Electric Vehicle

Guidelines
for the LCA

of electric vehicles
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
Authors: Andrea Del Duce (Empa), Patricia Egede (TUBS),

Gerlind Öhlschläger (TUBS), Tina Dettmer (TUBS),
Hans-Jörg Althaus (Empa), Thomas Bütler (Empa),
Eva Szczechowicz (RWTH)
Date: 2013/01/31
Deliverable: D2.1 Guidebook for LCA studies

in the context of e-mobility
Project acronym: eLCAr

Project full title: "E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations"
Project Number: 285571
Project duration: 13 months, 01.02.2012 – 28.02.2013
Project coordinator: Sebastian Winter (RWTH)
Scientific coordinator: Hans-Jörg Althaus (Empa)
Call (part) identifier: FP7-2011-GC-ELECTROCHEMICAL-STORAGE

Theme: [GC.ENV.2011.3.1.3-2], [Operational guidance
for Life Cycle Assessment studies of the European
Green Cars Initiative]
Funding scheme: Coordination and support action
Key words: eLCAr, European Green Cars Initiative, LCA,

Life Cycle Assessment, e-mobility, Ecological Assessment,
Supporting Action, Guidelines, electric vehicles, EV,
training materials, dissemination materials
The research leading to these results has received funding

from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme
(FP7/2007-2013).
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles I
Contents
List of figures III

List of tables III
List of provisions IV
Abbreviation V
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 ILCD framework and compliance statement 2
1.3 Acknowledgment 3
2 Key definitions 4
3 Brief introduction to LCA (ILCD) 8

3.1 Goal definition 9
3.2 Scope definition 9
3.3 Inventory analysis 10
3.4 Impact assessment 11
3.5 Interpretation 12
3.6 Iterative approach 13
4 Technological context 14
4.1 Introduction 14
4.2 BEVs and serial PHEVs 15
4.2.1 The interdependency matrix 16
4.2.2 Common parameter platform (CPP): Transport parameters,
vehicle types and modules 19
5 Goal definition 24
5.1 Intended application 24
5.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations 24
5.3 Reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context 25
5.4 Target audience 28
5.5 Comparisons to be disclosed to the public 28
5.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential factors 28
5.7 Component vs. vehicle system analysis and definition
of foreground and background system 28
5.8 Goal definition example 31
6 Scope definition 33
6.1 Introduction 33
6.1.1 Consistency and reproducibility 33
6.2 Function, Functional Unit and reference flow 34
6.2.1 Functional Units for e-mobility applications 34
II Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
6.3 Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework 39

6.3.1 General Life Cycle Model 39
6.3.2 Multifunctionality 40
6.3.3 Comparative studies 43
6.4 System boundaries 44
6.4.1 Derivation of system boundaries for e-mobility applications
and cut-off criteria 45
6.5 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment 47
6.6 Technological, Geographical and Time-related scope
and data representativeness. 51
6.7 Comparison between systems 53
6.7.1 Functional unit, considered alternatives and assumptions 53
6.7.2 Methodological and data consistency 54
6.7.3 Scenarios in support of comparisons 55
6.8 Identifying critical review needs 56
6.9 Planning reporting 57
6.10 Scope definition example 59
7 Life cycle inventory analysis 61

7.1 Identifying processes within the system boundary and data collection 62
7.1.1 The Production Phase 62
7.1.2 Use Phase 73
7.1.3 End-of-Life Phase 106
7.2 Filling data gaps and future technologies 113
7.2.1 Filling data gaps of established technologies 113
7.2.2 Modelling future technologies 115
7.3 Solving multifunctionality 116
7.4 Modelling the entire system 119
7.5 Calculating LCI results 120
8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ILCD 2010) 121
9 Life Cycle Interpretation 124
10 Reporting 132
10.1 Introduction and overview (10.1 in ILCD 2010) 132
10.2 Reporting principles (10.2 in ILCD 2010) 133
10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements and reporting elements 134

11 Critical Review (ILCD 2010) 141
12 References 143
13 Annex 145
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles III
List of figures
Figure 1: Framework of LCA 8
Figure 2: Iterative approach in LCA. 13
Figure 3: Main building block of BEVs and serial PHEVs. 15
Figure 4: Multifunctional process 40
Figure 5: Various methods for solving multifunctionality: (a) subdivision
(including virtual subdivision), (b) system expansion and substitution,
(c) allocation. Based on ILCD 2010 41
Figure 6: System boundaries for the LCA of an electric vehicle. 45
Figure 7: LCIA framework within the ILCD (ILCD 2010). 48
Figure 8: Main process in vehicle production. 62
Figure 9: Assembly of vehicle out of its components. 63
Figure 10: Processes within component production 64
Figure 11: Main elements in the use phase of a BEV. 73
Figure 12: Drivetrain consumption contribution. 77
Figure 13: Example of consumption calculation. 95
Figure 14: Comparison of the EU-27 electricity mix with Germany’s specific electricity mix
(Source: ELCD database, data set from 2002) 96
Figure 15: Main processes of the end-of-life phase 106
Figure 16: Example of options of a traction battery recycling 109
Figure 17: Example of a decision tree for EoL options of an electric motor
with a permanent magnet 111
Figure 18: System expansion and substitution using the example of scrap metal. 118
List of tables
Table 1: Interdependency Matrix 16
Table 2: Use of the Interdependency Matrix 18
Table 3: General vehicle parameters. 20
Table 4: Weight decomposition of the glider. 21
Table 5: Weight distribution of the electric drivetrain. 23
Table 6: Influence of various factors on vehicle energy sub-consumptions.
Values in ‘total’ refer to the variation of total consumption due to a variation
of the influencing factor within a reasonable range for a best case
and worst case vehicle 75
Table 7: Duration, distance and average speed of various drive cycles and their parts.
The basic consumptions relative to the basic consumption in the NEDC are
to be understood as approximate values valid for the same vehicle. 76
Table 8: Different categories for charging installations (Source: G4V, www.g4v.eu) 100
Table 9: Interdependency Matrix. Numbers explained in the legend. 145
IV Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
List of provisions
5 Goal definition 30
6 Scope definition -
6.1.1 Consistency and reproducibility 34
6.2.1 Functional units for e-mobility applications 38
6.3 Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework (summary of Provisions 6.5.4
of the general ILCD Handbook) 43
6.4.1 Derivation of system boundaries for e-mobility applications and cut-off criteria 46
6.5 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment 49
and data representativeness. 52
6.7 Comparisons between systems 55
6.8 Identifying critical review needs 56
6.9 Planning and reporting 58
7 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis -
7.1.1.1 Process identification in the production phase 65
7.1.1.3 Planning data collection 68
7.1.1.4 Data collection 69
7.1.2.1.1 Consumption calculation methods 92
7.1.2.1.2 and 7.1.2.1.3
Recommendations on electricity mixes and distribution network 102
7.1.2.1 Processes within the system boundary and data collection: the use phase 105
7.1.3.1 Identifying processes within the system boundary of the end-of-life phase 107
7.1.3.4 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of batteries 109
7.1.3.5 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electric motors 111
7.1.3.6 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electronics 112
7.1.3.7 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of tyres and wheels 112
7.1.3.8 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of residual car body 113
7.2 Filling data gaps and future technologies 116
7.3 Solving multifunctionality 118
7.4 Modelling the entire system 119
7.5 Calculating LCI results 120
8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ILCD 2010) 122
9 Life Cycle Interpretation -
9.2 Identification of significant issues 125
9.3.2 Completeness Check 125
9.3.3 Sensitivity Check (of accuracy and precision) 128
9.3.4 Consistency Check 129
9.4 Conclusions, limitations and recommendations 130
10 Reporting -
10.2 Reporting principles 133
10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements and reporting elements 136
11 Critical Review 142
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles V
Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BMS Battery Management System
CADC Common Artemis Driving Cycle
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CPP Common Parameter Platform
DC Direct Current
EGCI European Green Cars Initiative
eLCAr E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations
ELCD European Reference Life Cycle Database
Empa Eidgenössische Materialprüfungs- und Forschungsanstalt
EoL End-of-Life
EU European Union
EV Electric Vehicle
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
ICEV Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle
ifu Institut für Umweltinformatik Hamburg GmbH (ifu hamburg)
ILCD International Reference Life Cycle Data System
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCI Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
RE Renewable Energy
REEV Range-Extended Electric Vehicle
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RWTH Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH Aachen University)
SBSS Steering, Braking and Suspension System
TUBS Technische Universität Braunschweig
UCTE Union for the Coordination of the Transmission of Electricity
V2G Vehicle-to-Grid
WLTC Worldwide Harmonized Light Duty Test Cycle
yr. year
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles 1
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
This document provides guidelines for the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of electric vehicles
and builds on the framework established by the International Reference Life Cycle Data Sys-
tem (ILCD). It was developed within the E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations
(eLCAr) project with two main aims: First, to support LCA practitioners in the European Green
Cars Initiative (EGCI) who need to assess the potential environmental benefits of the technolo-
gies developed through this program. Second, to create a common framework concerning
methodological choices and assumptions for LCAs of electric vehicles that will ultimately en-
hance the comparability of studies performed within the EGCI and, therefore, maximize the
information on the potential benefits that may be obtained through the various projects of
this initiative.
To achieve this, the general guidance provided by the ILCD Handbook was adapted to the spe-
cific case of electric vehicles with a particular focus on battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where
‘vehicle’, in this case, means ‘passenger car’. A major task was to develop tailored recommenda-
tions for goal definition, scope definition and life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis. Here, particular
attention has been dedicated to the guidelines for defining the most convenient system for a
given problem, to suitable functional units, and to the key processes that should be included in
the LCA of electric vehicles and their components. With respect to LCI analysis, the recommen-
dations have been split according to the production, use, and end-of-life phases, since each
of these phases is characterized by particular challenges. Moreover, guidelines for key issues
concerning the modelling of LCI data and for comparison of different technologies have been
given, including for the challenges of comparing established and future technologies. This is
a key topic for the EGCI as some projects propose new technological alternatives that might
substitute current products, but are not currently produced through an industrial process. Fi-
nally, in order to define the technological context of the guidelines, an introductory chapter
on BEV technology was compiled that describes the main modules of an electric vehicle and
highlights the potential interactions between different parts of the vehicle.
As described above, these guidelines have been developed as a support for LCA practitioners
in the field of electric vehicles. Direct interaction with potential users of this document has
been sought throughout its preparation. During the first consultation workshop, the needs
of the stakeholders were collected and discussed. The first draft of the guidelines was pre-
sented in a second workshop where stakeholders could comment and leave feedback on the
proposed version. The complete version of the guidelines was then discussed in a third, final
workshop in which a last round of feedback was collected.
Overall, the final aim was to create a relatively compact document that would not require an
in-depth knowledge of the general ILCD Handbook. Nevertheless, some references to self-
contained parts of the ILCD Handbook that could not be made more specific for the case of
electric vehicles, but needed to be mentioned, have been used. The reader should therefore
2 Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
have access to a copy of the original handbook which is available on the website of the Life
Cycle Thinking and Assessment platform:
http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications
Learning materials and more project information are available on the eLCAr website:
http://www.elcar-project.eu/
Additional to the eLCAr guideline and the specific learning materials, the eLCAr website con-
tains two deliverables presenting the results of sensitivity analysis of parameters variations for
specific use cases influencing the LCA results. The results allow a first classification of the influ-
ence parameters regarding their importance. The deliverables are “D3.1 – Analysis of exem-
plary LCA use cases”1 and “D3.2 - Methodological and legal implications of revised guidelines”2.
The guidelines prepared in the eLCAr project are developed with the clear aim of supporting
practitioners from the EGCI. Their use for any other study is always on the user’s discretion.
1.2 ILCD framework and compliance statement
The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards provide an indispensable framework for Life Cycle Assess-
ment. However, it leaves the individual practitioner with a range of choices, which can affect
the legitimacy of the findings presented in an LCA. While flexibility is essential in responding
to the large variety of questions addressed, further guidance is needed to support consistency
and quality assurance. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System has therefore been
developed to provide guidance toward consistent and quality assured Life Cycle Assessment
data and studies. The ILCD Handbook itself serves as a parent document for developing sector
and product-group specific guidance documents like these eLCAr guidelines. This document
has been developed with the intention of being in line with (i.e. not contradicting) ISO 14040
and 14044:2006. This is to ensure that ILCD and eLCAr compliant studies will also conform
to ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 (but not vice versa, as these documents are more specific). If
conformity to ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 is sought for an LCI or LCA, it is nevertheless recom-
mended to have compliance confirmed as part of a critical review. To ease identification, the
provisions in this document marked [ISO!] are stricter than ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. Where
additional provisions are made that are not explicitly addressed in ISO 14040 and 14044:2006,
the provision is marked [ISO+]. These marks serve for orientation only, since for some provi-
sions it is a matter of interpretation whether they are a stricter or an additional requirement, or
whether they are already implicitly covered in the ISO standards. Also, some provisions com-
bine one aspect that is in addition with another aspect that is stricter.
The aim of the eLCAr guidelines is to provide a framework with which a practitioner can realise
an LCA that is compliant with the ILCD framework. This means the provisions and explanations
1 ELCAr Website: http://www.elcar-project.eu/uploads/media/D3.1_Analysis_of_exemplary_use_cases_update.pdf

