DECEMBER 21, 2021

PHASE 1

MAGIC BULLET THEORY/

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY
 Magic bullet theory graphically assumes that the media’s message is a bullet fired from the
“media gun” into the viewers head. Similarly the hypodermic needle model uses the same idea
of the “shooting double paradigm”. It suggests that the media injects its messages straight into
the passive audience. It is also known as the- hypodermic/ syringe theory or hypodermic/ bolt
theory. The magic bullet/ bolt theory model originates from “Harold Laswell’s book 1927”
 Development of the theory:
In the mid-1930s media scholars found the first theory on the media effects and the media
behavior. During world war-2 media played a vital role in both U.S. and Germany to make an
influence in the people’s mind.
 The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for propaganda and they produced lots of movies
about their achievement which made a great impact in German's mind.
 Later the United States also used its own Hollywood and produced films like "it happened one
night", " It's a wonderful life" And "Mr. Smith goes to Washington '' to portray Germany as an
evil force which also made an impact on America's minds. Here the media audience accepts the
messages directly without any rejection.
The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of any empirical finding from research. Few
media scholars did not accept this model because it was based on assumption rather than any
scientific evidence.
● LAZARSFELD AND HERTA HERZOG, 1938 testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio
broadcast "the war of the worlds"(a famous comic program) by broadcasting it in a news
bulletin period which made a wide spread reaction and panic among the American mass
audience. Through this investigation they found that the media message does affect the
audience directly.
Application of the magic bullet theory:
● In 1938, Orson Welles and his friends at the Mercury Theatre created a radio drama on the day
before Halloween. Based on H.G.WELL'S "WAR OF THE WORDS", it was broadcasted as if it was a
live news report at the scene of alien invasion. The broadcast was made in a very realistic
manner which was good enough to make the audience believe that this was an actual event. As
a result of which millions of listeners panicked.
Assumption:
● Passive audience: This experiment proved that the audience was ready to receive the message
and processed them the way media intended to be interpreted.
● Uniform response: Everyone reacts to the message in the same way and they receive the same
influence.
● Immediate effect: When a message is received, it affects the audience's belief, attitudes and
their behavior immediately. The theory doesn't assume gradual effects of media.
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● Direct effect: This theory doesn't assume other factors that may affect the audience. The
content broadcasted/published has the power to directly affect the individuals.
Hypodermic needle theory:
● The hypodermic needle theory believes that the mass media has a direct relationship with very
many isolated groups of individuals.
● The hypodermic needle theory basically means that the effects of mass media are direct,
immediate and powerful.
The causes:
● The fast growing popularity of radio and television.
● The growing importance of advertising and propaganda.
● The Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on the impact of the motion pictures on
children.
● The Hitler's use of the mass media during the Second World War to unify the German public and
gain legitimacy of his agenda.

End of the 1st phase

● Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet did a study on the impact of the media on the election result in
the USA. It was conducted during the election of Franklin D.Roosevelt in 1940. The study titled
"the people's choice" Proved that the propaganda by the media did not affect the views of the
people. Rather interpersonal communication was more impactful.
● STIMULUS-RESPONSE MODEL **
● Changes in the perspective of media theory came with the Payne Fund Studies. The study
funded by payne fund was on the effect of movies on children (it was performed in the 1920s
and 1930s).
● It was instrumental in framing the Hays code which specified certain “Don’ts” and “Be Carefuls
”.

2nd Phase

● The second phase of the standard history lasted approximately from the end of the 1930s to the
end of the 1960s and was distinguished by the assumption that the media was largely not
influential. The most famous of this group of researchers were Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert
Merton.
● Paul Lazarsfeld believed in the deconstruction of the bullet theory. Media was believed not to
be powerful and it is people's opinion which shapes the media.
● They said “the sheer presence of these media may not affect our society so profoundly as is
widely supposed” and that “big business finances the production and distribution of mass
media… he who pays the piper generally calls the tune”.
Limited effect theory

● The limited effect theory believes that the media does not have the impact which it thinks it
does.
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● Only a few people are actually open to psychological manipulation of the media.
● Media is pretty powerless in shaping opinion because individuals and groups are different from
one another.
● This theory argues that people generally choose what to watch based on what they already
believe. The media has only a limited influence. However, this ignores the impact that the media
has in setting the agendas and creating public interest in particular subjects. How the media
frames groups and ideas in content, affects the conclusion people may draw. Also, this theory
came into existence when the availability and dominance of media was far less widespread. .
Joseph Klapper's Limited effect theory

● Klapper’s Limited effect theory was also known as Phenomenistic theory or Reinforcement
theory.
● Joseph Klapper's 1960 study also concluded that mass communication does not ordinarily serve
as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of
mediating factors.
● This theory was hard to accept by the advertisers as well as the propagandist. Therefore this "no
effect" theory was subjected to reexamination almost as soon as it was disseminated.
● The third phase of research on the media effect theory can be traced after that. This phase went
on to examine beyond the idea of exposure and content. It looked at long term changes which
are cognitive rather than about simple effects on attitude.
● Joseph Klapper (in 1960) at Columbia University was concerned that average people
exaggerated the power of the media. He introduced what he called phenomenistic theory. With
this theory he argued that media rarely have any 'direct effect' and are relatively powerless
when compared with other social and psychological factors such as social status, group
membership, strongly held attitudes, education and so forth.
● Comparatively in the 50s and 60s led to the belief that media had a limited effect on the people.
During the 50s, it had a time of economic stability and people had relaxed time. But again in the
late 60s the famous inflation happened and therefore insecurity in the society prevailed.
Economic and political turmoil started.
● The late 60s was the time of war, political discord as well as inflation. This the theory became
more complex and intriguing
● The 1960s saw the growing influence of the left thinkers who believed the media to be
controlling and powerful enough to legitimatize issues and as well as views.
3rd phase

● The third phase that is from the end of the 1960s through the end of the 1970s was
characterized by the rediscovery of strong media effect. According to standard media effect
history, an essay by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann entitled “Return to the concept of powerful mass
media” (1973) can be considered to have marked the beginning of the third phase where the
media was found strong and influential.