+ ρg+ ρ gz
OR in unit volume, 2 = Constant
p/gρ Pressure head, which is the work done to move fluid against pressure

Z Elevation head, representing the potential energy; z can be measured above any
reference datum
V2 /2 g Velocity head, representing the kinetic energy

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