The Problem

16

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM

Background of the study

“Kids don’t care how much you know until they know how much

you care.”

These words uttered by a professor in Brooklyn, cited by

Namalundah (2009), show that having skills in the teaching

profession is not enough if an educator doesn’t have the

knowledge and the ability to understand the diverse needs of

students. Namalundah (2009) further contended that regardless of

cultural backgrounds, primary knowledge is the source of the

teaching-learning process. It is this knowledge that helps a

teacher begin to understand students; knowledge that would reveal

the diverse needs of learners, and knowledge that would guide

teachers to modify instructional materials and teaching

strategies that would meet students’ needs. But how far should a

teacher know? What qualities should one possess, and how should

one act according to his or her knowledge and skills so that one

can be competent enough to provide for the diverse needs of

learners? It is important for an educator to not just know the

learning styles of students but also for them to know and

understand the cultural background of learners since this affects

their learning style. A growing body of research according to

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Harkins and Leighton (2010) posited that there is a direct link

between culture and a student’s learning styles that affect the

student’s academics, social and emotional achievement. Teaching

diversity in culture to students fosters their awareness of

others’ cultural perspectives, notions and beliefs. This in turn

enables them to understand cultural differences in a

multicultural classroom. For teachers, Bennett (1986) argued that

having the ability to look into different cultural world views,

and adapt them in many ways for the benefit of the students has

proved to be beneficial.

Moreover, educators of today are now required to use various

teaching strategies not only to address the individual learning

styles of students but also to address the cultural differences,

sexual orientation, gender and religious beliefs in developing

learners’ self esteem in the classrooms and also in the

community. Therefore, there exists a responsibility on the part

of the teacher to know the diverse backgrounds of his or her

students in order to have the necessary skills in teaching a

multicultural classroom, to involve the students in various

activities and to create culturally unbiased instructional

materials that would reach out to all the cultural differences

and learning styles of students.

Multicultural Education, according to Manning and

Baruth(2009), is both a concept and a deliberate process

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designed for the following: Teach learners to recognize, accept,

and appreciate differences in culture ethnicity, social class,

sexual orientation, religion, special needs and gender. Teachers

should instill a teaching-learning practice that promotes sense

of responsibility and a commitment to work toward the democratic

ideals of justice, equality and democracy.

Banks (1997) further suggested that multicultural education

should have at least three components: an idea or concept, an

educational reform movement and a process. Multicultural

education incorporates the idea that all students- regardless of

gender and social class and their ethnic, racial or cultural

characteristics- should have an equal opportunity to learn in

school.

According to Qullet (1991), as cited by Lambenicio (2013),

multicultural education can be designed to promote and to

develop: a better comprehension of cultures in modern societies;

a larger capacity to communicate between people from different

cultures; a more flexible attitude to the context of cultural

diversity in society and a better capacity of participation in

social interaction; and the recognition of common heritage

society. In this sense, it promotes learners to think critically

and creatively about historical, current and future issues. It

empowers the learners to care about their classmates and

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neighbors as well as the global community. And, it strengthens

learners to act locally and globally for the greater good.

In an article published by Garcia(2012), “Multicultural

Education in Your Classroom”, the following goals of

multicultural education was mentioned: creating a safe, accepting

and successful learning environment for all, increasing awareness

of global issues, strengthening cultural consciousness,

strengthening intercultural awareness, teaching students in

multiple historical perspectives, encouraging critical thinking,

and preventing prejudice and discrimination.

Schultz (2000) stated that the power of culture cannot be

ignored in shaping people’s conceptions of social reality. Every

person needs to develop his or her own social vision of life as

it relates to actual cultural realities in society. He further

discussed that in examining the social context of multicultural

education, there is a need to help teachers and students to sense

the great social opportunity and the reality of our multicultural

society. We, teachers, have the task of empowering students with

a constructive sense of social barriers to safety, success, and

personal happiness. It is essential that we invest in all the

children and young adults of multicultural nations so that the

great social promise and hope may be brought to fulfillment in

the future. Midobouche (1999) in her article, “Respect in the

classroom,” contended that to understand diversity and

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multicultural education, one must begin by respecting his or her

students and their backgrounds. She said that teachers who were

caring and respectful and who had a positive impact in her life

recognized and valued her culture and language. It is about

respect of one’s culture and beliefs that would give rise to a

multicultural classroom. Empathy is one of the essential goals of

Multicultural curriculum, not just knowledge about the diverse

culture of learners.

Nieto(1996) and Sleeter (1992), as cited by Gallavan (1998)

in her article,” Why aren’t teachers using effective

multicultural education practices,” posited that teachers play a

vital role in deciding educational theories into appropriate

practices as they plan curricular content, select materials,

facilitate instruction, assess their students, and interact with

families, especially when considering effective multicultural

education practices. And beyond curriculum, instruction, and

assessment, teacher’s formal and informal interactions with

students communicate strong messages that guide and reinforce

their students’ attitudes about specific course contents and the

learning process in general. Teachers easily convey their own

attitudes and personal perceptions about the subject matter,

their values about learning, their students, the community, and

society at large as they teach their classes.

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Because culture is crucial and integral component in the

success of students, Uy (2010) suggested that there is an

inherent need to address the cultural mismatch between teachers

and their students and the instructional process.

