EV+Life Cycle

Life-cycle assessment of electric vehicles
Hans-Jörg Althaus
Technology & Society
Empa
hans-joerg.althaus@empa.ch
www.empa.ch/mobility
LowCVP/IMechE Life-Cycle Seminar, One Birdcage Walk, Westminster, London, 14 November 2011, Hans-Jörg Althaus
Motivation
2010: 2050:
• 1 billion cars • 5 billion cars
• 50 trillion km / year
• 2.5 trillion l fuel / year
(ca. 18% of global oil
demand 2009)
• 6 billion t CO2/year
(ca. 20% of global
GHG emissions 2010)
Electric vehicles as a solution?
Outline
 How are (indirect) CO2-emissions (and other environmental indicators)

assessed?
 How do we model «mobility»?
 Functional units and system boundaries
 Data
 Results: Global Warming Potential (GWP)
 Is GWP a suitable environmental indicator for (electric) mobility?
 How variable are the results?
 What are the reasons for variability?
 What are the ranges?
 Conclusions
How are environmental burdens assessed: LCA procedure
Goal definition Life Cycle Model Life Cycle Inventory
Resources Disposal Emissions
Use
Materials Product
Production
Energy
Waste
Life Cycle Impact Assessment

CH-PV
LCA Cumulative
UCTE-combined
CH-PVgas
(ISO 14’040)
Electric
UCTE-combined gas
UCTE-Coal
CH-PV Life Cycle Inventory
Electric
UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear
UCTE-combined
CH-PV gas
Electric
CH-nuclear
CH-mix
UCTE-combinedUCTE-Coal
gas Road
Road
Electric
CH-mix
UCTE-mix
CH-nuclear
UCTE-Coal Road Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
Road
ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid
Plug-in (80/20 UCTE-mix

CH-mix
CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle Li-ion
w/o Battery
Li-Battery
Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
CH-nuclear Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
Li-ion Battery System per
UCTE-mix
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline)
Gasoline Exhaust emissions
Li-ion Battery
CH-mix Li-ion Battery
ExhaustNon-exhaust
emissions Resources functional Emissions
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) emissons

Exhaust emissions
UCTE-mixGasoline
Biogas
Non-exhaust emissonsemissons
Gasoline Exhaust
Non-exhaust
Fuel emissions
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Biogas

Palmmethylester Fuel Fuel unit
Biogaswood
Palmmethylester
E85 waste
Gasoline Non-exhaust emissons
Palmmethylester
E85 waste
E85 wood
sugar cane
Biogas Fuel
E85 waste
E85 wood
sugar canegas
PalmmethylesterNatural
E85 sugar cane
Natural gas
E85 waste wood Diesel
Natural Diesel
gas
E85 sugar cane Gasoline
Diesel
Natural gasGasoline 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Gasoline
Diesel 0.00E+00 1.00E-07 2.00E-07 3.00E-07 4.00E-07
Global Warming
0 Potential
0.005 kg CO2-Eq0.015
0.01 / km (substitution)
0.02 0.025 0.03
HumanGasoline
health damage, Ecoindicator 99 (H) DALY / km (substitution)
Ecosystem damage, Ecoindicator 99 (H) pdf*m2*a / km (substitution)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Ressourcenschaden, Ecoindicator 99 (H) MJ-surplus / km (substitution)

System boundaries
Emission
Emission
CO2
Emission
Environmental Emission
Impact 2
Emission
Emission,
Emission Emission Emission
Resources
Emission
How is mobility modeled?
 Functional unit: 1 vehicle kilometer (vkm) per year 2015
How is mobility modelled: Vehicle
 Golf-Class vehicles with different (hypothetical) drive-trains