2 ELCAr Website: http://www.elcar-project.eu/uploads/media/D3.2_Guideline_Implications.pdf
given are in line with those of the ILCD Handbook with respect to five aspects: data quality,
method, nomenclature, review and documentation.
Data quality
Data quality refers to completeness; representativeness (technological, geographical and tem-
poral); and the precision, uncertainty, methodological appropriateness and consistency of the
data.
Method
Method refers to the appropriateness of LCI modelling and other methodologies; and to the
consistency of their use.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature refers to the correctness and consistency of nomenclature (appropriate naming
of flows and processes, consistent use of reference ILCD elementary flows, use of units, etc.);
and to terminology (use of technical terms).
Review
Review refers to the appropriateness and correctness of the review type, review methods, and
documentation. This includes ensuring that the methods used to carry out the LCA are con-
sistent with this guidance document and are scientifically and technically valid. The data used
must be appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study, and interpretations
must reflect identified limitations and the goal of the study. The study report must also be
transparent and consistent.
Documentation
Documentation refers to several topics: documentation extent (appropriate coverage of what
is being reported); form of documentation (selection of applicable forms of reporting and doc-
umentation); documentation format (selection and correct use of the data set format or report
template, and review documentation requirements).
If all applicable provisions are implemented, an LCA conducted using this guide will be ILCD
compliant.
1.3 Acknowledgment
This work was funded by the European Commission through the Seventh Framework Pro-
gramme (FP7). We thank the other colleagues of the eLCAr project, Sebastian Winter (RWTH),
Mieke Klein (ifu), Marten Stock (ifu), Martin Ramacher (ifu) and Martina Prox (ifu), for valuable
support.
2 Key definitions
Allocation 'Partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product

system between the product system under study and one or more
other product systems.' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Battery electric Vehicle in which motion is caused by an electric motor and the en-
vehicles (BEV) ergy used for moving the vehicle is stored in a battery
Body/Chassis Parts responsible for the structure of the vehicle; framework on
which all the other modules are mounted.
City cars Small vehicles typically meant for 2-4 people with little luggage
space and mainly designed for urban use.
Cockpit Internal parts of the vehicle comprising seats, belts, interiors, steer-
ing wheel, etc.
Compact cars Vehicles for 4 to 5 people with moderate luggage space.
Comparative life 'Comparison of LCA results for different products, systems or services
cycle assessment that usually perform the same or similar function. This includes “com-
parative assertions” according to ISO 14’044 as well as simple compari-
sons without an explicit claim regarding superiority or equivalence of
one product versus another.' (ILCD, 2010)
CPP Common Parameter Platform. A framework of technical vehicle pa-
rameters that practitioners may use for defining their systems. The
CPP is part of these guidelines.
Drivetrain (of 5 main building blocks: transmission, electric motor, power elec-
BEV) tronics, battery and charger.
The tyres and wheels are not considered to be part of the drivetrain
here as these are common to all vehicle technologies (e.g. electric,
ICE). The drivetrain, then, brings together only those components
which are key to the specific technology.
Elementary flow 'Material or energy entering the system being studied that has been
drawn from the environment without previous human transforma-
tion, or material or energy leaving the system being studied that is
released into the environment without subsequent human transfor-
mation.' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Energy density of Within these guidelines, this parameter will be considered as ener-
battery gy per kg of battery (kWh/kg), including packaging and the battery
management system.
Foreground/ Foreground system: The main object of the analysis. E.g. in the LCA
Background sys- of an electric vehicle, all processes directly involved in the produc-
tems tion, use, and end-of-life of the vehicle, such as the manufacturing
of its components.
Background system: All the processes required to realize the proc-
esses used in the foreground. E.g. in the LCA of an electric vehicle,
the production of raw materials used in the production of the vehi-
cle or the generation of the electricity used during operation of the
vehicle. These processes would typically belong to the background
system.
For example, in the LCA of an electric vehicle with a newly designed
lightweight chassis, the specific production process of the light-
weight chassis would belong to the foreground system while the
generation of the electricity used by the lightweight chassis factory
or laboratory (typically obtained from some external supplier and
not specifically produced within the factory) would be considered a
background process.
Functional unit 'Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference
unit.' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Glider The part of a vehicle that is mostly independent of the drivetrain
technology. A glider includes, for example, the body or chassis,
wheels and tyres, cockpit, non-propulsion electrical system, and the
steering, brakes and suspension system.
Hybrid vehicles / Vehicles in which an electric motor supplies at least part of the pro-
Hybrids pulsion while at least part of the energy to propel the vehicle and/
or to drive the electric motor is supplied by an internal combustion
engine.
Impact category 'Class representing environmental issues of concern to which life cycle
inventory analysis results may be assigned.' (ISO 14044, 2006)
International Ref- The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards provide an indispensable frame-
erence Life Cycle work for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This framework, however,
Data System leaves the individual practitioner with a range of choices, which can
(ILCD) strongly affect the final results in an assessment. While flexibility is
essential in responding to the large variety of questions addressed,
further guidance is needed to support consistency and quality assur-
ance. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System has there-
fore been developed to provide guidance for consistent and quality
assured Life Cycle Assessment data and studies. The ILCD consists
primarily of the ILCD Handbook and the ILCD Data Network.
The development of the ILCD was initiated by the European Com-
mission and has been carried out through a broad international
consultation process with experts, stakeholders, and the public.
LCI result (=life cycle inventory analysis result): 'outcome of a life cycle inven-
tory analysis that catalogues the flows crossing the system bound-
ary and
provides the starting point for life cycle impact assessment' (ISO
14044, 2006)
Life cycle 'consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw
material acquisition or generation from natural resources to final
disposal' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Life Cycle Assess- 'Life Cycle Assessment is a methodology based on the compilation
ment (LCA) of the inputs and outputs and the evaluation of the potential envi-
ronmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle' (ISO
14044, 2006).
LCA is based on a functional perspective and encompasses four
phases: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assess-
ment, and interpretation. Moreover, this method is of an iterative na-
ture since insight gained from the interpretation phase can typically
be used to optimize specific issues in the other phases. Repeating
this procedure several times can improve the quality of the results.
Life cycle im- 'Phase of life cycle assessment aimed at understanding and evaluat-
pact assessment ing the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental
(LCIA) impacts for a product system throughout the life cycle of the prod-
uct.' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Life cycle inven- 'Phase of life cycle assessment involving the compilation and quanti-
tory analysis (LCI) fication of inputs and outputs for a product throughout its life cycle.'
(ISO 14044, 2006)
Mid-size vehicles Vehicles for 5 people with more generous luggage space
Non-propulsion Electronics that are not included in the drivetrain such as the lights,
electrical system the comfort devices (heating and air conditioning), and the naviga-
tion and entertainment systems
Process 'Set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs
into outputs' ( ISO 14044, 2006)
Product 'Any goods or services' (ISO 14044, 2006)
Raw material 'Primary or secondary material that is used to produce a product'
(ISO 14044, 2006)
Reference flow 'Measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system
required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit' (ISO
14044, 2006)
Renewable en- Any energy resource that is virtually inexhaustible, naturally regener-
ergy ated over a short time scale and derived directly from the sun (such as
thermal, photochemical, and photoelectric), indirectly from the sun
(such as wind, natural hydropower (i.e. not from pumped storage),
and photosynthetic energy stored in renewable biomass), or from
other natural movements and mechanisms of the environment (such
as geothermal and tidal energy). Renewable energy does not include
energy resources derived from fossil fuels, waste products from fossil
sources, or waste products from inorganic sources.
Serial Plug-in BEVs with an on board range extender - i.e. a device to recharge the
hybrid electric propulsion battery by converting a liquid or gaseous fuel into elec-
vehicles (serial tricity. In this document only serial PHEVs based on internal combus-
PHEV) tion engines will be considered.
Attention: This definition is narrower than general definitions for
PEHVs which include all hybrid vehicles with a battery that can be
charged from an external electricity supply.
Substitution Solving multifunctionality of processes and products by expanding
the system boundaries and substituting all not required functions
with alternatives, i.e. with process(es) or product(s) that supersede
the not required functions. Effectively, the life cycle inventory(ies) of
the superseded process(es) or product(s) is subtracted from that of
the analysed system, i.e. the system is 'credited'. Substitution is a spe-
cial (subtractive) case of applying the system expansion principle.
System 'Any good, service, event, basket-of-products, average consumption
of a citizen, or similar object that is analysed in the context of the
LCA study.
Note that ISO 14044, 2006 generally refers to "product system", while
broader systems than single products can be analysed in an LCA
study; hence here the term "system" is used. In many but not all cas-
es the term will hence refer to products, depending on the specific
study object.
Moreover, as LCI studies can be restricted to a single unit process as
part of a system, in this document the study object is also identified
in a general way as "process / system".' (ILCD, 2010)
System boundary Set of criteria defining which processes are parts of the system ana-
lysed in the LCA.
System expan- Expanding the system boundary by adding specific processes or
sion products and the related life cycle inventories to the analysed sys-
tem. Used to make systems with only partly equivalent functionali-
ties comparable within LCA. (based on ILCD, 2010)
Unit process 'Smallest element considered in the life cycle inventory analysis for
which input and output data are quantified' (ISO 14044, 2006)
3 Brief introduction to LCA (ILCD)
Life Cycle Assessment is a structured, comprehensive and internationally standardised meth-

od. It quantifies all relevant emissions and resources consumed and the related environmental
and health impacts and resource depletion issues that are associated with any goods or ser-
vices (“products”).
Life Cycle Assessment takes into account a product’s full life cycle: from the extraction of re-
sources, through production, use, and recycling, up to the disposal of remaining waste. Criti-
cally, LCA studies thereby help to avoid resolving one environmental problem while creating
others: This unwanted “shifting of burdens” is where you reduce the environmental impact at
one point in the life cycle, only to increase it at another point. Therefore, LCA helps to avoid, for
example, causing waste-related issues while improving production technologies, increasing
land use or acid rain while reducing greenhouse gases, or increasing emissions in one country
while reducing them in another.
Life Cycle Assessment is therefore a vital and powerful decision support tool, complementing
other methods, which are equally necessary to help effectively and efficiently make consump-
tion and production more sustainable.
The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards provide the indispensable framework for Life Cycle As-
sessment, as summarised in the following figure. Its individual steps and iterative approach are
briefly introduced in the following paragraphs.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
Goal
definition
Direct applications:
Scope
definition Product development
and improvement
Interpretation Stratecic planning
Public policy making
Inventory Marketing
analysis Other
Impact
assessment
Figure 1: Framework of LCA

This framework, however, leaves the individual practitioner with a range of choices, which can
affect the legitimacy of the results of an LCA study. While flexibility is essential in responding
to the large variety of questions addressed, further guidance is needed to support consistency
and quality assurance.
Since LCA addresses the entire life cycle of a product, it is necessary to consider a very large
number of processes, from the production of specific sub-components in the product of inter-
est, to the disposal of waste flows obtained from the extraction of the raw materials required
somewhere in the life cycle. For this reason, a key distinction in the realization of an LCA is the
one between foreground and background systems. The foreground system focuses on the ob-
ject of interest and covers questions such as which materials (and how much of these) are re-
quired for its production, or which fabrication machinery is required. The background system
addresses the description of all the services and products that are needed for the realization
of the foreground system including, for example, the production of the materials that are then
used in the manufacturing of the product of interest. This distinction is very important since,
as will be described in more detail in this document, foreground and background systems are
treated differently during the development of the LCA.
3.1 Goal definition
Goal definition is the first phase of any life cycle assessment, independent of whether the
LCI and LCA are limited to the development of a single unit process data set to be used in
a complete LCA, or if a complete LCA of a comparative assertion is to be published. During
goal definition, among other considerations, the decision-context(s), intended application(s)
of the study, and the targeted audience(s) are identified. Goal definition is decisive for all other
phases of the LCA:
Goal definition guides all aspects of scope definition, which in turn sets the framework
for the LCI and LCIA work.
Quality control is applied in view of the requirements derived from the goal of the work.
If the work goes beyond an LCI, the final results of the LCA are evaluated and interpreted.
This, also, is to be done in close relationship to the goal of the work.
A clear, initial goal definition is therefore essential for a correct later interpretation of the re-
sults. This includes ensuring, as far as possible, that the deliverables of the LCI/LCA cannot
unintentionally and erroneously be used or interpreted beyond the initial goal and scope for
which it was carried out.
3.2 Scope definition
During the scope definition phase, the object of the LCI/LCA (i.e. the exact product(s) or other
system(s) to be analysed) is identified and defined in detail. This shall be done in line with the
goal definition. Next, and the main part of scope definition, is to determine the requirements
for methodology, quality, reporting, and review in accordance with the goal of the study, i.e.
based on the reasons for the study, the decision-context, the intended applications, and the
addressees of the results.
When deriving the scope of an LCI/LCA from the goal, the following scope items shall be clear-
ly described and/or defined:
The type(s) of deliverable(s) of the LCI/LCA, in line with the intend application(s)
The system or process to be studied and its function(s), functional unit, and reference
flow(s)
LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes and products
System boundaries, completeness requirements, and related cut-off rules
LCIA impact categories to be covered and selection of specific LCIA methods to be ap-
plied, as well as - if included - normalisation data and weighting set
Other LCI data quality requirements regarding technological, geographical and temporal
representativeness and appropriateness
Types, quality and sources of required data and information, and here especially, the re-
quired precision and maximum permitted uncertainties
Special requirements for comparisons between systems
Identifying critical review needs
Planning the reporting of results
3.3 Inventory analysis
During the life cycle inventory phase, the actual data collection and modelling of the system
(e.g. product) is to be done. While the specific data to be collected and its modelling is strongly
influenced by the goal and scope of the study, the aim is generally to collect information that
will allow the depiction of the average behaviour of the system of interest, including normal
operation, abnormal operation, start and stop procedures, etc., and not only the constant and
nominal functioning. The findings of an LCI analysis then become the input for the subsequent
LCIA phase and also provide feedback to the scope phase as initial scope settings often need
adjustments. Typically, the LCI phase requires the greatest efforts and resources in an LCA: for
data collection, acquisition, and modelling.
The first steps of the LCI further clarify details and concretize the requirements derived dur-
ing the scope phase, e.g. specific data sources to be used and planning data collection. The
requirements themselves, however, are always to be understood to be a scope issue.
The inventory phase involves the collection of the required data for:
Flows to and from processes:
Elementary flows (such as resources and emissions, but also other interactions with
the ecosphere such as land use),
Product flows (i.e. goods and services both as products of a process and as inputs and
consumables) that link the analysed process with other processes, and
Waste flows (both wastewater, and solid and liquid wastes) that need to be linked to
waste management processes so a complete modelling of related efforts and envi-
ronmental impacts is ensured.
Other information identified in the scope definition as relevant to the analysed system.
This includes statistical data (e.g. market mix data), process and product characteristics
(e.g. functions and functional units), and all other data and information, except for that
which is directly related to impact assessment.
The specific type of life cycle inventory work depends on the study’s deliverable; not all of the
following steps are always required. In its entirety, life cycle inventory work means:
Identifying the processes that are required for the system,
Planning the collection of raw data and information, and of data sets from secondary
sources,
Collecting unit process inventory data (typically) for the foreground system related to
these processes. An important aspect is the interim quality control and how to deal with
missing inventory data
Obtaining complementary background data in the form of unit process or LCI result data
sets from data providers
Developing proxy LCI data for processes in the background system for which average
or specific data is not available and cannot be developed, typically due to restrictions in
data access or budget
Modelling the system by connecting and scaling the data sets correctly, so that the sys-
tem is providing its functional unit.
This modelling includes solving multifunctionality of processes in the system.
Calculating LCI results, i.e. summing up all inputs and outputs of all processes within the
system boundaries. Only flows crossing the system boundaries remain in the inventory. In
a fully modelled system, these are only the reference flow (final product) and the elemen-
tary flows (exchanges to and from nature).
These steps are taken using an iterative procedure, as explained in chapter 3.6 and illustrated
in Figure 1.
3.4 Impact assessment
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is the phase in an LCA where the inputs and outputs of el-
ementary flows that have been collected and reported in the inventory are translated into im-
pact indicator results usually related to human health, the natural environment, and resource
depletion.
It is important to note that LCA and impact assessment analyse the potential environmental im-
pacts caused by interactions that cross the border between technosphere and ecosphere, and
act on the natural environment and humans. The results in an LCIA should be seen as environ-
mentally relevant indicators of potential impact, rather than predictions of actual environmen-
tal effects. LCA and LCIA are equally distinct from risk based, substance specific instruments.
An LCIA is composed of mandatory and optional steps. It is based on classification and char-
acterisation of the individual elementary flows, which are usually done by LCIA experts who
provide complete sets of LCIA methods for use by LCA practitioners (see separate guidance
document ‘Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment models and indica-
tors’ available from the ILCD website http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications). The
results in an LCIA are calculated by multiplying the individual inventory data from the LCI with
the characterisation factors.
In a subsequent, optional step, the LCIA results can be multiplied using normalisation factors
that represent the overall inventory of a reference system (e.g. a whole country or an aver-
age citizen), thus obtaining dimensionless, normalised, LCIA results. In a second optional step,
these normalised results can be weighted according to the different relevancies that different
impacts may have, thus obtaining normalised and weighted results that can be summed up in
a single value, overall-impact indicator. Note that weighting always involves value choices and
therefore cannot possibly be objective.
3.5 Interpretation
In life cycle interpretation, the results found during a life cycle assessment are appraised in
order to answer questions posed in the goal definition. The interpretation relates to the in-
tended applications of the LCI/LCA and is used to develop recommendations. The life cycle in-
terpretation is the phase of the LCA where the results found in the other phases are considered
collectively and analysed in the light of the achieved accuracy, completeness and precision
of the applied data and assumptions that have been made throughout the LCI/LCA. As was
noted, in parallel to performing the LCI, this serves to improve the LCI model.
If aimed for (e.g. in case of a comparative study or a weak-point analysis), the final outcome
of the interpretation should be conclusions or recommendations that respect the intentions
and restrictions of the goal and scope definition of the LCI/LCA. This especially relates to the
appropriateness of the functional unit and the system boundaries, as well as to the achieved
overall data quality, in relation to the goal. The interpretation should present the results of the
LCA in an understandable way and help the user of the LCI/LCA appraise the robustness of the
conclusions and understand any potential limitations of the LCI/LCA.
The interpretation proceeds through three stages:

First, the significant issues (i.e. the key processes, parameters, assumptions and elemen-
tary flows) are identified.
Then these issues are evaluated with regard to their sensitivity or influence on the overall
results determined during the LCA. This includes an evaluation of the completeness and
consistency with which the significant issues have been handled during the LCI/LCA.
Finally, the results of the evaluation are used to formulate conclusions and recommenda-
tions based on the LCA.
In cases where the study involves comparisons of two or more systems, additional considera-
tions are to be included in the interpretation.
3.6 Iterative approach
An LCI or LCA is almost always an iterative process: once the goal of the work is defined, the
initial scope settings are derived that define the requirements for the subsequent work. How-
ever, as more information becomes available during the life cycle inventory phase of data col-
lection and during the subsequent impact assessment and interpretation, the initial scope
settings will typically need to be refined and sometimes also revised (see Figure 1). Figure 2
gives a more detailed overview of the iterations.
In order to achieve the required precision with the minimum necessary effort, it is recom-
mended to collect data and select external data sources in an iterative manner. Especially for
fully new technologies and complex product systems on which little previous experience ex-
ists, the first iteration may use generic or average data for the background and also many parts
of the foreground systems. This can be combined with expert judgement to identify the key
processes and elementary flows of the product system. The main effort of data collection and
acquisition can thereby be focused on the relevant parts of the system.
Overall data quality

(accuracy, precision, completeness)
3rd Iteration LCIA
 better data for key processes and LCI
flows (background and foreground)
2nd Iteration Evaluation

 revision of scope definition? LCIA Goal
LCI and Scope
 better data for key processes
(background and foreground)
 more specific data for
foreground processes Evaluation
Goal
and Scope
1st Iteration LCIA
LCI
 full product system
 specific data as
available
 easily available Evaluation
Goal
secondary data and Scope
Time and effort
Figure 2: Iterative approach in LCA.

4 Technological context
4.1 Introduction
The aim of this document is to provide guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles, where ‘ve-
hicle’ is to be interpreted as ‘passenger car ‘. Further, the term electric vehicle is commonly as-
sociated with a broad spectrum of technologies in which an electric motor (e-motor) plays a
dominant role in the propulsion system of the car. Examples of technologies associated with
the concept of electric vehicles are:
Battery electric vehicles (BEV), in which motion is caused by an electric motor and the
energy used for moving the vehicle is stored in a battery.
Vehicles in which an electric motor supplies at least part of the propulsion while at least
part of the energy to propel the vehicle and/or to drive the electric motor is supplied by
an internal combustion engine (ICE). Various configurations of hybrids exist in which the
interplay between battery, electric motor and ICE varies.
Fuel cell vehicles, in which an electric motor is responsible for motion, as in BEVs, but the
electricity used is obtained from an on board fuel cell system and a battery.
The guidelines presented here have been developed specifically for the LCA of BEVs and ad-
dress all the main elements required for studies involving this technology. However, many of
the recommendations on how to address key aspects of the LCA of electric vehicles and, par-
ticularly, the LCI of production and end-of-life (EoL), also hold for the majority of devices within
the other technologies mentioned above. Hence, while the full LCA is really covered in detail
only for BEVs, practitioners who are addressing other technologies, for which guidelines on
their LCA have not been developed yet, may find some useful guidance concerning overlap-
ping topics. Due to the conceptual similarities between BEVs and electric vehicles with range
extenders, selected indications are also given for the latter technology, even though it is cur-
rently not one of the most adopted solutions. We will refer to these vehicles as serial plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), but it should be mentioned in this context that the expression
‘range-extended electric vehicle’ (REEV) is sometimes also used in other places. No support is
given, however, for analysing the use phase of any of the hybrids. The vast spectrum of avail-
able configurations, and the topic of tailpipe emissions, places the analysis of consumption by
these classes of vehicles and the deriving of their impacts out of the scope of these guidelines.
Practitioners interested in fuel cell vehicles are referred to the guidelines for LCA of fuel cells
and hydrogen technologies developed within the FC-Hy Guide Project (FCHY, 20011a, 20011b)
for those topics not covered by the guidelines presented here.
Below, the technological context of the vehicles covered by the guidelines is described.
These subchapters are particularly meant for LCA practitioners who are involved in projects
addressing specific vehicle components and who need more information on other compo-
nents and on the overall vehicle system. Moreover, for practitioners focusing on a specific
component, a key issue is to be able to identify whether one can limit the analysis to the
single component or whether it is necessary to include other components or even consider
the entire vehicle. Guidance on this topic will be given through the concept of the interde-
pendency matrix.
4.2 BEVs and serial PHEVs
A BEV is a vehicle in which motion is obtained from an electric motor and all the energy used
for traction is stored in an on-board battery. The vehicle can run as long as there is sufficient
energy in the battery. When that energy has been consumed, the battery must either be re-
charged by connecting it through a charging device to the electricity grid or it needs to be
exchanged in order for the vehicle to continue its journey. Conceptually, a serial PHEV is very
similar to a BEV with the exception that it is equipped with a fuel tank and an ICE which pow-
ers a generator connected to the battery. Whenever the battery runs low, the ICE can be used
to recharge the battery. The ICE is therefore not used directly for traction. The main building
blocks of a BEV and serial PHEV are shown in Figure 3.
Wheels and tyres
Chassis / body
Steering, braking,
ICE system suspension system
(PHEV)
Cockpit:
seats, Power Electric motor/
belts, Battery Transmission
electronics
interiors,
...
Non-propulsion
Charger electrical system
Figure 3: Main building block of BEVs and serial PHEVs.
In Figure 3 one can identify a number of modules which would mostly be the same, regardless
of the technology classes mentioned above. These modules (the body or chassis, wheels and
tyres, cockpit, non-propulsion electrical system, and steering, brakes and suspension system
(SBSS)) form the glider of the vehicle. The remaining modules form the drivetrain of the vehi-
cle, which is the part containing the system’s energy supply and traction technology. The main
elements are the battery, the power electronics, the electric motor, the transmission system,
and the on-board charger. The drivetrain of serial PHEVs also includes the fuel tank, the ICE,
and the generator used for recharging the battery. For BEVs and serial PHEVs (when these are
not using the ICE system), the battery is the on-board energy storage device that powers the
rest of the vehicle. The power electronics comprises an ensemble of devices which, based on
commands from the driver, take energy from the battery and process it so that, when fed into
the electric motor, the requested motion is obtained.
The modules shown in Figure 3 form a vehicle system. Changes in one of the modules can
lead to substantial design and performance changes in other parts of the vehicle. As will be
described in more detail below, when an LCA focuses on a module or component so that it
might lead to such changes, the analysis cannot be limited to the single component, but must
take into account other components or even the rest of the vehicle and its use-phase energy
consumption, which may be influenced. To help understand when this might be the case, an
interdependency matrix has been developed. Once a practitioner has identified the system he
needs to model, he can use the information reported in chapter 4.2.2 ‘Common parameter plat-
form (CPP): Transport parameters, vehicle types and modules’ as a guide for defining its main
parameters. This should ultimately allow him to select appropriate LCI data sets from available
databases or guide him in the collection of data for the realization of his own data sets.
4.2.1 The interdependency matrix

In this subchapter, the interdependency matrix is introduced as a tool to support the analysis
of relevant part-system interactions (see 4.2). The matrix (see Table 1) includes information
about how a component may influence other components (see corresponding column) as
well as how it can be influenced itself (see corresponding row). A table cell containing a ‘1’ in-
dicates a direct influence whereas ‘0’ means that there is no direct influence of the component
the column represents on the component the respective row represents. Indirect effects, e.g.
through an increased energy demand caused by added weight of components, are addressed
separately (see 4.2.1.1). The matrix is given in detail in the annex attached to this document
Components Vehicle
Overall Energy Demand

Power Electronics
Non-p. El. System

Traction-Battery
Vehicle Weight
Aerodynamics
Body (Frame)
Transmission
Insulation
(in use phase)

E-motor
Charger
SBSS
influence(s)…
Vehicle Weight 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Vehicle
Energy Demand 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
(in use phase, NOT via weight)
Charger 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
is/are influenced by …
Traction-Battery 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Power Electronics 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
E-motor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Components
Transmission 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
SBSS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Body (Frame) 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Aerodynamics 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Insulation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-p. El. System 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Table 1: Interdependency Matrix
(chapter 13) and is also available as an Excel spread sheet that can be downloaded from the
eLCAr website. It provides written information about the interdependencies by moving the
cursor to a table cell containing a 1. The given information for the interdependencies are based
on the assumptions, that
Acceleration,
Max. velocity,
Driving distance,
Load (additional),
Comfort and
Construction and type of drivetrain
remain constant for the analysed vehicle. However, the matrix is only meant to supply the LCA
practitioner with a first indication of the general interrelationships. The practitioners them-
selves must then check if an indicated interrelationship is relevant to their specific case and
how it can be further defined. Therefore, currently on-going research in this field should be
taken into account.
4.2.1.1 Overall impact on/of vehicle weight and overall energy demand
As all components have weight (except aerodynamics which is not a component in the narrow-
est sense, but an important feature of the vehicle), they all more or less have an influence on the
overall vehicle weight (see vehicle weight row). The overall vehicle weight, in turn, determines
to a high degree the overall energy demand during the vehicle’s use phase (see the last cell
in that row). Additionally, most of the components also influence the energy demand of the
vehicle during use phase due to properties other than just their weight (see energy demand
row). The overall energy demand, in turn, influences the dimensioning of several of the compo-
nents (see overall energy demand column). Therefore, to avoid over complication, the indirect
effects of increase or decrease of component weights and overall energy demand during the
use phase are mentioned not in the component-component cell, but in the two extra rows on
top and two extra columns on the right for vehicle weight and energy demand (in light grey).
4.2.1.2 Component-component interrelations

The general interdependencies of the technical components of a BEV (except the influences
of their individual weights and energy demands) are described in the lower left part of the
interdependency matrix. Most of those interrelationships appear in the context of the motor–
battery– power electronics relationship and the subsequent dimensioning of the transmis-
sion, and the steering, brakes, and suspension system. Interrelationships are written out in the
following general style:
Example A (possible influence of the power electronics on the traction battery):
The design of the power electronics can influence the life expectancy of the battery.
Example B (possible influence of the electric motor on the transmission):
The speed of the e-motor may have an influence on the requirements of the transmission.
A full list of the table’s cell texts can be found in the annex to this document. Through these ex-
amples, it becomes clear that the purpose of the matrix is to sensitise the practitioner to those
interrelationships, but it cannot substitute for their own detailed analysis. Possible influences
on driving behaviour (e.g. restriction of acceleration) are not included in the matrix, but shall
also be taken into consideration if relevant to the goal and scope of the study.
4.2.1.3 How to use the interdependency matrix

An example of using the interdependency matrix is described for an LCA of the environmental
impact of a modification to the traction battery (Table 2). In the corresponding column of the
matrix (highlighted in yellow), the practitioner can see that the traction battery may have a direct
influence on the overall vehicle weight, on energy demand during the use phase, on the charger,
on the power electronics, and on the body (frame). Moving the cursor to the corresponding
‘mouse holes’ [in the downloadable spread sheet], the following texts become visible:
The weight of the traction battery may strongly influence the overall vehicle weight
The charge-discharge efficiency of the battery moderately influences overall energy demand.
Stand-by losses (e.g. of high temperature batteries or Li-ion batteries using many small cells)
can strongly increase energy demand in the use phase.
The charger must fit the traction battery.
The voltage and the power of the traction battery may have an influence on the necessary size
and performance of the power electronics.
The volume and form of the battery may influence the volume and form of the body (frame).
Components Vehicle

Power Electronics
Non-p. El. System

Traction Battery
Vehicle Weight
Aerodynamics
Body (Frame)
Transmission
Insulation
(in use phase)

E-motor
Charger
SBSS
influence(s)…
Vehicle Weight 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Vehicle
Energy Demand 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
Charger 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Traction Battery 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
E-motor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Components
Transmission 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
SBSS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Body (Frame) 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Aerodynamics 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Insulation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-p. El. System 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Table 2: Use of the Interdependency Matrix
The practitioner should then check if these possible interrelationships apply. In case the voltage
of the modified Li-ion battery requires changes in the power electronics, the power electronics
should be included in the system boundaries. The same holds for the other mentioned possible
interdependencies. Additionally, the effects of a changed vehicle weight should be examined if
the weight of the modified battery is significantly lower or higher than its predecessor. Looking
at the vehicle weight column (highlighted in orange), the practitioner sees that:
The overall vehicle weight may strongly influence the overall energy demand during use phase.
The vehicle weight influences the dimensions of the SBSS.
The vehicle weight may have an influence on the necessary strength of the body (frame).
These relationships should then also be scrutinised and in case there is actually an influence
due to the weight difference on the overall energy demand during the use phase, that column
(highlighted in red) should be taken into account. Given there is a sufficiently high weight
difference, and all those possible interrelationships apply, this would mean that the follow-
ing components should be included in the system boundaries in addition to the Li-ion bat-
tery: charger, power electronics, motor, transmission, SBSS, body (frame). For case studies with
huge differences compared to the preceding product system, even more iterative loops in the
interdependency matrix may be necessary. Furthermore it would be necessary to include the
use-phase energy consumption or the difference between the systems compared.
4.2.2 Common parameter platform (CPP): Transport parameters,

vehicle types and modules
In this subchapter, more technical aspects of electric vehicles are addressed. The idea is to help
practitioners in dimensioning the vehicle system most appropriate to their needs in order to
be able to effectively plan the LCA. A description of common parameters and factors neces-
sary in the definition of a vehicle study for LCA is given below. Specific values are listed when
appropriate. The values presented here, mostly taken from the literature and current technical
specifications of vehicle manufacturers, are meant as indicative values. Since technology is
changing fast, the practitioner shall verify and document that the given values are in accord-
ance with the goal and scope of his study. Practitioners are free to use other values as long as
they are shown to fit the goal and scope of the study and are well referenced.
4.2.2.1 Transport and general vehicle parameters