The situation in the Philippines, being an archipelago with

different inhabitants using different dialects and practicing

different cultures, customs, traditions and beliefs, implies that

cultural mismatch also happens. Because of the rapid development

of transportation and infrastructure, Filipinos find it easier to

travel, transact business and migrate from one island or place to

another making a community of different cultural backgrounds,

having different notions and beliefs and experiencing mismatches

among different groups.

In addition to that, the influence of the United States of

America on the Philippines made the English language become one

of their official languages. With the widespread use of the

English language (due to migration by the English speakers,

British colonialism, commerce, international communications,

media, films, and the spread of technology), it has become a need

for one to be globally competent especially in the business trade

and industry.

The Philippines, according to survey by the 2013 Business

English Index (BEI) and the Globalization of English (GOE), has

ranked number one with a rate of 7.95 when it comes to business

 The Problem
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English proficiency. This 7.95 rating according to survey is

interpreted as being able to take an active role in business

discussions and perform relatively complex tasks. Even before

this survey has been conducted, learners of English as a foreign

language flock to the Philippines to study and improve their

English skills. The City of Baguio is among those places where

foreigners seek to learn English.

In an article posted by Abellera (2010) on a website for

Baguio online news, not all those living in the City are really

natives of the place. Some are “migrants” from the lowlands and

some from foreign countries like America, China and Korea. In the

statistics released by the City Planning, it was said that there

are different groups living in the City, and they are classified

according to their mother tongue. Ilocano has the largest

percentage with 50% followed by Tagalog with 22.74%, next is

Pangasinense with 3.44%, then Bontok with 3.02% and Ifugao with

1.60%. These different groups of people with different cultures

made the way of living in the City colorful.

With the different cultural backgrounds of people living in

the City of Baguio, it only proves that students in the different

universities in the City are from different cultural backgrounds

too (including foreigners). These learners coming from diverse

groups prove the existence of multiculturalism in the Philippine

system of education.
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The University of the Cordilleras is one of the Universities

in Baguio City that has students of diverse cultures. With its

diverse students, UC ranked 9th place among the top ten

performing Universities in the Philippines as reported by the

Sunstar Magazine, released last September 2012. UC has been a

culturally diverse school since its foundation in 1946. This is

because of the different tribes and ethnic backgrounds of the

natives of the Cordilleras and the different migrants in the

City. UC started accepting foreign students in 1977. That same

year, UC had 2 Iranian students, 2 Thai students and a Japanese

student. In the early 1980’s up to late 1990’s, foreign students

of different nationalities came to study, of which Korean

students were the majority.

Due to the increasing number of foreign students which was

more than the 10 percent of the entire population of students in

UC, the University of the Cordilleras had been accredited by the

Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines with the

approval of the Department of Justice, the Bureau of Immigration

on the 18th of May, 2001. This accreditation grants authority to

the school to accept foreign students subject to the compliance

of all existing rules and regulations imposed by the Commission

on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Education Culture and

Sports (DECS) and the Technical Education and Skills Development

Authority (TESDA).
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This second trimester in UC, S.Y. 2013- 2014, there are a

total number of 277 foreign students from different nationalities

taking different courses offered by the university. Of this

number of foreign students, 24 are taking Bachelor of Arts in

English and seven are taking Bachelor of Secondary Education

Major in English.

With the diverse cultural backgrounds of students in the

University of the Cordilleras, this suggests that for an educator

to maintain effective teaching, one should have multicultural

competence. The teaching styles and adjustments should not only

match to the learning styles of the teacher’s individual learners

but should also address different cultural backgrounds.

Instructional materials should be cultural, gender and religious

sensitive as well.

In the light of these issues, the researcher conducted this

study to determine the level of multicultural teaching competence

(MTC) of English teachers as perceived by the teachers and

students of the University of the Cordilleras: specifically the

AB English Major students and students taking Secondary Education

Majoring in English. The researcher hypothesized that there is a

significant difference between the perceptions of teachers and

students along five dimensions. The researcher also proposed an

instructional material that would improve the multicultural

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teaching competence of teachers who are teaching major subjects

in English.

The present study may be used by administrators as guide on

how they may implement changes, improve existing instructional

materials or develop new instructional materials that will

enhance multicultural competence in English. It may also help

teachers to be more aware of their teaching pedagogy and on their

way of catering to the individual needs of their students based

on the five dimensions of multicultural education proposed by

Banks.

For language curriculum developers, this study may

contribute to the improvement of a curriculum that would fit in

the changing demands of a multicultural society.

For future language teachers, it may be used as a tool to

guide them in addressing and applying teaching strategies and

creating instructional materials that promote a multicultural

classroom. And for learners majoring in Linguistics, this study

may serve as another source in understanding the diverse cultural

backgrounds of learners from the way they communicate and

interact with others whether it be verbal, non verbal or even in

silence.

For researchers, this study may help them obtain information

for further studies.

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Lastly, for the researcher himself, this will help him

improve his teaching strategies, methodologies, his knowledge,

understanding, and application of multicultural education, and

the use of appropriate instructional materials for teaching

students of diverse culture.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

This study is anchored on a number of theories such as:

Multicultural teaching competence, dimensions of multicultural

education, communicative competence, multiculturalism,

multicultural and intercultural education, cultural pluralism,

social learning theory, cross cultural adaptation theory,

acculturation, learning style theory, second language acquisition

theory, language and culture, and identification.