Electric car
Conventional car Body & glider
Body & glider Axles, breaks,

wheels,
Axles, breaks, suspension,
wheels, Cockpit, A/C-
suspension, system, seats,
Cockpit, A/C- doors, lights,
system, seats, entertainment, …
doors, lights, Drive train
entertainment, … Electric motor,
Drive train gearbox,
controller,
Engine, gearbox, charger, cables,
cooling system, cooling system,
fuel system, …
starter, exhaust,
lubrication, … Battery
400 kg Li-ion-
battery (45 kWh)
How is mobility modelled: Energy consumption
 Golf-Class vehicles with different (hypothetical) drive-trains

 Life mileage: 150‘000 km
 Energy demand calculated: NEDC + real world addition
 Break wear reduced for electric & hybrid cars
 Maintenance: spare & wear parts. Batteries are replaced in every second
electric vehicle
 Use on Swiss road network
Palmmethyl- E85 from
Energy carier / Biogas (Swiss
Electricity¹ Diesel Gasoline Natural gas ester PME sugar cane²
Drive train Kompogas)
(Maleysia) (Brazil)
20 kWh/100km
Electric - - - - - -
0.72 MJ/km
Mix CH (80%) Hybrid (20%)
Plug-In hybrid 16 kWh/100km - 0.98 l/100km - - - -
0.58 MJ/km 0.31 MJ/km
Euro 5
Hybrid - - 4.9 l/100km - - - -
1.56 MJ/km
Euro 5 Euro 5 Euro 5 Euro 5 Euro 5 Euro 5
ICE - 4.9 l/100km 6.8 l/100km 6.3 m3/100km 5.44 l/100km 8.07 l/100km 6.3 m3/100km
1.76 MJ/km 2.17 MJ/km 2.17 MJ/km 1.76 MJ/km 2.17 MJ/km 2.17 MJ/km
¹: 6 generation scenarios (mix CH, mix UCTE, nuclear power CH, combined gas power UCTE, coal UCTE, PV CH)
²: Scenario with E85 from European waste wood
Narep-Seminar, 4.4.2011, Hans-Jörg Althaus

Results: Global Warming Potential (GWP)
CH-PV
UCTE-combined gas
Electric
UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear
CH-mix
Road
UCTE-mix
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery

Gasoline Li-ion Battery
Biogas
Exhaust emissions
Palmmethylester
E85 waste wood Non-exhaust emissons
E85 sugar cane Fuel
Natural gas
Diesel
Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution)
Is GWP suited to measure «environmental impacts»?
What are relevant environmental aspects for E-mobility?

 Human health damage
 Climate change
 Toxic emissions CO2
 Smog formation
 Damage to ecosystem
 Climate change
 Land use / land use changes
 Eutrophication
 Damage to resources
 Non renewable energy demand (fossil, nuclear)
 Resource depletion (non energetic)
 Others
 Radioactive waste
Is GWP a suitable environmental indicator?
GWP EI 99, Human health damage
CH-PV CH-PV
UCTE-combined gas UCTE-combined gas
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear CH-nuclear Road
CH-mix CH-mix Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
Road Li-ion Battery
UCTE-mix UCTE-mix

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions
Gasoline Gasoline Non-exhaust emissons

Li-ion Battery
Biogas Biogas Fuel
Exhaust emissions
Palmmethylester Palmmethylester
E85 waste wood Non-exhaust emissons E85 waste wood
E85 sugar cane Fuel E85 sugar cane
Natural gas Natural gas
Diesel Diesel
Gasoline Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.00E+00 1.00E-07 2.00E-07 3.00E-07 4.00E-07
Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution) Human health damage, Ecoindicator 99 (H) DALY / km (substitution)
EI 99, ecosystem damage EI 99, Resource damage

CH-PV CH-PV
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal Road
CH-nuclear Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
Road CH-nuclear
Li-ion Battery
CH-mix Vehicle w/o Li-Battery CH-mix
Exhaust emissions
UCTE-mix Li-ion Battery UCTE-mix Non-exhaust emissons
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Fuel