Passenger cars can be classified into different vehicle types. Here, we will focus on 3 classes:
the micro or city car, the compact car and the mid-size3 vehicle. City cars are small vehicles
typically meant for 2-4 people with little luggage space and are mainly designed for urban use.
Compact cars can accommodate 4 to 5 people and have moderate luggage space, while mid-
size vehicles are typically designed for 5 people plus more generous luggage space.
In an LCA of a vehicle, several general vehicle parameters are required to realize the study and
for planning the LCI. Key parameters are:
Life expectancy of the vehicle (Application: quantification of the total burden and identi-
fication of maintenance needs)
Total weight (Application: dimensioning of vehicle modules for the realization of the LCI
and the use-phase consumption calculation). With respect to the weight of the vehicle, it
is important to highlight that, following Directive 2007/46/EC, this is typically defined as
the mass of the vehicle including standard equipment, the driver (75 kg), fuel (90 % filled),
3 Output of 1st eLCAr workshop (eLCAr 2012)

other liquid containing systems filled to 100 %. The same definition should be applied
when using these guidelines.
Vehicle drag coefficient, cross section and rolling resistance (Application: consumption
calculations for the use phase).
A recent review of vehicle LCAs identified 150 000 km, 200 000 km, and 250 000 km as the most
utilized values for vehicle life expectancy (Hawkins, 2012) while typical calendar lifespans of
10 to 13 years are often reported. The choice of life expectancy has a great influence on the
total burdens caused by the life cycle of electric vehicles, especially if they are charged with
electricity from environmentally sound sources, and should therefore be defined with great
care. Considering currently commercially available BEVs, Table 3 shows typical values for the
above mentioned parameters. The weights are based on the values presented in Grünig (2011)
and include the battery.4
Data status 2012 Micro/City Compact Mid-size

Life expectancy 150000-200000km 150000-250000km 150000-250000km
Typical weights 800-1200kg 1200-1700kg 1700-2100kg
Drag coefficient, cw2 0.31-0.35 0.25-0.31 0.25-0.31
Cross section, A 2-2.3m2 2-2.3 m2 2-2.3 m2
Rolling resistance, cr 0.01-0.015 0.01-0.015 0.01-0.015
Table 3: General vehicle parameters.
Again, it is important to note that a wide variety of vehicles exist, which means that deviations
from the values given for the various classes may occur. These values (and the ones presented
below) are meant as a guide for the practitioner in the definition of their systems.
These values are from a review conducted in 2012 of vehicle LCAs. Due to the fast develop-
ment of electric vehicles and the current premature state of the technology, the values are
likely to change quickly.
4.2.2.2 Vehicle modules

4.2.2.2.1 Glider
As mentioned above, the glider brings together all the modules which are not directly related
to traction technology. Body/Chassis denominates the parts responsible for the structure of
the vehicle. It can be seen as the framework (typically mainly of metallic materials even though
innovative fibres are being more and more exploited as well) on which all the other modules
are mounted. The non-propulsion electrical system comprises all the electronics that are
not included in the drivetrain, such as lights, comfort devices (heating and air conditioning),
or navigation and entertainment systems.
From the studies presented in Schweimer (2000) and Althaus (2010), the following weight dis-
tribution of the glider has been derived:
4 For a list of drag coefficients see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_coefficient and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_drag_coefficient
Data status 2012 Micro/City Compact Mid-size

Body/Chassis 350kg 550kg 655kg
Wheels and tyres 40kg 65kg 80kg
Cockpit (seats, belts, interiors, dashboard, etc.) 180kg 285kg 340kg
Non-propulsion electrical system 40kg 60kg 70kg
Steering, brakes and suspension system 90kg 140kg 165kg
Table 4: Weight decomposition of the glider.
4.2.2.2.2 Drivetrain
As shown in Figure 3, it will be assumed that the electric drivetrain for BEVs can be decom-
posed into 5 main building blocks: transmission, electric motor, power electronics, battery,
and charger. Because, compared to the glider, the drivetrain requires more technology specific
information, the various components will be described in more detail.
The Battery
Batteries are one of the components that have the highest potential for improvement. For this
reason it will be particularly important to define their key parameters with great care using the
information given below. Values for energy density, efficiency and life time are all expected to
increase during the coming years.
The battery is the on-board energy storage device of the vehicle and it comprises an array of
connected cells, the packaging, and the battery management system. A key parameter for
its characterization is its energy density, which, within these guidelines, will be considered as
energy per kg of battery, including packaging and the battery management system. To date,
the most common battery type used in BEVs is the Li-ion battery due to its high energy density
that can range between about 0.8 and 0.120 kWh/kg (Duleep, 2011; Hawkins, 2012), depend-
ing on the characteristics and chemistries of the specific model. Again, these values are typi-
cal values that can be found in commercially available vehicles today. Lower and even higher
values for particularly high-end products are sometimes reported.
Energy density plays a fundamental role in the dimensioning of the battery and, due to its
weight contribution, of the whole vehicle. If, for example, a vehicle is designed to have a range
of 100 km with an average consumption of around 0.2 kWh/km, then a minimum of 20 kWh
of energy needs to be available. However, batteries are not allowed to completely discharge,
but are typically operated to a state of charge (SOC) of around 20 %, meaning that about only
80 % of its total energy is available. For the above example, this would require the battery to
be dimensioned so as to store:
Etot = 20 kWh/0.8 = 25 kWh
At an energy density of 0.1 kWh/kg this would lead to a total battery weight of 250 kg. Looking
at commercially available vehicles, battery weights tend to be between around 100 kg and 400
kg, depending on vehicle size and desired range.
Other key parameters are the efficiency of charge and discharge (for optimized consumption
calculations) and life expectancy (for determining maintenance contributions). The charge
and discharge efficiencies depend on the internal resistance of the battery during charging
and discharging. In Hawkins (2012), an overall average efficiency (i.e. output energy as a func-
tion of the input energy) of 90 % is reported even though lower and higher values can also be
found in the literature (see, for example, Campanari (2009) for an approach involving specific
charging and discharging resistance that leads to an overall average efficiency of 92 %). In this
context, and as will be described in more detail in 7.1.2.1.1 ‘Consumption calculation methods’,
it should be mentioned that, more than average or nominal efficiency, it is dynamic efficiency
as a function of the specific working point that should be analysed in batteries, as well as in
power electronics and electric motors, when it comes to consumption analysis. Nevertheless,
average and nominal values represent a good starting point for estimates.
Life expectancy is a key parameter in the assessment of a battery, even though not much
historical data is available yet for current technologies. Battery life, by definition, ends when
less than 80 % of the initial capacity remains. Important aspects are the calendar lifetime as
well as the lifespan in terms of charging cycles. For lithium-ion batteries, lifespans in excess of
5000 deep cycles have been described in the literature (Duleep, 2011; Majeau-Bettez, 2011). In
terms of calendar years, however, much more uncertainty is currently present. While lifetimes
below the calendar lifetime of vehicles are typically assumed, a clear aim is to reach parity of
lifetime between battery and vehicle in the near future (Duleep, 2011).
The power electronics
The power electronics comprises a number of electronic devices which are required for energy
management between the battery and the electric motor. A key component is the controller,
which takes energy from the battery in the form of direct current and processes it so as to return
the alternating current required for inducing the motion desired by the driver in the electric
motor. To date, high conversion efficiencies are reported in the context of power controllers.
In Campanari (2009), nominal efficiencies of around 97 % are estimated, based on the product
specifications of several manufacturers. While efficiencies are already quite high, it is still ex-
pected that optimizations will occur with respect to device size and weight (Duleep, 2011).
Another important set of devices within the class of power electronics is the regenerative
braking system. This system controls the recuperation of energy during deceleration using the
electric motor as a generator powered by the inertia of the car. The recuperated energy is then
fed back into the battery. Typically, not all the energy returned during deceleration is loaded
into the battery in order to protect it from currents that are too high. The fraction of recovered
energy therefore depends on the recuperation algorithm as well as the efficiency of the elec-
tronics. To the best of our knowledge, no review of devices using current technology exists at
the moment in the literature.
Finally, an on-board charging device is also part of the electronics on the vehicle. Reported ef-
ficiencies vary substantially among different manufacturers, from around 80 % to well above
90 %. Also, it appears that the state of charge of the battery can influence the efficiency of the
charging procedure.
The electric motor
The electric motor converts the electrical energy coming from the power electronics into me-
chanical energy (and, as described above, mechanical energy into electrical energy during re-
generative braking). Various types of electric motors exist even though the permanent magnet,
brushless DC motor seems to be particularly popular in currently available vehicles (Duleep,
2011). In Campanari (2009) a nominal efficiency of 92 % is reported, based on various induction
motor manufacturers, while values around 95 % are reported by some producers. Increases in
efficiency and reduction of motor weight can be expected during the coming years.
Transmission
The transmission is the link between the electric motor and the drive wheels. In contrast to ICE
drivetrains, electric drivetrains can exist in gearless configurations, which reduces the com-
plexity and weight of the system. In this context, too, little information can be found in the
literature on the efficiencies of the transmission systems in current BEVs. The only information
available, to the best of our knowledge, is in Campanari (2009), where a 2 % loss is described.
Serial PHEVs
As described above, serial PHEVs are BEVs equipped with an ICE that can recharge the bat-
tery through a generator. The ICE works as a range extender in case the battery charge runs
low. Since the battery is one of the heaviest and most expensive components of the vehicle,
and since average daily vehicle trips run well below 100 km, a common strategy used in se-
rial PHEVs is to use a battery that will only provide a limited range in all-electric mode, usually
enough for typical daily utilization, and to use the range extender for longer journeys.
A typical example of an all-electric range for such vehicles is 50 km. Using the same numbers
as in the above battery example, this would lead to half the battery weight (125 kg) as opposed
to a BEV with a 100 km range. Of course, the ICE, the fuel tank and the electric motor used as
a generator must then be added. These, however, represent much more mature technologies
than lithium-ion traction batteries. Also, since the ICE is only used to drive the generator, it can
be made to operate at fixed loads at above average efficiency, as opposed to an ICE used for
traction where loads change depending on the specific torque required.
Based on Schweimer (2000), Althaus (2010) and Habermacher (2011), the following weight
distribution for the drivetrain has been derived:
Data status 2012 Micro Compact Mid-Size
E-Motor weight 20kg 50kg 80kg
Power electronics weight (without charger) 30kg 30kg 35kg
Transmission system weight 20kg 20kg 25kg
Charger weight 7kg 7kg 7kg
ICE (ICE system and generator for serial PHEVs) 60kg 80kg 100kg
Table 5: Weight distribution of the electric drivetrain.

5 Goal definition
Goal definition is the first phase of a life cycle assessment. The aim is to describe and state the
key objectives of the analysis and, ultimately, to clarify the question that is at the heart of the
study. Since it lays the foundations for the rest of the work, its precise definition is of funda-
mental importance for avoiding erroneous methodological steps and misinterpretation of the
results.
In goal definition, the following six aspects shall be addressed and documented (ILCD, 2010):
Intended application(s) of the deliverables and results
Limitations due to method, assumptions, and impact coverage5
Reasons for carrying out the study and the decision-context
Target audience for the deliverables and results
Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public
Commissioning agent of the study and other influential factors.3
5.1 Intended application
The goal definition shall first state the intended application(s) of the LCA results in a precise
and unambiguous way (e.g. Comparative assertion of the overall life-cycle environmental
impacts associated with driving 1 km in an electric vehicle with 120 km range having (a) a
lithium-ion battery Type A with 100 Wh/kg and (b) a lithium-ion battery Type B with 120 Wh/
kg energy density).
Overall, by stating the intended application, the practitioner describes the main objective of
the study and the specific research6 question being addressed.
5.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations
If the study is subject to specific limitations due to methods, assumptions and impacts evalua-
tion that might restrict the usability of the results, then these shall be clearly stated within the
goal definition and later be prominently reported (ILCD, 2010).
A typical example of an impact-coverage related limitation is the case of carbon footprint cal-
culations where exclusively greenhouse gas emissions are considered (ILCD, 2010). Since other
impacts, like resource and energy consumption and specific damages to human health and
the ecosystem, are not analysed in such studies, their results and conclusions will neglect key
5 See scope definition in ISO framework.

6 Academic, industrial, institutional, etc.: research intended as investigation for solving and/or
identifying particular issues.
environmental aspects. Hence, limitations (be they on methodology, assumptions, or evalu-

ated impacts) must be taken into account during interpretation and need, therefore, to be
exactly stated in the goal definition.
More examples of the various influences of limitations can be found in section 5.2.2 of the
general ILCD Handbook.
5.3 Reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context
Goal definition shall also explain the reasons for initiating the study, name the drivers and
motivations, and identify the decision-context. Stating the reasons, drivers and motivations is
important as these indicate the desired level of quality and set a basis to judge, among other
things, data quality or special review needs. Clearly, an LCA made by an engineer in an eco-
design company or made for him to get an initial understanding of the main impacts associ-
ated with a specific device will have different quality needs compared to one made within a
governmental institution where the results will determine the development of public policy.
Strictly linked to the reasons, drivers, and motivations is the concept of the decision-context,
which defines whether or not the results of the study will be used to support a decision about
the analysed system. If the study does not involve decision support, then it will typically be of
a more descriptive nature. If it aims to support a decision making process, then a key problem
is to take into account all the relevant consequences that the decision may cause. For example,
the production of Product X might lead to less production of Product Y. From that, the demand
for material Z might increase, while the demand for material W might decrease. In this case it
is necessary to know how the increased demand for material Z will be met and what happens
to the W that is not needed anymore. Will existing markets and their infrastructure cover the
needs or will it be necessary to install new production facilities for material Z? Will production
of W decrease or will the product be used for other goods? And if production decreases, which
processes will be affected? Hence, not only is it important to consider whether a study involves
decision support or not, it is also important to define the extent of the consequences the deci-
sion may have.
Since modelling the Life Cycle Inventory requires taking these differences into account, the
general ILCD Handbook defines three different situations (A, B and C), which are addressed
with different methodological and quality needs (ILCD, 2010): While studies that fall within
situations A and B involve decision support, studies within situation C are of a descriptive char-
acter. Because a stakeholder consultation7 indicated that LCA in the context of electric vehicles
would mostly aim at comparisons for some sort of decision support, situation C will not be
addressed in this handbook (eLCAr, 2012).
Focusing on studies which imply decision support, it is important to stress that the above re-
fers to changes in the background system that are caused via market mechanisms, i.e. in reac-
tion to changed supply and demand resulting from decision implementation since this may, in
7 First eLCAr workshop.