Multicultural Teaching Competence

Multicultural teaching competence means that teachers can

create optimal learning conditions where teachers understand how

to facilitate the learning process. They know when to provide

assistance and how to extend and build on students’ cultural

practices and experiences. Students have more opportunities to

learn in classrooms where teachers (a) make linkages between home

and school knowledge, (b) provide students with multiple forms of

assistance, and (c) actively participate with students in

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rigorous learning activities to co-construct new understandings

(Sheets, 2005).

Teacher Pedagogical Behaviors, as defined by Sheets (2005),

are the classroom actions and attitudes teachers express in

relation to the act of teaching. When demonstrated in classrooms,

this results in the (a) nature and quality of interpersonal

relationships with students, (b) physical and emotional tone of

the classroom environment, (c) selection of the teaching

strategies, (d) adaptation of instructional resources and (e)

approaches to self and student assessment.

Teachers who consistently recognize, interpret, and respond

to student cultural displays have more opportunities to be

responsive to students’ academic and social needs. These teachers

are more likely to consider the diverse characteristics,

strengths, and competencies of their students when creating

optimal learning conditions. Awareness of student cultural

displays increases the probability of that teacher’s potential to

support social growth, enhance ethnic identity development,

maintain heritage language, and promote self- regulating

behavior.

Moreover, Student Cultural Displays, as defined by Sheets

(2005), are observable manifestations of the norms, values, and

competencies children learn in their homes and communities that

provide valuable insights into who they are, how they act, and
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what they know. These culturally mediated and historically

developed knowledge, practices, values, and skills that children

bring to school emerge during social interactions, daily rituals

and learning situations.

Thinking, talking, and responding to differences in people,

events, concepts, perspectives, and values make us partly

uncomfortable because we are culturally, socially and cognitively

conditioned to consider diversity as strange or abnormal. Even

young children, due to their socialization in a society that

perpetuates racist practices and attitudes, develop racist

attitudes and knowingly display racist behaviors (Brown, 1995;

Van Ausdale & Feagin, 2001).

Banks (2003) contended that most teachers now in the

classroom or in teacher education programs are likely to have

students from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and language

groups in their classrooms. Because of this and the census data

he cited, he believes that teachers need to “acquire new

knowledge, skills, and attitudes”. In other words, teachers need

to know how to structure the teaching and learning process and

operate in a multicultural classroom.

Betancourt et al. (2003) and Suh (2004) asserted that

culturally competent practices include the ability to plan and

implement strategies to address and resolve racial and ethnic

disparities that occur in the classroom. The management of

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cultural disparities is possible through carefully designed

framework of organizational and structural cultural competence

interventions. Nevertheless, the implementation of carefully

selected and culturally unbiased teaching strategies would only

be possible if acceptance, respect, empathy and tolerant

attitudes toward diverse cultures already form part of the

teacher’s skills.

According to Sue et al. (1982), as cited by Vasallo (2012),

being aware of one’s own cultural legacies, principles, moral

imperatives and prejudices and of how these dimensions can

influence our interactions with diverse groups is an important

precept in the development of a teacher’s perception of

multicultural competence. Cultural knowledge includes the

appreciation differences and respect for those differences.

In a study conducted by Henkin and Steinmetz (2008), as

cited by Leighton (2009), about the relationship between cultural

awareness and cultural competence, they found out that although

the teachers demonstrated high levels of cultural awareness and

were able to identify strategies of using culturally competent

practices in their classrooms, they demonstrated less competence

in actually implementing culturally competent knowledge and

skills, and thus were unable to actually implement those

practices in their classrooms.

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This shows out that although teachers are aware of

multicultural matters and teaching methodologies, they are

failing to understand how to use the necessary skills to respond

to issues which arise in the classroom. Azzopardi (2008)

indicated that valuable multicultural resources are not used

effectively by teachers who lack background knowledge in

multicultural education or who do not have positive attitudes

toward multiethnic groups.

Even though teachers have completed the teaching programs

that were implemented to enrich teachers’ cultural competency,

Henkin & Steinmetz (2008) and Martines (2005) reported that

teachers were unable to internalize, assimilate and put into

practice higher level cultural competence practices into their

own careers. Gorham (2001) suggested that increased levels in

teachers’ knowledge of cultural diversity, pedagogical skills and

ability to construct meaningful relationships with multiethnic

students are possible after completion of appropriate

multicultural education courses and training sessions.

Dimensions of Multicultural Education

This is formulated by Banks (1993) as a field consisting of

five dimensions, which could be used in teacher training. The

five dimensions are (a) content integration (b) the knowledge

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construction process, (c) prejudice reduction, (d) equity

pedagogy, and (e) empowering school culture and social structure.

Content integration. It is the inclusion of the different

cultural backgrounds of learners into the curriculum wherein it

deals with the extent to which teachers use examples, data, and

information from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate

concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their

subject area of discipline. According to Ausubel (1968), as cited

by Marlowe and Page (2000), ethnic differences are real, but

continually seeking to alter our teaching style to conform to our

beliefs about each student (based solely on his or her ethnic

identity) perpetuates an overgeneralization about ethnic groups

and puts the focus of the teaching-learning experience in the

wrong place. Knowing that Asian children as a group of kids who

are quieter and more submissive to authority will not enhance the

learning of students of Asian descent if, as a teacher armed with

this knowledge, you continue to focus on what you will do to

cover the curriculum as opposed to focusing on the ways you can

help your students connect content to the most important factors

in student learning- the students’ experiences and prior

knowledge.