Gasoline
Fuel
Biogas Biogas
E85 waste wood
E85 waste wood
E85 sugar cane
E85 sugar cane
Natural gas
Natural gas
Diesel
Diesel
Gasoline
Gasoline
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Ecosystem damage, Ecoindicator 99 (H) pdf*m2*a / km (substitution)
Ressourcenschaden, Ecoindicator 99 (H) MJ-surplus / km (substitution)
GWP CML 01, Human toxicity potential
CH-PV CH-PV
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear CH-nuclear
CH-mix CH-mix
Road
UCTE-mix UCTE-mix

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Road
Gasoline Li-ion Battery Gasoline
Vehicle w/o Li-
Biogas Biogas Battery
Exhaust emissions
Palmmethylester Palmmethylester Li-ion Battery
Exhaust
E85 sugar cane Fuel E85 sugar cane emissions
Natural gas Natural gas Non-exhaust
emissons
Diesel Diesel
Fuel
Gasoline Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.E+00 1.E-14
Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution) CML01 Human toxicity potential (normalized) / km (substitution)
CML 01, photochemical oxidation potential

CH-PV
UCTE-combined gas
Electric
UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear Road
CH-mix Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
UCTE-mix Li-ion Battery
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions

Biogas Fuel
Palmmethylester
E85 waste wood
E85 sugar cane
Natural gas
Diesel
Gasoline
0 1E-14
CML01 photochemical oxidation potential, normalized / km (substitution)
GWP CML 01, Land use
CH-PV CH-PV
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal
CH-mix CH-mix Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
Road
UCTE-mix UCTE-mix Li-ion Battery

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions
Gasoline Li-ion Battery Gasoline Non-exhaust emissons
Biogas Biogas Fuel
Exhaust emissions
Diesel Diesel
Gasoline Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 1E-17 2E-17 3E-17
Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution) CML01 land use, normalized / km (substitution)
CML 01, eutrophication potential

CH-PV
UCTE-combined gas
Road
Electric
UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear
Li-ion Battery
CH-mix
Exhaust emissions
UCTE-mix
Non-exhaust emissons
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline)

Fuel
Gasoline
Biogas
Palmmethylester
E85 waste wood
E85 sugar cane
Natural gas
Diesel
Gasoline
0 1E-14 2E-14 3E-14
CML01 Eutrophication, normalized / km (substitution)
GWP Cumulative energy demand, fossil
CH-PV CH-PV
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal
CH-mix CH-mix
Road Vehicle w/o Li-
UCTE-mix UCTE-mix Battery

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Li-ion Battery
Gasoline Li-ion Battery Gasoline
Exhaust
Biogas Biogas emissions
Exhaust emissions
Palmmethylester Palmmethylester Non-exhaust
E85 waste wood Non-exhaust emissons emissons
E85 waste wood
Fuel
Diesel Diesel
Gasoline Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 1 2 3 4
Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution) Cumulative energy demand, fossil MJ-Eq / km (substitution)
Cumulative energy demand, nuclear Cumulative exergy demand, metals

CH-PV CH-PV
Electric
Electric
UCTE-Coal UCTE-Coal
CH-nuclear CH-nuclear
CH-mix CH-mix
UCTE-mix UCTE-mix

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline)
Gasoline Gasoline
Biogas Biogas Road
Road
Palmmethylester Palmmethylester Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
E85 waste wood E85 waste wood Li-ion Battery
Li-ion Battery
E85 sugar cane E85 sugar cane Exhaust emissions
Exhaust emissions
Natural gas Natural gas Non-exhaust emissons
Non-exhaust emissons
Diesel Diesel Fuel
Fuel
Gasoline Gasoline
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Cumulative energy demand nuclear MJ-Eq / km (substitution) Cumulative exergy demand, metals MJ-Eq / km (substitution)
Uncertainties of LCA results
Variability of Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Battery mass
 Variability within Golf-Class 250 –450 (400) [kg]
CH-PV -37.5% / +12.5%
Battery production data
UCTE-combined
Notter et al 2010: 52 kggas
CO2/kWh Battery mileage:
Electric
Ishihara et al 2002: UCTE-Coal