turn, lead to substantial structural changes in, for example, the raw material or energy supply
chain. Clearly, different scenarios with respect to changes in the supply chain will correspond
to different environmental impacts.
In this context, situation A, micro-level decision support, is meant for cases in which the conse-
quences of the decisions (based on the results of the analysis) will have small-scale influences
on the systems connected to the life cycle of the products of interest. An example could be an
LCA of two existing brands of vehicles of similar type and technology with the aim of inform-
ing purchases. While such a study will influence the decision of some citizens with respect to
which vehicle to buy, the materials, resources and infrastructure connected to the two options
will be so similar that a shift in the production volume of one with respect to the other is not
likely to produce a substantial change in, for example, the amount of steel or energy used by
the automotive market. Hence, in these cases, it is expected that the overall systems connected
to the products of interests through market-mechanisms will be able to absorb the changes
(i.e. the consequences of the decision) without major influences on the infrastructure.
Situation B, meso/macro-level decision support, addresses cases in which the decisions taken
as a result of the analysis can have large-scale, structural effects on the systems linked to the
product of interest. For example, a substitution of 10 % of all passenger cars in Europe by BEVs
in the next 15 years would lead to an additional demand for about 6 000 tons of lithium per
year. This would correspond to about 20 % of global production. Consequently, such a sce-
nario (if it could be considered reasonable in the first place) would certainly require additional
lithium and lithium battery production capacity. An LCA aimed at analysing such a strategic
topic would thus fall under situation B.
Due to the different influences (and, therefore, environmental impacts) these two situations
can have, a different focus will have to be used in the realization of the LCIs and, in general, in
some parts of the LCAs. For this reason it is important to identify the decision-context that is
best suited for the specific problem.
For identifying whether a study falls within situation A or B, the ILCD framework indicates, as
a general rule, that the consequences of a decision shall be assumed to be large if the annual
additional demand or supply triggered by the analysed decision is bigger than the average
percentage of annual replacement of the supply capacity of the required function or system
in the given market. Further, the general ILCD Handbook specifies that if the average percent-
age is above 5 %, 5 % should be used instead. This value is for orientation only and, for a given
case, can be changed to be smaller or bigger upon argumentation that the change in demand
or supply is directly triggering changes in demand, and not only via a marginal accumulative
effect in contribution to the general market demand signal (ILCD, 2010).
In identifying the key changes and affected processes of the background, a key issue is that
not only might demand on the supply chain of the analysed production system play a domi-
nant role, but also additional supply (e.g. as co-product from a process of the analysed system)
can have large scale consequences (ILCD, 2010). The recommendations given above and in
chapter 7.1.1.2 also apply to cases of multifunctionality and provision of additional goods or
services to the market: if the annually provided amount is larger than the average replacement
rate of the installed capacity of the superseded good or service, this falls under situation B and
requires different modelling.
As an example, the installed production capacity of globally traded material X, which might be
required in consequence of the decision to produce product Y, could be, e.g. 10 Mio tonnes8. If
the plants for producing material X have a lifespan of 25 years, this leads to an average annual
replacement rate of 4 % (on average, 1/25th of the capacity will have to be replaced annually).
Overall, an additional annual demand for more than 0.04·10·106 tonnes, or 400 000 tonnes, of
material X shall be assumed to have the large scale consequence of triggering installation of
additional capacity beyond the replacement of old plants.
In the context of the LCA of electric vehicles, identifying whether a study falls within situation
A or B poses various challenges. On the one hand, electric vehicles to date are responsible
for a very small share of the automotive market as opposed to internal combustion engine
vehicles. Even though more and more car manufacturers are entering the market with new
models, and the number of electric vehicles is increasing, it is reasonable to expect that their
share will stay small compared to conventional vehicles for the near future and their market
share will not cause substantial changes in overall material and resource flows. Hence, LCAs of
electric vehicles that focus on the short and possibly mid-term would typically fit situation A.
On the other hand, there is a strong possibility that electric vehicles will reach mass produc-
tion in the mid to long-term. In that case, structural changes might be expected, for example,
with respect to electricity generation and distribution or the production of some key sub-
stances like lithium or rare earths like neodymium. LCAs in the context of electric vehicles that
seek to understand these structural implications would then fall under situation B. Moreover,
some of today’s research projects aim to reach the technological breakthroughs that might
lead to mass distribution of electric vehicles. A perspective that considers the consequences of
wide-spread use of electric vehicles in the context of specific research breakthroughs should
therefore not be neglected.
Overall, it seems reasonable to assume that a major part of today’s research and development
projects in industry or in research institutions that deal with vehicle systems have a stronger
focus on the near to mid-term use of electric vehicles and will therefore fall within situation
A. However, whenever a study focuses on electric vehicle penetration levels that may lead to
large changes in the supply chain of some products or services needed for their production,
then situation B should be chosen. Since the scope of changes that may occur in supply chains
within situation B studies is very large and strongly goal and scope dependent, it is not pos-
sible to give precise information on this topic. This handbook will therefore focus mainly on
situation A, but also give guidance on some key aspects of situation B.
More information on the distinction between situation A and B can be found in section 5.3 of
the general ILCD Handbook.
8 Taken from the general ILCD Handbook

5.4 Target audience
Goal definition shall identify the target audience of the study, i.e. to whom the results of the study
are intended to be communicated (ILCD, 2010). Apart from influencing some formal aspects,
particularly in the report part of the LCA (a report describing an LCA for a technical audience will
use different language than one directed to governmental decision makers), the identification of
the target audience is key to choosing the appropriate critical review needs for the study.
Therefore, since various target audiences (e.g. technical vs. non-technical, internal vs. external)
typically imply different requirements for, among other things, reporting or critical review due to
the specific audiences’ needs, the target audiences must be initially stated in the goal definition.
5.5 Comparisons to be disclosed to the public
Goal definition shall furthermore explicitly state whether the LCA includes a comparative asser-
tion intended for disclosure to the public (ILCD, 2010). This aspect is important since, due to the
influence this assertion may have on, for example, companies, institutions or consumers, there
are a number of mandatory requirements for the execution, documentation, review and report-
ing of such LCAs. Also, special emphasis has to be placed on the functional equivalence of the
systems to be compared and consequently on the definition of the functional unit (see 6.2).
To avoid by-passing these requirements by showing results for different products without ex-
plicitly making an assertion as to superiority or equality, comparative, but not assertive, LCAs
shall meet these requirements, as far as is applicable. (For exceptions and further restrictions,
see chapter 5.2.5 of the general ILCD Handbook).
5.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential factors
Finally, the goal definition shall identify who commissioned the LCA and the financing or other
organisations that have any relevant influence on the study, including the LCA experts that
perform it (ILCD, 2010). This aspect is key for transparency about the reasons for carrying out
the study and for highlighting potential conflicts of interest.
5.7 Component vs. vehicle system analysis and

definition of foreground and background system
The aim of this handbook is to give guidance for the LCA of electric vehicles and of their com-
ponents. When the focus of an LCA lies on a specific component of electric vehicles, then the
practitioner needs to carefully evaluate, starting from the goal definition in order to optimize the
planning of the study, whether his analysis can be limited to the life cycle of the specific com-
ponent of interest or whether the perspective has to be moved to analysing the impacts of the
component working in conjunction with other components or within a complete vehicle.
Consider, for example, the above described intended application of two types of lithium-ion
battery. The starting point of the analysis lies with the two batteries, which are characterised
by different energy densities. If battery type B has a higher energy density than A, then a ve-
hicle using battery B will need a lower quantity of battery to achieve the same driving range
as a vehicle with battery A. Since the vehicle needs a lower quantity of battery, its total weight
will be lower and, through that, the energy consumption of the vehicle will be reduced. On
the other hand, if the vehicle is run with the same quantity of batteries, then using battery B
will allow it to achieve a longer driving range and reduce the frequency of charging. Since the
different characteristics of the two batteries lead to such different scenarios for the vehicle
infrastructure and use, which, in turn, will lead to different environmental impacts, it is neces-
sary to define exactly how the batteries are exploited within the vehicle system in order for the
comparison to be meaningful. Analysing the two isolated batteries, without taking into ac-
count their influence on the vehicle system, would lead to incomplete results and potentially
wrong conclusions.
Whenever a component leads to such ‘part-system’ interactions that can influence the per-
formance of other components or of the entire vehicle, then the perspective of the LCA shall
be set on the life cycle of the component together with the influenced components or on
the vehicle and not on the component alone. The interdependency matrix shown in chapter
3 identifies situations in which such part-system interactions may take place. Further, the in-
formation given in chapter 4.2.2 should help practitioners focus on a specific component and
realize that other parts of the vehicle with which they are not familiar need to be included in
the LCA to set up the model for their analysis.
After defining what the system will be, one should also exactly define what the foreground and
background systems will be. The foreground system will always focus on the specific object of
analysis (e.g., in the example above, the battery) and describe what services, sub-processes,
materials, etc., are required in its production and how much of them, use and end-of-life treat-
ment. In cases of relevant part-system interactions, the foreground system will also include the
component or system at the next higher level. If, e.g. the battery is the focus of the study and
the influence of battery weight on the dimensioning of the braking system has been identified
as a part-system interaction, the vehicle (which is the system one level above the battery) will
come into the foreground system. This does not necessarily require the analysis of all the spe-
cific production processes of the rest of the vehicle with the same level of detail used for the
battery. Mainly, how the rest of the vehicle is influenced will become part of the foreground,
which means that the vehicle has to be specifically analysed for what services, sub processes,
materials, etc., are required in the vehicles production, use and end-of-life treatment and how
much of them . Typically, the background describes how these materials and services that are
required for the life cycle of the product are produced, used and disposed. Overall, three dif-
ferent situations can be distinguished:
The focus of the analysis is on a specific component that does not interact with the rest
of the vehicle: the LCA addresses only the life cycle of the component. The background
comprises the production, use, and end-of-life of the services and products (e.g produc-
tion of steel, shredding process needed for the disposal) required for the production, use,
and end-of-life of the component.
The focus of the analysis is on a specific component which interacts with other compo-
nents or the entire vehicle: the LCA is realized by placing the component and the system
one level above the component in the foreground, while the background includes all the
products and services required to realize the foreground.
The focus of the analysis is on the entire vehicle: the LCA is realized by placing the com-
plete vehicle in the foreground.
9
Provisions 5: Goal definition7
I. SHALL: Unambiguously identify the intended application of the LCA deliverable.

II. SHALL: Unambiguously identify and state initially set limitations on the LCA. These
can be caused by the following:
� Impact coverage limitations such as in carbon footprint calculations
� Methodological limitations of LCAs in general or of the specific methodologi-
cal approaches applied
� Assumption limitations: Specific or uncommon assumptions and scenarios
for the analysed systems [ISO+].
III. SHALL: Unambiguously identify the internal or external reason(s) for carrying out
the study and the specific decisions to be supported by its outcome. Also identify
how far the decisions influence up and down-chain processes.
IV. SHALL: Identify the decision-context of the LCA:
Situation A: Micro-level decision support
Situation B: Meso/macro-level decision support.
V. SHALL: Unambiguously identify the audience(s) to whom the results of the study
are to be communicated.
VI. SHALL: Classify the targeted audience(s) as being internal, restricted external (e.g.
specific business-to-business customers), or public. Shall also differentiate be-
tween technical and non-technical audiences. [ISO+]
VII. SHALL: Unambiguously state whether the study involves comparisons or compar-
ative assertions, and whether these are foreseen as being disclosed to the public.
[ISO+]
VIII. SHALL: Identify the commissioner of the study and all other influential actors such
as co-financiers, LCA experts involved, etc.
IX. SHALL: When the foreground system focuses on a specific component of electric
vehicles and this component causes part-system interactions that influence the
performance of other components or of the entire vehicle, then the LCA shall ad-
dress the life cycle of that component and of the affected system. Identification of
part-system interactions should be in the definition of the intended application.
9 From ILCD, 2010, except for point IX.

5.8 Goal definition example10
A company which produces Lithium-ion batteries with 100Wh/kg energy density is in-
terested in a new type of battery technology with 120Wh/kg energy density. The re-
search and development unit of the company wants to investigate whether this new
technology could lead to a product which may substitute the one currently sold. In the
analysis, technological as well as environmental aspects shall be taken into account,
since sustainability is a key trait of the company. After having identified a viable pro-
duction process, it is decided to make a first assessment on the environmental impacts
which this new technology may bring in order to consider whether or not to continue
investing in it and, possibly, build the required production system. The research and
development unit entrusts an internal LCA practitioner from the sustainability assess-
ment group with the conduction of the analysis. As a preliminary study, the practitioner
decides to limit the analysis to the carbon footprint. Moreover, recognizing the “part-
system” interactions between batteries and vehicle and considering that the main cus-
tomer of the battery company is a manufacturer of a specific vehicle type, the practi-
tioner decides to perform the LCA analysing the overall carbon footprint of the two bat-
teries functioning in the vehicle of their main customer (further addressed as Customer
X Vehicle) with a driving range of 120km. The results shall be presented to the research
and development unit of the company.
A goal definition for this scenario could be the following:

Intended application: Comparative assertion of the GHG emissions associated with
driving 1km in an electric vehicle of Customer X having (a) a lithium-Ion battery Type
A with 100 Wh/kg or (b) a lithium-Ion battery Type B with 120Wh/kg battery energy
density and a total driving range of 120km.
Limitations: Since the focus of the study is on the battery, data on vehicle production
is rather coarse except for those components and phases where a significant differ-
ence between a vehicle with battery A and a vehicle with battery B is expected. Thus,
the total carbon footprint of the vehicles exhibits significant uncertainties while the
difference caused by the different batteries is modelled quite accurately. The analysis
focuses only on the carbon footprint as it is intended as preliminary study. Thus, poten-
tial trade-offs in other environmental aspects such as damage to health or to non-fossil
resources cannot be identified. Data for battery B are based on lab scale production
and neither learning nor scaling effects are considered to extrapolate to a future large
scale production.
10 The example and the numbers therein have been invented for purely didactical purposes.
Reasons for carrying out the study and decision context: If the preliminary results
show that an improvement larger than X% in terms of carbon footprint may be ob-
tained with the type B battery, then further resources will be invested in order to make
a detailed LCA, covering damages to human health, to the ecosystem and resource
consumption. If the preliminary study shows that none or only minor improvements
will be achieved, then the possibility of switching to the alternative technology will be
abandoned. The analysis will be performed assuming that the decision deriving from
the results will have a negligible impact on the supply chains involved in the life cycle
of the products, falling therefore within a Situation A type of study.
Target audience: The results are intended for an internal and technical audience.
Comparative assertion: The study will perform a comparative assertion, but the re-
sults will not be disclosed to the public.
Commissioner of the study: The study has been commissioned by the research and
development unit of the company and will be performed by Mr. …. of the internal
sustainability assessment group.
6 Scope definition
6.1 Introduction
During the scope definition phase the object of the LCA is defined and described in detail. This
shall be done in line with the goal definition, meaning that the scope should be sufficiently
well defined to ensure that the breadth, depth and detail of the study are compatible and suf-
ficient to address the stated goal. This includes deriving the requirements on methodology,
quality, reporting, and review in accordance with, and based on, the reasons for the study, the
decision-context, the intended applications, and the audience.
When deriving the scope of an LCA from the goal, the following scope items shall be clearly
described, justified and/or defined (ILCD, 2010):
The ultimate system or process that is studied and its function(s), functional unit, and
reference flow(s)
LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes and products
System boundaries, completeness of requirements, and related cut-off rules
Impact categories to be covered and selection of specific LCIA methods to be applied as
well as - if included - normalisation data and weighting set
Other LCI data quality requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-re-
lated representativeness and appropriateness
Types, quality and sources of required data and information and, here especially, the re-
quired precision and maximum permitted uncertainties
Special requirements for comparisons between systems
Identifying critical review needs
Planning reporting of the results
Apart from clearly identifying all relevant aspects of the object of study, defining several of the
above mentioned topics also helps the practitioner plan the development of the study since
particular needs, for example, for the required data may appear during scope definition. The
following subchapters address the main challenges of the scope definition.
6.1.1 Consistency and reproducibility