Some disciplines and content areas are not free from

cultural influences and that some textbooks have racial biases.

Pugh (1990) and Glasgow et al. (2006) suggested that teachers

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should integrate content so that the history of the discipline’s

content knowledge comes from many cultures and ethnicities.

Sheets (2005) suggested that although content integration seems

to be the most precise, an educator should at least have a

considerable amount of knowledge about the subject matter,

content and cultural knowledge. One should be hard working, be

willing to give time and be good at making sound judgment by

selecting instructional materials that would fit to the needs of

learners of diverse backgrounds. Furthermore, he asserted that

although students and teacher contact with instructional

resources, cultural influences cannot be separated from how

learners experience the teaching-learning process, from the

influence of the classroom environment and from how the outcome

develops. It will be helpful to examine culturally inclusive

content well.

Knowledge Construction. Another dimension of multicultural

education is knowledge construction which is a process that

describes the procedures by which social, behavioral, and natural

scientists create knowledge and how the implicit cultural

assumptions, frames of references, perspectives, and biases

within a discipline influence the ways that knowledge is

constructed within it (Berger & Luckman, 1966; Gould, 1981;). It

is where teachers help students to understand, investigate, and

determine the implicit cultural assumptions and frames of

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reference and perspectives of discipline they are teaching. In

other words, we relate specific topics to the cultural

backgrounds of the learners for them to better understand the

lesson. According to Gallavan (2010), becoming acquainted with

each student in all four domains of learning means recognizing

and accepting all forms of diversity; it is the student’s

cultural characteristics that frame the student’s world, and thus

the student’s learning. Each student’s cultural characteristics

are a combination of nature and nurture: the characteristics with

which one is born and the influences one receives from

interactions with families, communities, and opportunities that

happen by chance and by choice through life. Students mature at

individual rates into a range of unique individuals; all of whom

comprise our multicultural world.

Prejudice reduction. This dimension of multicultural

education refers to the teachers’ attempt to reduce if not to

remove students’ feeling of superiority or inferiority mainly

because of their race or ethnic affiliation or social status.

Banks (2006) posited that this dimension is important in creating

more positive racial and ethnic attitudes. Basically, this

dimension is the aspect of education where the teacher helps

lessen the amount of prejudice within the students.

An example of hoe prejudice reduction can be implemented in

a classroom is by creating a pen pal system or using the internet

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to communicate with another school. These students could learn of

each others’ backgrounds and get the chance to learn about their

characters. A program implemented by the schools such as exchange

students is also an example of this dimension. The students come

to learn the culture of others through exposure and experiential

learning.

Equity pedagogy. When teachers use techniques and methods

that facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse

racial, ethnic, and social groups, equity pedagogy exists. It is

where teachers change their methods to enable learners from

diverse racial groups and both genders. This is not about

learning styles but modification of teaching styles to cater to

the needs of every learner. Teaching approaches such as

cooperative groups, simulations, role playing, and discovery

enhance the achievement of a wide range of students from a wide

range of groups. Increasing our repertoire of pedagogy will reach

more and more students from all groups. According Bower, Lobdell

& Owens (2005), as cited by Moore (2007), student-centered

activities require active participation that allows the students

to become personally involved in learning; when students can

express their knowledge, feelings, emotions and values, they reap

a host of educational and social benefits- increased motivation

to succeed academically, the development of critical thinking

skills, an appreciation for the connections between school and

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society, and the acquisition of citizenship skills that prepare

them to live in a multicultural society where free expression,

dissent, persuasion, and compromise are central to the democratic

process.

Prejudice reduction. The fourth dimension of multicultural

education is prejudice reduction which describes the

characteristics of children’s racial attitudes and strategies

that can be used to help students develop more democratic

attitudes and values. As stated by Banks, it is what all

educators should use to develop strategies that would help

learners develop more positive racial attitudes. According to

Tatum (1995), as cited by Parks, S. (1999) in her article

“Reducing the effects of racism in schools,” minimizing racism in

schools involves a careful examination of the total educational

program. To approach this initiative, teachers and administrators

identify the conditions that reducing racism would ameliorate.

Once educators clarify the immediate and long term benefits of

reducing racism, they can decide what combination of

interventions for prevention, abatement and healing will address

local needs and goals. Prevention involves classroom instruction

and professional development that identifies the racist

influences and prevents them from taking hold in hearts and

minds. Such efforts include antiracism curriculums, peace

education, global education, moral reasoning, emotional

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intelligence, instruction and critical thinking. Abatement

involves reducing the tensions and barriers created by

intercultural or interracial discord. Abatement also involves

techniques to mitigate distress such as conflict resolution, peer

mediation, and diversity training for faculty. Moreover, it

includes activities to promote communication and interdependence,

such as service learning, cooperative learning and community

mentoring. Healing the effects of racism is the approach with

which the individuals and communities have the least experience,

although it offers remarkable opportunities for personal and

institutional renewal.

Empowering school culture and social structure. Empowering

school culture and social structure describes the process of

restructuring the cultural organization of the school so that

students from diverse racial, ethnic, and social groups

experience educational equality and cultural empowerment

(Cummins, 1986). Structure is used to describe the process where

the school reconstructs unconscious practice that leads to racism

and cultural biases so that every learner of diverse backgrounds

experiences equality in education.