75 kg CO2/kWh
100-200 (150) [1’000 km]
Frischknecht 2011: CH-nuclear
123 kg CO2/kWh
Zackrisson et al 2010: 166 kg CO2/kWh -33% / +33%
CH-mix
Road
UCTE-mix Energy consumption
Vehicle mass
Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery

18 – 22 (20) [kWh/100km]
Gasoline Li-ion Battery
Efficiency (60-90 (82)%
Biogas 18 – 26 (20) [kWh/100km]
Exhaust emissions
Palmmethylester
Vehicle composition Ancillary consumption
normal / light alu
E85/ waste
light CFC
wood 19 – 22 (20)Non-exhaust
[kWh/100km] emissons
100% / 138% / 171% CO2cane
E85 sugar -Eq Overall
Fuel
(at constant weight) 15 – 30 (20) [kWh/100km]
Natural gas
-25% / +50%
Diesel
Gasoline
Glider mass reduction necessary Vehicle mass
for same Carbon0footprint:
0.05 0.1 0.15 1.20.2
– 1.4 (1.23)
0.25 [t] 0.3 0.35
Light alu: 33% -3% / +14%
Light CFC: 50%
Variability of GWP caused by variability of energy consumption
worst case
CH-PV baseline Lightweight materialization
best case for vehicle and variability
of data for battery
UCTE- combined
worst case
UCTE-
production not included

gas
baseline
best case
worst case
coal
baseline
best case
worst case
nuclear
CH-
baseline Road
best case Vehicle w/o Li-Battery
worst case Li-ion Battery
CH-mix
baseline Fuel
best case
worst case
UCTE-
mix
baseline
Benchmark: Diesel car
best case
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Variability of GWP with different battery data
Zackrisson Road
CH-mix
Frischknecht
Li-ion Battery
Ishiara
Exhaust emissions
Notter Fuel
Zackrisson
UCTE-mix
Frischknecht
Ishiara
Only
Notter variability
of data for
Natural Gas battery
ICE-fossil
production
Diesel
Gasoline
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Variability Battery data: main differences
Energy consumption in cell / battery production

 Notter et al / Ishihara et al:  Zackrisson et al / Frischknecht:
bottom up modelling of processes top down from producers
 Energy demand calculated from  Total energy demand from
measured or theoretical demand “sustainability report” of producer
for e.g. heating.  Allocation between various
 No allocation necessary products of this producer by
turnover and battery price
Main uncertainty with method
 Energy efficiency of processes  Product prices might not
 Some processes might be lacking correspond to energy
(eg. energy demand for lighting) consumption, especially if labour,
amortisation of development and
infrastructure cost is important
Cradle to gate electricity demand
 Notter et a.: 54 kWh/kWh  Frischknecht: 153 kWh/kWh
 Ishihara et al: n.A.  Zackrisson et al: n.A.
Production of a Li-Ion battery: Bottom-up
Brines Li2CO3 active electrode material
LiMn2O4 coating
+binder+solvent
Cathode winding/stacking assembly
Al foil
PE foil Separator Cell Battery Pack
Cu foil
Anode Enclosure
mining & Graphite
refining of Al, +binder+solvent coating filling/sealing Electronics,
Cu, Mn, C, ... BMS
Ethylene
Wires &
carbonate Electrolyte
Connectors
+ LiPF6
Lithium salt
Ethylene
Cathode
Anode
carbonate
Cathode
Rest cathode
Lithium man-
ganese oxide
Battery
Aluminium
Separator
Anode
Rest anode
Graphite
0 20 40 60 80 100 Copper
Single cell graphics: Empa
CO2-Equivalents [%] Battery pack Source: Notter et al 2010
Production of a Li-Ion battery: Top-down
Products: Energy
Photographic paper demand / Makes sense if
Disks Sales share of
Videotapes energy cost on
Alcaline batteries
150 GWh electricity / 2.3 Ml oil