The general ILCD Handbook introduces basic requirements on consistency (provisions 6.2.1)
and reproducibility (provisions: 6.2.2). These provisions aim at securing the internal consistency
of LCAs in terms of modelling, methods and data (including assumptions), and at ensuring that
the documentation allows another practitioner to (sufficiently) reproduce the results of LCAs.
These provisions are very valuable. They point out the importance of the issues to the practi-
tioner and they guarantee that a commissioner or reviewer of an LCA can enforce consistency
and reproducibility. These overarching provisions must therefore be taken into account by the
practitioner. Due to their general aspect, which cannot be made to address the case of electric
vehicles more specifically, that text is not repeated in this handbook.
Provision 6.1.1: Consistency and reproducibility
I. SHALL: Follow Provisions: 6.2.1 'Consistency of methods, assumption and data'

and Provisions: 6.2.2 'Reproducibility' of the general ILCD Handbook.
6.2 Function, Functional Unit and reference flow
After having introduced the object of the study in the goal definition, it is then necessary
to define as precisely as possible its key characteristics and give more detail about the exact
quantitative aspects that will guide the analysis. This is important not only in order to correctly
develop the study in terms of methodological and data source choices, but also with respect
to comparing the results within the analysis itself (if more options or technologies are evalu-
ated) or with other studies. A central element for comparing and interpreting the results are
functions, functional units and reference flows.
Functional units name and quantify the aspects of the functions of a product. Starting with the
function of a product or service, the functional unit answers the questions what, how much,
how well, and for how long the object of the study performs the function. Unambiguous an-
swers to these questions are crucial for interpretation and potential comparison of products. If
products do not fulfil exactly the same functions in all relevant terms, the comparison would
be of two objects that are not properly exchangeable. Hence, if some of the relevant aspects of
the products to be compared are not identical, the systems have to be expanded to the point
where equivalent functionality is achieved.
Closely linked to the concept of functional unit is the reference flow. The reference flow is the
flow to which all inputs and outputs quantitatively relate. It is the flow which is realised by the
functional unit and, in some cases, the two will have the same definition.
While more information and definitions on general functional units and reference flows can
be found in the general ILCD Handbook (chapter 6.4 and Provisions 6.4), the next subchapter
analyses the specific case of electric vehicles.
6.2.1 Functional Units for e-mobility applications

All components of (electric) vehicles influence the vehicle’s use-phase energy demand due to
their weight and, in many cases, their efficiency. This implies that the weight of every compo-
nent and the energy efficiency of many components are decisive factors for the functionality of
the components that need to be included in the functional unit. If components with different
weights or efficiencies are to be compared by LCA, the different options cannot be assessed as
isolated components, but must be considered in the context of the vehicle’s life cycle. In other
words, and going back to the terminology of the previous paragraph, the various options must
be compared within an equivalent functionality. Hence, consistent with the goal definition, in
an LCA of an electric vehicle, or of a number of key components of an electric vehicle, the func-
tional unit and reference flow, too, must take into consideration the perspective of the entire
vehicle in order to achieve equivalent functionality.
Achieving functional equivalence in a comparison between BEVs and ICEVs or hybrids can be
extremely difficult. In these cases it is of utmost importance that the functional unit is com-
pletely in line with the goal definition. For example, the goal and the functional unit in a study
comparing environmental impacts of driving a BEV to those of driving a petrol fuelled ICE
vehicle for daily commuting (40 km per day) in an urban environment (max speed 60 km/h)
is not the same as the goal and the functional unit in a study comparing the same vehicles in
average use.
Let’s assume that the vehicles to be compared are well defined and similar in terms of size,
comfort and relevant driving performance. The BEV however has a limited range (120 km per
charge) and a lower top speed (130 km/h) than the ICEV. These limitations are not considered
relevant if the comparison focusses on urban commuting but they (outside Germany mainly
the limited range) have to be considered for average use, e.g. by adding the use of a rental car
to the BEV system for those journeys that can’t be done with the BEV due to limited range.
Another difference between the BEV and the ICEV is that the ICEV produces enough waste
heat to heat the passenger cabin in winter while the BEV, due to the much higher efficiency of
the drivetrain, needs dedicated energy from the battery for heating purposes in cold climates.
Thus it has to be specified in the functional unit in which climate the vehicles are used.
Another influence of the driving context on the functional unit comes from variations of driv-
etrain efficiency with variation of drive cycles. Drivetrain efficiency is much lower for ICEVs
if the engine load is low. BEVs efficiencies also vary with load but much less than ICEVs. A
consequence of this fact is that a change in the drive cycle leads to different variations in en-
ergy consumption for propulsion for BEVs than for ICEVs. In other words, if a BEV is 60% more
energy efficient than an ICEV in drive cycle A, it will not be 60% more efficient in drive cycle B.
Consequently the result of a comparison is only valid for the drive cycle under consideration
and extrapolations to other drive cycles are not trivial.
The following box illustrates this in a simplified example.

How to achieve equivalent functionality for comparison of non-identical products.

(Simplified example with plausible, but not exact, values)
Goal:
The environmental impacts caused by the cradle to grave life cycle of two different
propulsion batteries for electric vehicles shall be compared.
Battery description:
Battery A - Li-ion battery for compact car; energy density 100 Wh/kg, lifetime 2 000
cycles  lifetime capacity 200 kWh/kg  mass per lifetime capacity 5.00 g/kWh
Battery B - Li-ion battery for compact car; energy density 120 Wh/kg, lifetime 1 500
cycles  lifetime capacity 180 kWh/kg  mass per lifetime capacity 5.56 g/kWh
Functional unit, first try:

1 kg of batteries A and B obviously do not have the same important properties (energy
capacity, lifetime) and therefore cannot be used as reference flow. But, also, the 1 kWh
lifetime capacity of batteries A and B have different important properties (mass). Thus,
to compare these two batteries, the least common denominator in terms of function
needs to be identified. The batteries are to be used in electric vehicles that have the
function of providing transport services. Thus one needs to compare vehicles using bat-
tery A to vehicles using battery B. These two vehicles will never have identical proper-
ties due to the differences introduced by the batteries. Vehicles could, for example, be
designed to have the same mass, but then would have different range per charge or
vice versa. Thus, the properties that are considered relevant have to be defined. This def-
inition is cannot be completely objective because relevance is a value based concept.
Vehicle description:
In this example we assume that size and comfort, driving performance (acceleration,
top speed and range per charge), and lifetime of the car are the relevant properties.
Therefore we define the following aspects of the vehicles to be compared:
Compact class, 5 seats; mass w/o battery: 1 200 kg; range per charge (real world): 120
km; top speed: 140 km/h; acceleration 0 – 100 km/h in 8 s; lifetime: 240 000 km
The battery mass depends on the battery energy density necessary to achieve the
range. However, care must be taken since the total vehicle mass influences the energy
consumption, which again feeds back to the range. The calculations of the amount of
battery needed and energy consumption during use are therefore iterative.
 Vehicle with battery A:

Battery mass to achieve 120 km real world range: 350 kg; real world energy de-
mand (at plug): 22.7 kWh/km; life time distance with 1 battery: 240 000 km
 Vehicle with battery B:
Battery mass to achieve 120 km real world range: 280 kg; real world energy de-
mand (at plug): 22.0 kWh/km; life time distance with 1 battery: 180 000 km. This
vehicle needs 1.33 batteries to achieve the desired lifetime.
Functional unit, vehicle perspective:

‘240 000 km driving in a battery electric, five seat, compact car of 1 200 kg (without
battery mass), fuelled with average European electricity generated between 2012 and
2022, with battery A or B and a range of 120 km per charge in real world driving’ would
be a useable functional unit. For both vehicles one would need to consider the differ-
ent levels of electricity consumption. This difference is the reason why the electricity
source needs to be specified.
Note: other properties which can be relevant to the functionality of a car, such as trunk
size, number of doors, automobile layout (front / rear / 4 wheel drive), etc., could also
be specified. Since the goal of the LCA in this example is to assess the difference be-
tween two batteries, the trunk size might be a property to be considered, e.g. if one
battery is larger than the other and reduces available luggage space.
Reference flow, vehicle perspective:

Several reference flows could be defined in this example, e.g. 1 km driving, 240 000 km
driving, 10 years driving, 1 year driving. It is, however, not possible to use the battery or
one of its properties as a reference flow even though the goal of the study is to com-
pare two batteries. Depending on the goal of the study, some reference flows might
be more, and others less, appropriate. However, the choice of the reference flow is not
a critical issue since, as long as the functional unit is well defined, reference flows can
easily be converted.
Similar examples could be made for electric motors or power electronics with different ef-
ficiencies, tyres with different rolling resistances, or any components with different weights.
For those components that have no influence on vehicle performance, the practitioner can
decide to limit the analysis to the isolated component no matter if the study is comparative
or not. However, there will always be an influence from the component on the vehicle perfor-
mance if studies consider all three phases of the component’s life cycle (production, use and
EoL). In this case, modelling the use phase requires a quantification of the component’s con-
tribution to the exchanges caused by the use of a vehicle. This is usually not straightforward,
not even in the most trivial cases. For example, including the use phase in the LCA of a car seat
requires defining how the seat contributes to the energy consumption of the car. This can be
done by evaluating the additional energy consumption per additional weight of the car. But
this requires the definition of a car and a drive cycle in which the seat will be used since prop-
erties of the car (e.g. the drivetrain efficiency) and properties of the drive cycle (e.g. accelera-
tion) influence this result. A sensible definition of the use phase of the car seat can be done by
analysing the difference when compared to a reference system.
The analysis can always be limited to an isolated component if the use phase is excluded from
the life cycle and no comparison is desired. In these cases, however, it is required that the
functional unit defines all properties affecting the whole life cycle of the component and/or
the system it is used in. Since it is outside the scope of this handbook to give guidance for all
components in a vehicle, the practitioner shall also use the general functional unit and refer-
ence flow definition given in chapter 6.4 of the general ILCD Handbook if his analysis is limited
to an isolated device.
Provisions 6.2.1: Functional Units for e-mobility applications
I. SHALL: For an LCA addressing the environmental impacts of an entire vehicle or

comparing components that influence the vehicles performance, the functional
unit and the reference flow must be related to the transport service provided by
the vehicle and take into consideration (depending on the specific component
under analysis) the following parameters:
Key parameters of the vehicle and or its components, e.g. life expectancy
of the vehicle, life expectancy of the component, functionality of the vehi-
cle (e.g. vehicle class, number of seats, maximum cargo, range per charge,
comfort elements)
Key links between component and vehicle performance (e.g. weight with
energy consumption) and how these will quantitatively influence the serv-
ice provided by the vehicle
The location and time horizon corresponding to the object of study.
II. SHALL: Report exactly how the parameters for the definition of the functional
unit and reference flow have been chosen (e.g. life expectancies, vehicle masses,
component masses). The practitioner may use the values given in the CPP or use
own values, more specific to the goal of the study. Values and their sources shall
be documented and justified appropriately in all cases.
III. SHALL: In LCAs excluding the use phase and not aimed at comparison, the refer-
ence flow for components that influence the performance of the vehicle can be
related to the component if the component’s properties influencing the vehicle’s
performance are quantitatively defined in the functional unit. In this case, provi-
sions given in chapter 6.4 of the general ILCD Handbook apply.
IV. SHALL: For components that, due to a lack of influence on the performance of
the vehicle, may be analysed separately, the provisions given in chapter 6.4 of
the general ILCD Handbook hold.
6.3 Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework
The Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework defines two key aspects of the analysis: first,
how supply chain processes involved in the production, use, and end-of-life of the product or
service under study are depicted; second, the method adopted for solving multifunctionality
problems. These aspects are situations in which a process returns several products, making it
ambiguous to define how much of its inputs and outputs flow into a specific product within
the ensemble. In the following sub-chapters, the basic principles for modelling the Life Cycle
Inventory are summarized since clearing the above mentioned aspects is key to planning the
implementation of the study. More guidance will also be given in chapter 7.
6.3.1 General Life Cycle Model