In an article “Reducing the effects of racism in schools by

Parks (2000), she suggested that minimizing racism in schools

involves a careful examination of the total education program to

ensure that curriculum promotes cultural competence and

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appreciates ethnic diversity; instructional methods promote

cooperation, interaction, and success for all students,

regardless of background, language, proficiency, social class, or

learning style; assessment practices include alternative methods

that allow for cultural differences and encourage community

review to ensure an equitable appraisal of students’ work; a

school culture of oneness supports growth of all students; and

public conversation and policy making are sensitive to the

perceptions and values of the total community. Multicultural

education is the key curriculum in combating racism. Although

cultural competence is necessary, it is not sufficient to help

students and teachers to acknowledge and appreciate values,

experiences, and contributions of all groups within the human

family.

Communicative Competence

The term communicative competence is comprised of two words

which basically mean to have the ability to use language

correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals.

The desired outcome of the language learning process is the

ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the

language exactly as a native speaker does. Competence is one of

the most controversial terms in the field of linguistics. The

term competence has always been associated with Chomsky who in

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his very influential book (Aspects of the theory of syntax) drew

what has been today viewed as a classic distinction between

competence and performance. According to Fromkin & Rodman (2013),

competence is the knowledge about the language one understands or

produces to communicate while performance is the behavior where

one uses that language.

Communicative competence by the Common European Framework

(CEF) is conceived only in terms of knowledge. It includes three

basic components – language competence, sociolinguistic

competence and pragmatic competence. Thus, strategic competence

is not its componential part. It is interesting, however, that

each component of language knowledge is explicitly defined as

knowledge of its contents and ability to apply it. However,

Canale and Swain (1983) included strategic competence as

component of communicative competence which is composed of

knowledge of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that

are recalled to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to

insufficient competence in one or more components of

communicative competence. These strategies include paraphrase,

circumlocution, repetition, reluctance, avoidance of words,

structures or themes, guessing, changes of register and style,

modifications of messages etc. According to Bagaric, V. (2007),

strategic competence is different from the other three components

of communicative competence in that it is not a type of stored

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knowledge and it includes non-cognitive aspects such as self-

confidence, readiness to take risks etc. However, since it

interacts with other components, it enables learners to deal

successfully with a lack of competence in one of the fields of

competence.

In addition, Dell Hymes (1972) coined the term communicative

competence in 1966 in reaction to Chomsky’s notion of linguistic

competence. Hymes observed that a normal child acquires

knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as

appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak,

when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in

what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a

repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to

evaluate their accomplishment by others.

Language competence. Language competence or linguistic

competence means that one knows how to use the grammar, syntax,

and vocabulary of a language. For a language teacher, it depicts

how one uses words and how he or she puts them into phrases and

sentences. CEF (2001) defines it as knowledge of and ability to

use language resources to form well structured messages. On the

other hand, Hymes (1972) explained further that language

competence is the knowledge of the language code which pertains

to the grammar and vocabulary and also of the conventions of the

written representation (script and orthography.) The grammar

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component includes the knowledge of the sounds and their

pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound

interactions and patterns (i.e. phonology), the formation of

words by means of inflection and derivation (i.e. morphology),

the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to

structure sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is

conveyed through language (i.e. semantics).

Sociolinguistic competence. Another component of

communicative competence is sociolinguistic competence which

refers to possession of knowledge and skills for appropriate

language use in a social context. The following aspects of this

competence are highlighted: language elements that mark social

relationships, rules of appropriate behaviour, and expressions of

peoples’ wisdom, differences in register and dialects and stress

(CEF, 2001). In other words, it means that one knows how to use

and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, the

topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. For

a language teacher, it depicts on which words and phrases a

person use to fit a setting and a certain topic. It also

describes how one can express a specific attitude (courtesy,

authority, friendliness, respect) when it is needed and how one

determines what attitude another person is expressing.

Pragmatic competence. A communicative competence component

which means that one knows how to interpret the larger context
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and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the

parts make up a coherent whole. For language teachers, it defines

how words, phrases and sentences are put together to create

conversations, speeches, email messages, newspaper articles, etc.

for the diverse kinds of learners.

Multiculturalism

This refers to communities having diverse culture. This is

often contrasted with the concept of assimilationism and has been

described as a “salad bowl” or “cultural mosaic” rather than a

melting pot. Melting pot policy neglects the fact that each

cultural group has the right to be recognized as a group in it

with its own identity, and each cultural group has the right to

demand acknowledgement of this identity.

“Salad bowl”, based on the conception of multicultural

education policy, can be an important solution to the various

issues of our diversified society. With this approach,

multicultural education can cultivate the democratic values and

attitudes of students from multicultural backgrounds which

guarantee the human right to be taught for all in a democratic

society (Cho, 2006).

Multicultural and Intercultural Education. As cited by Salla

Maatta (2008), Multicultural Education is quite complex to define

since there is no universally accepted definition for it. In his

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research, he quoted Ekstrand (1994) defining Multicultural

Education as education which is usually formal, and in which two

or more cultures are involved. While intercultural education

stresses more on the interaction process with mutual contacts

between people representing different groups. The terminology

concerning multicultural education is not uniform. In view of the

foregoing differences of terminologies, Ekstrand (1994) strongly

argued that intercultural education and multicultural education

are much more common than transcultural education, multiethnic

education, and cross cultural education.