product price
Hard disks is similar for
Silver oxide batteries all products
DVD-R / Blue-ray discs
1 billion Euro
Shavers
CR batteries
150 Wh/€ el.
Li-Cl batteries
2.3 ml/€ oil 150 kWh/kWh el.
Computer tapes
2.3 l/kWh oil
Lens units
Price: per kWh battery
Li-ion batteries for cell-phones
1000 €/kWh
Head phones
Air-Zn-Batteries Price:
Automatic urine sample systems Raw material cost
Batteries for Endoscopes Energy cost
Tapes for wire connections Capital cost
CR-batteries for sensors Marketing cost
Lenses for safety assurance Benefit
Source: Env. Report Maxwell (rounded) / Assumptions
Lab meeting «Electromobility», Intorduction, Hans-Jörg Althaus
Conclusions
 Carbon footprint can be dominated by infrastructure or by operation

depending on electricity source
 Different data sources for carbon footprint of batteries lead to different
interpretations of carbon footprint of electric mobility
 Variability of carbon footprint within the “Golf-class” is rather high (ca.
75% - 150% of baseline)
 Specific vehicles demand for specific assessments!
 Always check data sources before interpreting any results
 Never trust results from intransparent data
 The ranking of vehicles with different drivetrains according to carbon
footprint is completely different from the ranking according to other
environmental impact indicators
 Carbon footprint is not sufficient as environmental performance
indicator!
Main sources for this presentation:
Thank you
hans-joerg.althaus@empa.ch
www.empa.ch/mobility
And thanks to:

Andrea Del Duce, Christian Bach,
Fabienne Habermacher, Marcel Gauch,
Patrick Soltic and Rolf Widmer for
various inputs, data and fruitful
discussions.
Be prepared for the non-fossil future
And to CCEM, Swisselectric, AXPO, EKZ,
Post for financial support. And:
Narep-Seminar, 4.4.2011, Hans-Jörg Althaus

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EV+Life Cycle

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Life-cycle assessment of electric vehicles

 How are (indirect) CO2-emissions (and other environmental indicators)

Goal definition Life Cycle Model Life Cycle Inventory

Resources Disposal Emissions

Life Cycle Impact Assessment

Plug-in (80/20 UCTE-mix

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) emissons

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Biogas

Ressourcenschaden, Ecoindicator 99 (H) MJ-surplus / km (substitution)

 Functional unit: 1 vehicle kilometer (vkm) per year 2015

 Golf-Class vehicles with different (hypothetical) drive-trains

Body & glider Axles, breaks,

 Golf-Class vehicles with different (hypothetical) drive-trains

Narep-Seminar, 4.4.2011, Hans-Jörg Althaus

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery

Global Warming Potential kg CO2-Eq / km (substitution)

What are relevant environmental aspects for E-mobility?

ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid

Gasoline Gasoline Non-exhaust emissons

EI 99, ecosystem damage EI 99, Resource damage

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Fuel

ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid

CML 01, photochemical oxidation potential

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Exhaust emissions

CML01 photochemical oxidation potential, normalized / km (substitution)

ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid

CML 01, eutrophication potential

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline)

CML01 Eutrophication, normalized / km (substitution)

Vehicle w/o Li-Battery

ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid

Cumulative energy demand, nuclear Cumulative exergy demand, metals

ICE fossil ICE Bio-fuels Hybrid

Ishihara et al 2002: UCTE-Coal

Plug-in (80/20 CH-mix/gasoline) Vehicle w/o Li-Battery

production not included

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Energy consumption in cell / battery production

PE foil Separator Cell Battery Pack

150 GWh electricity / 2.3 Ml oil

 Carbon footprint can be dominated by infrastructure or by operation

And thanks to:

Narep-Seminar, 4.4.2011, Hans-Jörg Althaus

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