As stated previously, this handbook focuses on Situation A and Situation B from the ILCD frame-
work, the two cases in which the results of the LCA are aimed at supporting a decision (ILCD
2010). While both cases address the consequences of the decision at the base of the analysis,
the extent and nature of the consequences are so different that the life cycle under study, and
particularly in regard to the involved supply chains, should be modelled differently.
In Situation A, the decisions that might be derived from the results of the LCA will not influ-
ence the infrastructure corresponding to the supply chains supporting the life cycle. Coming
back to a previous example, the results of an LCA comparing two brands of electric vehicles
and published in a local car magazine may influence a buyer, but ultimately this will not cause
a shift in the amount of steel absorbed by the automotive industry for the production of ve-
hicles or in the generation of electricity. Overall, in an LCA addressing such a situation, the life
cycle can be modelled depicting an average supply chain (if the life cycle requires common
resources from a general market such as, for example, steel, without particular characteristics
that would require it to depend on more specific products) or a specific supply chain (if, due to
particular requirements, products are needed that can be obtained only from specific manu-
facturers), without worrying about potential changes deriving from demand-supply mecha-
nisms of the market. In short, the life cycle can be modelled as is (be it in reference to today or
forecast for a particular time period) or, in other words, as if it was static (ILCD 2010).
In Situation B, the nature and extent of the decisions are such that major transformations in the
supply chains involved in the life cycle under study may be caused. An example could be an
LCA aimed at identifying the impacts of a substitution of 30 % of medium sized passenger cars
in a specific European country with electric vehicles. Clearly, such a large increase in electric
vehicle use would have major influences on the generation of electricity required to sustain
the vehicles in the use phase, possibly requiring the installation of new electricity plants. Other
implications may derive from the end-of-life of these vehicles. Batteries for electric vehicles, for
example, typically require large quantities of copper that can be recovered through recycling
processes. In such a scenario, these large quantities of recycled (or secondary) copper would
now be available to the market. Could that lead to changes in the overall supply chain of cop-
per in the production system? These transformations must not only be taken into account,
they represent a key part of the analysis. Hence, the life cycle should be modelled depicting
the supply chains as they are theoretically expected to be in consequence of the analysed de-
cision (ILCD 2010). As will be explained in more detail in chapter 7, within the ILCD framework
this requires identification of the expected mix of the long-term marginal technologies, mean-
ing the mix of technologies that will ultimately result out of the large changes caused by the
increased demand or supply.
6.3.2 Multifunctionality
In the analysis of the life cycle of a product, situations may occur in which a specific step or
process under study will provide several products or services. Such a process is called a multi-
functional process. Multifunctionality can occur in production, where a production step may
return several products, as well as during end-of-life where a waste treatment service is pro-
vided in conjunction with energy generation or a recycled product. Multifunctional processes
pose a challenge in the analysis as often only one particular product out of the ensemble is
part of the life cycle investigated. The question therefore arises as to how the total inputs and
outputs of the process can be associated to the various products. A schematic of such a situa-
tion is shown in Figure 4, in which, for example, one might be interested only in the resources,
emissions, and waste flows of Product A, but only knows the values for the combined produc-
tion of A and B. In order to isolate the specific exchanges for the product of interest, the multi-
functionality must be solved.
Emissions
? Product A
Raw materials
Energy carriers
Auxiliaries ? Product B
Waste
Figure 4: Multifunctional process
A typical example can be taken from the production of a vehicle door. A certain amount of
steel will be required for its production. However, during manufacturing, part of this steel will,
for example due to cutting, not flow into the door, but become production scrap. This scrap
is a valuable input for the production of recycled steel and is, therefore, a co-product of the
production process of the door. Hence, the inputs and outputs that enter the door production
process have to be shared between the door and the production scrap.
The following hierarchy is defined in ISO 14044 (ISO 14044:2006) and the general ILCD Hand-
book (ILCD 2010) to solve multifunctionality cases (Figure 5):
The first option is subdivision (including virtual subdivision), (a)
The second option is system expansion (including substitution), (b)
The third one is allocation, (c).
(a)
(b)
X%
(c)
Y%
Figure 5: Various methods for solving multifunctionality: (a) subdivision (including virtual subdivision), (b)
system expansion and substitution, (c) allocation. Based on ILCD 2010
In subdivision, the multifunctional process is further analysed with the aim of finding separate
sub-processes for products A and B so as to be able to quantify exactly how the inputs and out-
puts distribute over A and B. In some cases, an ensemble of sub-processes cannot be found, but
it is nevertheless possible to derive a quantitative distribution of the inputs and outputs based
on technological knowledge about the production process. In this case, the solution is obtained
through virtual subdivision. Subdivision is the preferred option since it is based on technical rela-
tionships within the system and, ultimately, leads to a better understanding of the system.
If subdivision is not possible, the second option is system expansion and substitution (b). Here,
multifunctionality is solved by creating a new process that approximates one that only returns
product A by subtracting or substituting from the combined production of A and B an alterna-
tive production of B. Often, other processes need to be added to the system in order to bring
product B, which comes out of the multifunctional product, to a state in which the subtraction
can take place.
A key factor is what will be the substitute for the not required co-product, and the various ILCD
situations are treated differently in this context. In general, for Situation A, in which the study is
compatible with a static supply chain, the not required co-function can be substituted with the
average market consumption mix of functionally equivalent alternative processes, eliminating
from this mix the to-be-substituted product. On the other hand, for Situation B, in those mul-
tifunctional processes for which the consequences are very large, the not required co-product
must be substituted by the long-term mix expected to follow the taken decision (ILCD 2010).
In this context, it is also important to note that the treatment of waste and end-of-life materials
usually leads to multifunctionality situations. While conceptually, system expansion and sub-
stitution are applied according to the same principles in these cases, some specific guidance
is provided within the ILCD framework. In general11, the avoided primary production of the
reused part, recycled good or recovered energy shall be substituted with the simplification of
substituting the average primary route market consumption mix of the market to which the
secondary good is fed.
It is important to notice that, since this method uses the subtraction of LCI data, negative
exchanges and results can occur. This means there can be a net benefit of producing the an-
alysed system as the overall impact is more than compensated by the avoided impact the
co-products have elsewhere. This is the correct interpretation within the assumptions of the
study, even though it can be challenging to communicate (ILCD 2010). It therefore requires
particular attention during the reporting of the results.
The last option is allocation, which solves the multifunctionality by splitting up the amounts
of the inputs and outputs between the various co-products according to some allocation cri-
terion based on their properties. Typical allocation criteria can be: element content, energy
content, mass, market price, etc. Say, for example, that mass is used as the allocation criterion.
Having two products A and B with mass X and Y, product A would receive X/(X+Y), while prod-
uct B would receive Y/(X+Y) parts of the multifunctional process inputs and outputs.
11 In the general ILCD Handbook, special cases are also discussed (see Provisions: 6.5.4)
If possible, allocation should be performed in accordance with the underlying causal physical
– and, implicitly also covered, chemical and biological – relationships between the different
products. This means, for example, that the energy demand for a distillation process needed
to separate two products should be allocated to the products according to their influence on
the thermal capacity, the boiling temperature, and the evaporation enthalpy of the mixture.
6.3.3 Comparative studies

Scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases are to be defined for comparative
studies and (optionally) for other assumption scenarios within the reasonably best and worst
cases. Results for the scenarios have to be reported and taken into consideration when reach-
ing conclusions.
Provisions 6.3: Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework (summary of Provisions

6.5.4 of the general ILCD Handbook)
I. SHALL: For Situation A, model the life cycle depicting the existing (or forecast)
supply chains.
II. SHALL: For Situation B, model the life cycle depicting the supply chains as they
are expected to develop in response to the decision taken.
III. SHALL: Use subdivision as the first choice for solving multifunctionality prob-
lems.
IV. SHALL: Use system expansion and substitution if subdivision is not possible.
V. SHALL: When using system expansion and substitution in Situation A, in the gen-
eral case, substitution of the not required co-function, as far as possible, with
the average market consumption mix of the processes or systems it supersedes,
excluding the to be substituted function from the mix. If the to be substituted
function has a small share in the overall environmental impact of the market
mix, and the results are therefore not relevantly changed, the market mix can be
used instead. If this is not possible, alternative processes or systems providing
the not required co-function in a wider sense should be used for substitution.
For the case of waste and end-of-life treatment, the avoided primary production
of the reused part, recycled good or recovered energy shall be substituted.
As a simplification, it shall be assumed that the avoided primary production

corresponds to the average primary market consumption mix of the market to
which the secondary good is provided. In Situation B, the same recommenda-
tions apply except for processes subject to large changes, for which the practi-
tioner shall substitute the not required co-function with the long-term marginal
technology mix of the processes or systems it supersedes. The above is a sum-
mary of the main concepts involved. The practitioner shall verify with Provisions
6.5.4 of the general ILCD Handbook (particularly, but not only, 'Provisions 6.5.4
– I.a.iv) Cases of multifunctionality – general' and 'Provisions 6.5.4 – I.a.v) Cases
of multifunctionality – waste and end-of-life treatment') that the specific case of
interest does not fall within one of the special cases described therein.
VI. SHALL: Use allocation if neither subdivision nor system expansion can be ap-
plied. Provisions 7.9.3 of the general ILCD Handbook shall be used in this case.
VII. SHALL: For comparative studies of Situations A and B, the main model for each
of the compared alternatives shall each be complemented with assumption
scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. Optionally, further as-
sumption scenarios can be defined. Uncertainty calculations shall be performed,
unless they have already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case
scenarios. These scenarios later serve as sensitivity checks. The interested parties
shall be involved in achieving the best attainable consensus on the definition of
the reasonably best and reasonably worst case assumption scenarios (and un-
certainty calculations). In Situation A, these can, in principle, vary all data, meth-
ods, provisions, and assumptions except for the shall provisions and assump-
tions/conventions. It is also recommended that such assumption scenarios and
uncertainty calculations be performed for non-comparative LCIs and LCAs. In
Situation B, the scenarios and uncertainty calculations can, in principle, vary all
data, methods, provisions, and assumptions including the shall provisions and
assumptions/conventions of the ILCD Handbook, but not those of ISO 14040
and 14044.
6.4 System boundaries
The system boundaries define which parts of the life cycle and which processes belong to
the analysed system, i.e. are required for providing its function as defined by its functional
unit. They separate the analysed system from the rest of the technosphere. At the same time,
the system boundaries also define the boundary between the analysed system and the eco-
sphere, i.e. define across which boundary the exchange of elementary flows with nature takes
place (ILCD 2010). Overall, a precise definition of the system boundaries is important to ensure
that all processes are actually included in the modelled system and that all relevant potential
impacts on the environment are appropriately covered.
However, while detailed identification of all the processes within the system boundary can
only occur in the LCI phase, the definition of the system boundaries must occur in the scope
definition phase as this clarifies which key activities will be part of the study and helps when
planning the implementation of the study. For this reason, specific guidance on which pro-
cesses to include in the LCAs of electric vehicles or of their components will be given in chap-
ter 7, whereas the definition of system boundaries will be treated in the following paragraphs.
6.4.1 Derivation of system boundaries for e-mobility applications

and cut-off criteria
System boundaries are defined in order to identify the activities which will be included in
the analysis, assuming the object of interest functions in normal to abnormal conditions, but
not covering the impacts from accidents or similar events (ILCD 2010). When deriving system
boundaries for the LCAs of electric vehicles or of their components, two aspects should be
taken into account:
As already mentioned in 6.2, in most cases, only an analysis addressing an ensemble of
components, or even the whole vehicle, and the consequences of possible part-system
interactions will return meaningful results, even if the specific focus of the analysis is on
one specific component for electric vehicles.
Due to the relevance of impacts from the use phase of a vehicle (and consequently of every
component in the vehicle) and considering the large share of valuable materials contained
in a vehicle that can be recovered in the end-of-life phase (an aspect in continuous evolu-
tion, also from a regulatory point of view; see, for example, Directive 2000/53/EC of the Eu-
ropean Parliament on the end-of-life of vehicles) only a complete cradle-to-grave approach,
comprising the production, use and end-of-life phases, can really capture all the relevant
environmental aspects related to electric vehicles and possible interdependencies.
Hence, the main activities that should be part of the LCA of an electric vehicle are shown in
Figure 6 (more specific information for each life cycle phase is given in chapter 7).
Recycling
Raw material
production
e-Car process
Secondary
good
Disposal
Energy generation
Components treatment
production and USE EoL
Production/assembly vehicle assembly Transport services
Infrastructure
and auxiliaries
Energy Charging Road Energy
Transport services generation infrastructure infrastructure generation Infrastructure
Figure 6: System boundaries for the LCA of an electric vehicle.

It should be noted that the system boundary in Figure 6 is indicated indirectly. As described
above, the system boundary describes which processes belong to the analysed system and
they therefore separate the analysed system from the rest of the technosphere. At the same
time, the system boundary is where the exchange of elementary flows with nature occurs
(ILCD 2010). For simplicity, in Figure 6 the key activities within the system boundary for the
LCA of an electric vehicle are shown. The exact system boundary can be derived following the
supply chain and applying the cause and effect relation to each single activity, until the level of
elementary flow exchange is reached. This means that the system boundary implied in Figure
6 includes, for example, the mining of the resources required for the production of raw materi-
als as well as the infrastructure required for the mining, or the resources required for building
the production and assembly facilities.
Of course, different processes within the life cycle of a vehicle or of a component will have dif-
ferent relevance in terms of the overall impact. Processes that are irrelevant to the total impact
can be completely cut-off in order to be able to invest more time and resources in the model-
ling of elements that have high relevance. However, an estimate of the impacts potentially
neglected by these cut-offs has to be done in order to ensure they really are insignificant. This
implies that a process can only be cut-off after it has been considered and found negligible.
This paradox can be resolved through the iterative nature of LCA and by reaching an estimate
of 100 % impact coverage using worst-case data set approximations (which can be compiled
with less effort compared to a high quality data set) for those data sets which are expected to
be not relevant in the overall system. During the first iteration, the study would mainly com-
prise high quality data for the (expected) relevant processes and approximations for the minor
ones. Based on this first analysis, and by analysing the percentage contributed by all processes,
some of the supposed minor ones might turn out to be more important than expected and
require being included with a proper, complete, and high quality data set. By repeating these
iterations, a reasonable estimate of the 100 % impact can be obtained by using high quality
data for relevant and low quality approximation data for not relevant processes, the latter of
which may be cut-off. This allows a rough quantification of the % contribution of the cut-off
processes. The above mentioned procedure has to be repeated, until the % of impact from the
cut-off processes is small enough with respect to the goal of the study.
Provisions 6.4.1: Derivation of system boundaries for e-mobility applications and