According to Banks (2006), as cited by Laconsay (2011),

Researchers and policymakers who prefer the term intercultural

education contend that intercultural education implies an

education that promotes interaction among different cultures

whereas multicultural education does not. Banks (2006) further

claimed that multicultural education is more broadly

conceptualized than intercultural education addressing, for

example, societal inequities and racism. Moreover, the term

intercultural education is rarely used outside of Europe and that

multicultural education is widely used in North America.

For the sake of this study, the researcher will be using

multicultural education since it is the most common term in

literature and it is Banks’ dimensions of multicultural education

that was used as a basis in the formulation of the 50- item

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questionnaire. The said questionnaire focuses mainly along the

five dimensions: content integration, knowledge construction,

prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, and empowering school

culture and social structure.

Cultural Pluralism Theory. The theory of cultural pluralism

promotes on the right of all citizens to coexist equitably with

their distinct cultures, languages and identities. Everyone is

entitled to preserve any aspect of their heritage as long as it

does not interfere with the legal rights of others. Cultural

Pluralism encourages acculturation and rejects assimilation. It

supports a democratic society that recognizes and acknowledges

the cultural pluralistic nature of a country (Sheets, 2005).

Social learning theory. According to Bandura (1970), people

learn from one another through observation, imitation and

modeling. This theory argues that cognition is the product of

socialization and behavior. McLeod (2011) further explained that

in society, children are surrounded by many influential models,

such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV,

friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These

models provide examples of masculine and feminine behavior to

observe and imitate. They pay attention to some of these people

(models) and encode their behavior. At a later time they may

imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they have observed. They may do

this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’

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or not but there are a number of processes that make it more

likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society

deems appropriate for its sex.

Cross- cultural adaptation theory. According to Kim (2001),

this theory is conceived as a process of dynamic unfolding of the

natural human tendency to struggle for an internal equilibrium in

the face of often adversarial environmental conditions. Multiple

forces are simultaneously at work surrounding the communicative

interface between the individual and the host environment, from

the conditions of the environment and the ethnic and personal

predispositions of the individual.

Furthermore, this theory tells about the ability to adapt to

the host culture and on how the individual can deal with the

norms and practices of the said community. Hence, adapting the

norms and practices of the host culture would sacrifice some of

the older practices that one is identified of.

Acculturation model of SLA. As defined by Brown (1994), it

is a process of becoming adapted to new culture. It involves

reorientation of thinking and feeling, not to mention

communication. Schumann (1986) claims that acculturation, or the

integration of the L2 learner into the target linguistic

community is not a direct cause of second language acquisition

(SLA), but rather it is the first in a chain of factors which

results in natural SLA. Schumann further proposed that

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"acculturation as a remote cause brings the learner into contact

with TL-speakers and verbal interaction with those speakers as a

proximate cause brings about the negotiation of appropriate input

which then operates as the immediate cause of language

acquisition". This implies that Acculturation is mainly used to

show how blending into the target culture ensures successful L2

learning. In Schumman's model there are eight variables for

student success: a) Social dominance which happens when L2

students may not want to learn a target language from a culture

that is considered superior to their own; it makes the learner

feel inferior. b) Assimilation, preservation, and adaptation are

based on the learner’s choice to take in the target culture, or

preserve one's own. c) Enclosure is the degree to which the L2's

target society resembles their own will to facilitate learning.

d) Cohesiveness occurs if the L2 is too culturally-bound to his

peers, the learning will be harder to accomplish. e) Size: L2

learning is to be done best in smaller groups. f) Congruence: The

more similar the target culture is, the most likely that the

learning will occur. g) Attitude: If the L2 feels resentful or

negative about the target culture the learning may not happen. h)

Intended length of residence: Also entails consistent exposure to

the target language.

Culture is a deeply ingrained part of the core of a person’s

being, and that language is the most visible expression of that

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culture. And so if a person’s view, self identity and systems of

thinking, acting, feeling and communicating are disrupted by a

sudden change from one culture to another, culture shock takes

place.

Social distance connotes the cognitive and affective

proximity of two cultures which come into contact within an

individual. It denotes dissimilarity between cultures. Schuman’s

hypothesis is that the greater the social distance between two

cultures the greater the difficulty the learner will have in

learning the second language and conversely, the smaller the

social distance ( the greater the social solidarity between

cultures) the better will be the language learning situation.

Communication accommodation theory. Developed by Howard

Giles, Donald Taylor and Richard Bouhris – essentially assumes

that, in communicative interactions, people use strategic

behaviour, mainly based on language, to achieve a desired social

distance between themselves and their interlocutors i.e., to

maintain perceived separation or nearness with interlocutors

(Giles 2007). This means that individuals monitor their verbal

communication depending on variables such as a) the person with

whom the person is talking, b) the origin of the discourse and,

c) the need to create distance, proximity or identity. This shows

that individuals are not mere recipients of verbal communication,

but interactive participants whose brains are in a consistent

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state of decision-making. Decisions during discourse include

convergence, which entails changing your speech to match that of

the person with whom you are speaking (rate of speech,

intonation, use of pauses) and divergence, which is the choice to

emphasize your unique way of speech so that you can create a

distance from others; sometimes when people imitate or "fake"

accents to create identity, it is a form of either divergence or

convergence, depending on the goal.

Learning style theory. As defined by Gardner (1983), every

individual is endowed with a number of distinct forms of

intelligences in varying degrees. These multiple intelligences,

according to Gardner are categorized as: linguistic, musical,

logical, mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, intrapersonal

and interpersonal. These types of intelligences should be

considered when teaching. According to Gardner as cited by Kim,

E.H (2008), teaching should focus on the particular intelligences

of each person. As he emphasized the need to consider the

cultural context of multiple intelligences, he also claimed that

each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences.

Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theory (SLA)

The Acquisition or the “acquired system” is the product of

subconscious process similar to that of a child during

acquisition of its first language. The learning or “the learned

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system” is the product of formal instruction. These two

distinctions of language acquisition and learning are the most

fundamental of all as hypothesized by Krashen. According to

Krashen (1988), the acquisition system is the utterance

initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the

‘monitor’ or the ‘editor’ (Monitor hypothesis). Language

acquisition as further explained by Krashen, is a process that

does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules,

and does not require tedious drill. It rather requires

meaningful interaction in the target language through natural

communication where the grammatical structure of the target

language is naturally acquired (Natural order hypothesis) and is

free from anxiety and emotional drawbacks that may impede the

learner’s motivation to speak or interact (Affective filter

hypothesis). Words that are easy to comprehend as they are

immersed to the environment of the target language (Input

hypothesis), acquisition not learning of language then takes

place.

The Affective filter hypothesis as claimed by Krashen

states that learners with high motivation, self confidence, a

good self image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped

for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low

self esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to ‘raise’ the

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affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that prevents

comprehensible input from being used for acquisition.

Language and Culture. Language is a powerful cultural tool

and is also an aspect of identity because it categorizes one as a

member of distinctive linguistic, social, cultural and ethnic

groups. These two are inseparable because the existence of one is

dependent on the other. People who share the same language and

lifestyle represent a community having their own culture,

customs, tradition and beliefs.

Teachers having different cultural backgrounds from learners

of diverse culture can be challenging especially when teachers

are expected to maintain high level of achievement. According to

Hollins (1993), as quoted by Gorham (2001), the current teaching

force probably can combine knowledge about content, pedagogy, and

how their students learn in ways that generate positive learning

outcomes for their diverse student populations. Teachers have the

capacity to make adjustments in instruction and curriculum, which

should facilitate students’ understanding of their own history,

life experience, perceptions, and life goals. The planning and

monitoring instruction to ensure that this is accomplished are

the essence of teaching and learning (Hollins, 1993). For all the

teachers, this is a challenge but more specifically to teachers

in the university having foreign students in their class.

Consequently, Banks (2006) claimed that culture as a broadly

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based emotion and sense of group identity- is reflected in a

group’s dialect and vocabulary. Because cultural group uses a

dialect to embody and transmit its cultural content, knowledge

about the cultural group presupposes knowledge of its dialect. To

better understand the people from a particular culture, one

should study their dialect.

Identification. It is “a social- psychological process

involving the assimilation and internalization of the values,

standards, expectations, or social roles of another person or

persons… into one’s behavior and self conception. When an

individual develops an identification with a particular group, he

or she internalizes the interests, standards, and role

expectations of the group” (Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969).

According to Banks (2006), all individuals belong to many

different groups and consequently develop a multiple group

identification. Students have a gender identification, a family

identification, a racial identification, as well as

identifications with many other formal and informal groups.

Identity as defined by Brodkin (1998), Derschowitz (1997),

and Waters (1990) is a concept that relates to all that we are.

Societal quests for single narrow definitions of nationalism have

prevented many students from getting in touch with that dimension

of their identity that relates to ethnicity and culture.

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Instructional Materials

According to Titone, Plummer & Kiellar (2012) it has long

been documented that there is a direct link between the relevance

of instructional materials and learner’s successful educational

experience. With the growing diverse kinds of learners in a

classroom, there is a need to reconstruct, modify or adapt

instructional materials that would cater to the individual needs

of the students. In the study of Titone et al (2012), they

explained the reason of their research on the beautiful, high

quality, English language books donated by the U.S to schools in

Swaziland in Africa. In an interview with the teachers, it was

found out that the books that were donated are not practical and

so they do not use these books in teaching the students. This

puzzled the researchers and began to surmise the one obvious

reason which was that the North American culture represented in

all of the books became a challenge that these Swazi teachers

neither had the time, nor the willingness, nor the wherewithal to

overcome. As attested by Sleeter (2008), “Evidence suggests that

students learn more, attend more regularly, and participate more

actively when they can relate to the curriculum by seeing

themselves and their communities mirrored in it than when they do

not”. Furthermore, Grassi & Barker (2010) contended that a

founding principle of successful English Language Learning

education mandates that the learner be able to see him or herself

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in the educational materials. Only then that students’

interaction will be enhanced by providing content which reflects

to the learners cultural backgrounds.

Pulverness (2003) suggested the use of instructional

materials that develop cultural awareness among language learners

if literary texts more directly represent experiences of cultural

engagement. Besides, an enhanced language syllabus that takes

account of cultural specificity would be concerned with aspects

of language that are often neglected in course materials:

connotation, idiom, the construction of style and tone,

rhetorical structure, critical language awareness and

translation.

Furthermore, Pulverness (2003) suggested that there are

different ways in which teachers can make use of appropriate

extra materials which enable them to go beyond the course

materials. These include: a teacher’s own photographs or posters,

students’ own photographs and posters, extra texts, and video

extracts. Listening to the utterances of native speakers, reading

of original texts, or picture of native speakers engaged in

natural activities will introduce cultural elements into the

classroom. These materials can compensate for cultural dimensions

that are totally absent from some course materials.

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Curricular Infusion Model

There are four approaches to instructional materials that

are integrated in a multicultural curriculum. Banks developed a

model of curricular infusion to explore and define different

approaches to the integration of multicultural content into the

curriculum. These approaches are the following:

The Contributions Approach. This is commonly referred to as

the heroes and holidays approach. It is utilized by including

ethnic heroes into the existing curriculum and using criteria

similar to those used to select mainstream heroes. The curriculum

is not altered and its basic structure, goals, and main ideas

remain the same. Ethnic content may be limited to special days,

weeks, months, or events. According to McCann(2003), teachers

might involve students in lessons or experiences related to the

event, but little attention is given to the ethnic groups either

before or after the event, nor is the cultural significance or

history of the event explored in any depth.

The contributions approach is known to be the easiest

approach to use because it does not require any alterations to

the existing curriculum, and can give the illusion that diversity

is being celebrated. McCann (2003) further contended that the

approach has many limitations and the most significant is that it

does not give students the opportunity to see the critical role

of ethnic groups in the society. Rather, the individuals and

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celebrations are seen as an addition or appendage that is

virtually unimportant to the core subject areas. Furthermore,

teaching about heroes and holidays does not ensure any discussion

of oppression, social inequity, and struggles with racism and

poverty.

The Additive Approach. This is a second level of content

integration which is sometimes called the ethnic additive

approach. It is almost the same with the first approach where in

it allows the teacher to put content into the curriculum without

changing it. This approach requires little time, effort,

planning, or training. It allows teachers to add a unit about

ethnicity, a book or a course in the curriculum. The problem is

that, the added unit, book or course is not a main topic; and

therefore, it limits the learners to expound their understanding

about the added information.

The additive approach has lapses too, the same as the

contributions approach. Material is studied from the perspective

of mainstream historians and the events, concepts, ideas, and

issues are presented from a dominant perspective. Like the first

level, this approach seems to defy many of the basic tenets of

multicultural education. Individuals or groups of people from

marginalized groups in society are included in the curriculum,

yet racial and cultural inequities or oppression are not

necessarily addressed.
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The additive approach fails to help students understand how the

dominant and ethnic cultures are interconnected and interrelated.

Neither of the first two levels of content integration attempts

to examine and deconstruct structures in our society that

maintain racial inequity. Because these approaches are the

easiest and require the least amount of change on the part of

educators, they are the most commonly seen in the field of

education.

The Transformative Approach. This approach differs

fundamentally from the first two. It enables students to see

concepts from several cultural and ethnic perspectives. It

requires the infusion of perspectives, frames of reference, and

ideas that will expand students' understanding of an idea. The

challenge of this approach is that it requires a complete

transformation of the curriculum and, in some cases, a conscious

effort on the part of the teacher to deconstruct what they have

been taught to think, believe, and teach. McCann (2003) provided

a situation that showed people growing up in the United States or

Canada, regardless of race or ethnicity, have learned that white,

European men made the history, and, on occasion, others helped

out. When taught about people of color, more often than not, it

has been from a dominant perspective. To embrace the

transformative approach, teachers must be willing to deconstruct

their own existing knowledge, explore alternative perspectives

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critically, research and include voices and ideas other than

those traditionally presented to us, and address their own roles

in perpetuating racism and oppression.

The Decision Making and Social Action Approach. The fourth

and final approach to the integration of content into the

curriculum includes all of the elements of the transformative

approach but adds components that require students to make

decisions and to take action related to the concept, issue, or

problem they have studied. This approach requires that students

not only explore and understand the dynamics of oppression, but

also commit to making decisions and changing the system through

social action. For example, in a decision making and social

action approach curriculum, students develop and implement

strategies to eradicate racism, sexism, or any other form of

oppression in their schools, work environments, and personal

lives. Students working at this level of infusion might explore

how racism, stereotypes, and detrimental policies are still

manifested in our society and in their environments by using

self-reports interviews, and other data to provide multiple

perspectives on the topic. Then they could analyze their own

values and beliefs, apply their new knowledge, identify

alternative courses of action and decide what, if any, actions

they will take to address these issues in their school,

workplace, or community. The major goal of this approach is to

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teach students thinking and decision making skills, to empower

them, and help them acquire a sense of political awareness and

efficacy.

Statement of the Problem

This study is aimed at determining the Multicultural

teaching competence (MTC) of English teachers as perceived by

teachers who handle AB English major courses and the perceptions

of AB English and Bachelor of Secondary Education Majoring in

English students in relation to the multicultural teaching

competence of their English teachers. These students are grouped

as Filipinos and foreigners of the University of the Cordilleras,

Baguio City.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following using

Bank’s Dimensions Typology of Multicultural Education.

1. What is the level of multicultural teaching competence(MTC)

of English teachers as perceived by:

a. the teachers,

b. AB English students and BSED Major in English students?

2. What is the difference between the perceptions of teachers

and students along:

a. content integration,

b. knowledge construction,

c. equity pedagogy
 The Problem
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d. prejudice reduction

e. empowering school culture and social structure?

Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the

perceptions of teachers and students along the five dimensions of

Multicultural education.

3. What instructional material can be proposed to improve

multicultural teaching competence of English teachers?

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