cut-off criteria
I. SHALL: In general, even if the focus of the study is on a specific component, the
LCA shall be extended to other components (possibly the entire vehicle) that
are affected by part-system interactions using a cradle to grave perspective. If
a different approach is used (analysis of isolated component and/or elimination
of specific life cycle phases) due to particular goal and scope requirements, then
the reasons for this must be explained, justified, and documented.
II. SHALL: Focus on normal or abnormal behaviour but not include accidents or
similar events (ILCD 2010).
III. SHALL: Include within the system boundaries all the relevant activities required
for the accurate description of the life cycle under analysis. This shall include,
among other things:
Extraction, refining, and production of raw materials including the required
infrastructure
Energy generation and the respective infrastructure
The component and/or vehicle manufacturing and assembly facilities
(manufacturing equipment, buildings, etc.,)
The component and/or vehicle recycling and disposal, including the re-
quired infrastructure (recycling and/or disposal equipment, buildings,
etc.,)
The transport services required throughout the life cycle
The road and charging infrastructure required for the use phase of the vehicles
IV. SHALL: Quantify and document the cut-off criteria chosen for the goal of the
study. The chosen cut-off criteria shall be considered with respect to all environ-
mental impacts included in the study as well as energy and mass.
6.5 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment
During the Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase, the LCI result is used to calculate an ensemble
of indicators that establish a base for the interpretation of the environmental impacts associ-
ated with the object of the study. To date, a number of established LCIA methods for various
environmental impacts are available in the literature or directly in LCA software, and are com-
monly used in LCA studies. The choice of what is covered by the LCIA shall be made during
scope definition in order to ensure that relevant and matching data is then collected in the LCI
phase. Hence, the key aspects required for addressing this topic during scope definition are
given here, while further information is given in a dedicated chapter 8.
Overall, the first step in LCIA is to classify LCI results into impact categories and to evaluate
(characterize) the impacts of the LCI results through models of environmental mechanisms
within these impact categories. The results of the characterizations are indicators associated
with specific environmental aspects. The following impact categories shall be checked by de-
fault for relevance to the study (ILCD 2010): Climate change, (Stratospheric) Ozone depletion,
Human toxicity, Respiratory inorganics, Ionizing radiation, (Ground-level) Photochemical ozone
formation, Acidification (land and water), Eutrophication (land and water), Ecotoxicity, Land
use, Resource depletion (metals, minerals, fossil, nuclear and renewable energy sources, water).
The impact categories can then be further processed into the three areas of protection (ILCD
2010):
Human Health
Natural environment
Natural resources
Typically, impact categories are also called midpoints, while the three areas of protection are
referred to as endpoints. The exact types and numbers of impact categories taken into ac-
count in a study can vary, depending on its goal and scope. Figure 7 shows a summary of the
LCIA framework within the ILCD (ILCD 2010).
Human Health Natural environment Natural resources Area of Protection
Damage to Damage to Resource scarcity Endpoints
human health ecosystem diversity
Environmental mechanism
Respiratory inorganics
(inpact pathway)
(freshwater, marine, terrestrial)
Resource depletion
Climate change
Human toxicity
Eutrophication
Summer smog
Acidification Midpoints
Carcinogens
Ozone layer
Ecotoxicity
Radiation
Land-use
NOx, Cd, CO2, CH4, dioxins, hard coal, silver from ore, land use, ... Inventory
and other emissions and resource flows
Figure 7: LCIA framework within the ILCD (ILCD 2010).
Two other aspects of LCIA are normalisation and weighting, which are optional steps sometimes
used to support interpretation. In normalisation, the indicator results for the different midpoint
level impact categories or endpoint level damages are expressed relative to a common refer-
ence by dividing the indicator results by the respective reference value. As reference values, the
impact or damage results of the total annual territorial elementary flows in a country, region,
continent, or globally (or per citizen, i.e. per capita) are typically used (ILCD 2010). The choice of
the reference system for normalization can significantly influence the LCIA results and is often
not straight forward. Since different impact categories might be dominated by emissions from
different regions, a choice needs to be made and has to be justified carefully. For example the
production of platinum releases large amounts of SO2 and is restricted to mainly two sites glob-
ally (Russia and South Africa). If an LCIA result in the impact category ‘acidification’ is dominated
by the emissions from platinum production, it would probably not be sensible to use a normali-
zation factor for, e.g. Switzerland, where the SO2 from the platinum production will not have
any impact and acidifying emissions in general are rather low. It thus has to be borne in mind
that this choice is intrinsically always arbitrary. In weighting, the (typically normalised) indicator
results for the different impact categories or damages are each multiplied by a specific weight-
ing factor that is intended to reflect the relative relevance of the different impact categories /
category endpoints among each other. It is to be emphasised that weighting factors are intrin-
sically always normative/subjective and reflect value assumptions (ILCD 2010).
It is outside the scope of these guidelines to detail how the various impact categories and
areas of protection can be calculated or how to implement normalisation and weighting. For
more information on the background of LCIA, the reader is referred to the ISO technical report
on LCIA (ISO 14047:2003), the general ILCD Handbook (chapters 6.7 and 8), to two specific ILCD
documents:
'Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models indicators'
'Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European context'
and other LCIA specific references that can be found on the website of the ILCD platform:
http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications.
Particularly in Chapter 6.7 of the general ILCD Handbook, general guidance can be found on
how to address, among other things, inclusion of non-standard impacts and non-standard
elementary flows, spatial and other differentiation or modification of impact factors, and deal-
ing with missing flows, etc. Here, the topic is mainly how to choose LCIA methods.
In the context of electric vehicles (and of conventional ones, as well, since comparisons be-
tween the two technologies are often the object of LCAs), the large variety of different pro-
cesses involved makes it difficult to suggest a sub-ensemble from the impact categories listed
above. Worse, since road transport significantly contributes to environmental noise, which is a
major environmental concern at least in developed regions, this impact category should also
be added to the list. Also, all three protection areas should be covered in the analysis12 in order
to avoid the unintended shifting of burdens.
Overall, LCIA methods should be chosen whose models are scientifically and technically valid
and which are internationally accepted. As far as possible, LCIA methods which cover all im-
pact categories consistently should be preferred to a set of methods that do not follow the
same principles. If, due to the particular goal and scope of the study, only a selection of impact
categories is chosen, then this must be documented appropriately, as also discussed in chap-
ter 5.2 ‘Method, assumption and impact limitations’.
Below, the provisions concerning the preparation of the basis for the impact assessment are
presented. First, a general reference to the corresponding provisions of the general ILCD Hand-
book is made. Some of these are repeated here and, occasionally, modified. When this is the
case, this is indicated and the version presented here shall be assumed as valid.
Provisions 6.5: Preparing the basis for the impact assessment
I. SHALL: Refer to provisions 6.7 ‘Preparing the basis for the impact assessment’ in
the general ILCD Handbook.
12 During the first eLCAr workshop, general agreement was expressed that all relevant issues should be
included in the analysis, where relevancy was defined as those indicators that show large differences
between the compared technologies. The use of single-score indicators was also discussed. While
some participants described such indicators as useful, it was remarked that ISO 14044 forbids these
methods in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public and that the use of single
score methods alone was not an option for any LCA.
II. SHALL (Modified compared to provisions 6.7 of the general ILCD): Analyse by
default the following impact categories and provide characterization factors on
midpoint level. It is recommended that these are also used to derive category
endpoint factors that are coherent with the midpoint level and that cover all rel-
evant damages to the three following areas of protection (ILCD 2010):
Impact categories (midpoint level) [ISO!]:
Climate change
(Stratospheric) Ozone depletion
Human toxicity
Respiratory inorganics
Ionizing radiation
(Ground-level) Photochemical ozone formation
Acidification (land and water)
Eutrophication (land and water)
Ecotoxicity
Land use
Resource depletion (metal ores without uranium, uranium ore, other min-
erals, fossil fuels (including peat) energy from water, energy from biomass,
energy from other renewable source, water,…)
Category endpoints (ILCD 2010) [ISO!]:
Damage to human health
Damage to ecosystem
Depletion of natural resources
III. SHOULD: If possible, noise impacts should also be analysed, especially if vehicles
with different sound emission profiles are compared. Noise impacts can be evalu-
ated on midpoint level and the contribution to the human health endpoint can
be assessed.
IV. SHALL: If only a sub-set of impact categories is analysed (e.g. Carbon footprint
studies), due to the particular goal and scope of the study, then this must be doc-
umented, considered during interpretation, and reported accordingly. This ll al-
ready be mentioned in the 'Method, assumption and impact limitations' section.
V. SHALL: Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources in the anal-
ysis of energy resource depletion.
VI. SHALL: Avoid the use of single score methods for comparative studies that are to
be disclosed to the public. Avoid the exclusive use of single score methods for all
studies.

and data representativeness
During scope definition, technological, geographical and time-related constraints must be

identified and declared. This will help the practitioner to plan data collection and to identify
the correct data sources.
A key concept in this context is the one of data representativeness. The results of an LCA will
only comply with the goal and scope of the study if the environmental impacts have been
derived through data that also complies with the goal and scope of the study. This aspect is
taken into account through the representativeness of the data, meaning how well the col-
lected inventory data represents the true object under study (ILCD 2010). In order to be able to
identify the most representative data for the study (meaning for the overall system as well as
the sub-processes within), it is necessary to define what its main technological, geographical
and time-related characteristics are.
Technological, geographical and time-related scope delimitations are 3 slightly different, but
very intertwined, concepts. In terms of LCI data modelling, technological representativeness
describes how well the collected data for a process actually represents its true technological
or technical characteristics. In the context of transport studies, a typical example could be
the comparison of different engine technologies. Say a study is interested in comparing the
environmental impacts of two current, best-in-class passenger cars, the first a BEV, the second
an ICEV with a petrol engine. The technology level for these vehicles would be state of the
art and the data describing it in an LCA would need to reflect those technologies. Evaluating
the impacts deriving from the emissions in the use phase of the ICEV using data for a EURO 3
engine, for example, would mean using data that is not representative of today’s state of the
art engine technology.
This holds not only for the overall system, but also for the sub-processes used to build the
system. E.g. using technical quality silicon instead of chip-grade silicon for the processors to
analyse the production of an electronic component is likely to lead to unreliable results.
For geographical representativeness, the focus is on the influences that local characteristics
can have on the LCI. The choice of the electricity mixes is just one example that is particularly
relevant in the context of electric vehicles. If a study in the decision context A is set in France,
then the impacts deriving from electricity production in the use phase will depend on the
specific electricity generation technologies used in France and on the imported electricity.
An average European electricity mix would not be representative in that case. The same holds
for data describing the production of the materials used for the production of the vehicle
or component imported from other countries. Typically, the same item produced in different
countries may lead to different environmental impacts due to different technologies used. All
this must be considered during the LCI phase.
Similar aspects are related to time representativeness. The inventory of a process or system
that is to represent a certain time context (for a present or near future situation, e.g. 2025, or
for a baseline past scenario, e.g. 1990) is to be based on data that appropriately represents that
declared time. Clearly, the strong link between technological and time representativeness is
particularly evident here, since technologies which may be state of the art today, may be ob-
solete tomorrow.
In this context, a key element is also representativeness with respect to the validity of the
study. If a study with a clear focus on validity compares two current technologies based on a
limited time period (e.g. comparison of two products already on the market), the most recent
data describing the two technologies would be the most representative choice. If, instead, a
study aimed at addressing scenarios which may have a long duration (e.g. strategic decisions
which may lead to the building of infrastructure with a lifetime of 30 years), considerations for
how technological developments over the period might influence the data must be made.
Overall, the practitioner can plan data collection effectively only if constraints due to technolog-
ical, geographical, and time-related representativeness are defined during scope definition.
Of course, during the LCI phase it may turn out that some desired level of data representa-
tiveness may not be reached due to lack of data and some less representative data has to be
used. This is only acceptable if the results, interpretation, and conclusions of the study are not
significantly affected and appropriate documentation is submitted. If there is a relevant influ-
ence on the results due to a possible inappropriate choice of data, then this has to be clearly
documented and taken into account in the interpretation and reporting phase.
Below, key provisions on representativeness are given that are essential for planning the de-
velopment of the study. More information on this topic will be given in chapter 7.1.1.3 ‘Plan-
ning data collection’.
Provisions 6.6: Technological, Geographical and Time-related scope and data

representativeness
I. SHALL: Clearly define the required technological representativeness of the data

concerning the main object of the study (e.g. current technology, future tech-
nology). Starting from the identified representativeness for the overall system,
the specific representativeness for each sub-process of the system shall be then
identified during the LCI phase.
II. SHALL: Clearly identify the required geographical representativeness for the data
concerning the main object of the study (e.g. specific nation, Europe). Starting
from the identified representativeness for the overall system, the specific repre-
sentativeness for each sub-process of the system shall be then identified during
the LCI phase (e.g. main object produced in a specific European nation, but some
raw materials imported from other countries).
III. SHALL: Clearly identify the required time-related representativeness for the data
concerning the main object of the study (e.g. past, current, near future). Further,
the temporal validity of the data shall also be consistent with the goal and scope
of the study.
IV. SHALL: If, during the LCI phase, it occurs that some aspects of representativeness
cannot be satisfied then this shall be documented. Particularly, if the lack of rep-
resentativeness relevantly affects the computed environmental impacts then
this shall be addressed in the interpretation, conclusions and recommendations
of the study. The practitioner shall not allow that the use of less representative
data disfavours any competitors’ products in particular (ILCD 2010).
6.7 Comparison between systems
Throughout this chapter, a number of specific recommendations on various topics have been
given in the context of comparative LCA studies and, in particular, comparative studies intend-
ed to be disclosed to the public. Due to the impacts that the findings from such studies can
have on stakeholders (building of new infrastructure, influence on markets, etc.) the key as-
pects of comparisons of systems are here summarized again. ISO distinguishes between com-
parative assertions’ and comparisons (ISO 14044:2006). The first implies a precise assertion of
the superiority or equivalence of one system with respect to the other. The latter only presents
the results for the two systems without making a specific assertion. Since the assertion may
often be directly derived from the results, even if it is not clearly stated, the recommendations
presented here shall be considered valid for both types of studies.
6.7.1 Functional unit, considered alternatives and assumptions

Overall, in defining the details of a study addressing the comparison of two alternatives, the
issue of consistency is at the core of a meaningful and (as much as possible) fair end result. This
must first be taken into account when considering what to compare. Consistency here means
the equivalence of the functional unit of compared alternatives and the non-misleading selec-
tion of the compared alternatives (ILCD 2010).
As two examples, in the context of equivalence of functionality, the comparison of a small city
car designed for short urban trips with a large family car suitable for long distances is problem-
atic since these two objects are clearly designed for two different functions and are (or, at least
should be!) used in different situations. In terms of consistency of alternatives, when compar-
ing a BEV with an ICEV, after making sure that for each technology a similar vehicle type is
chosen, the same technological level should be used for the two alternatives. It would not be
consistent to compare a prototype, emission optimized Euro 6 ICEV with a BEV equipped with
a lead acid battery and an electric motor and power electronics that have low efficiencies.
Of course, particularly in the comparison of various products within the same technology,
there are studies in which the goal and scope are intended to address exactly these points (for
example, differences caused by a change in the level of technology or the quality of materi-
als) and this shall then be clearly documented and taken into account in the interpretation
phase.
In any case, in the inclusion or exclusion of compared alternatives, it should be ensured that
the comparative assertion (or the simple comparison) is not misleading by leaving out existing
or even widely used alternative products that have clear superior environmental qualities than
the compared alternatives (ILCD 2010).
Similarly, the choice of scenarios and assumptions shall be done such that none of the alter-
natives is thereby favoured with respect to the others. In the choice of scenarios, this requires
incorporating the application context as part of the functional unit, as it may cause products
with the same general functional unit to perform differently: e.g. a use phase comparison of a
hybrid vehicle with its internal combustion engine and propulsion battery plus electric motor
to a conventional vehicle with only an internal combustion engine will yield different results
if only urban, short distance operation, or only long-distance highway operation, is taken into
account. In the definition of scenarios, the influence of particular operation patterns must be
considered carefully. Hence, first, the general technical specification of such products needs
to be transformed into a functional unit that considers the average or specific operational
conditions of the product. Please note, however, that for comparative assertions that will be
published, the choice of a specific application context may fulfil the criteria for a misleading
goal definition, e.g. by using very unusual application contexts. Studies that look into atypical
or otherwise specific scenarios shall highlight this fact visibly in the interpretation, including
when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations, as well as in the executive summary
(ILCD 2010).
The same applies to the assumptions made in the development of the scenarios. Even though
this holds for all assumptions in the study, a key topic is the one of durability. Cars and their
components have life times which can typically be expressed in km or in years. When in the
life cycle of a system the various components have different lifetimes, a substitution or main-
tenance strategy must be defined. In the definition of the various lifetimes and of the substitu-
tion or maintenance strategies, the alternative object of comparison must be treated equally.
6.7.2 Methodological and data consistency

Consistency is also required in the methods and data used for the two alternatives (ILCD 2010).
In the choice of, among other things, system boundaries, data representativeness, data qual-
ity, cut-off criteria, LCI modelling, and LCIA methods, the same principles need to be adopted
for the various alternatives so that no misleading bias is produced.
In the context of LCIA methods, it has to be remembered that the ISO and ILCD framework
define special requirements for the choice and coverage of impact categories for comparative
studies intended to be disclosed to the public. This is in order to avoid drawing conclusions on
the environmental superiority or equivalence of one alternative with respect to the other with-
out having analysed all relevant environmental impacts. Comparisons based on only selected
indicators or impact categories (e.g. carbon footprint studies) should be avoided. Studies that
choose to limit the analysis to selected impact categories shall highlight in the interpretation,
conclusions and recommendations that the comparison is not suitable to identify environ-
mentally preferable alternatives.
6.7.3 Scenarios in support of comparisons

Assessments of reasonably best case, most likely case, and reasonably worst case scenarios
(plus optionally other scenarios) shall be performed for comparison of systems; data and
method assumptions should be varied to investigate the robustness of the results (ILCD 2010).
Such scenarios support the later interpretation of results. For comparative, micro-level deci-
sion support studies (i.e. Situation A), examples for such method and data assumptions are
inventory data values, parameters, relevant flow properties, relevant system properties and
aspects of the functional unit, and also method assumptions including approaches such as the
mix of substituted process used in system expansion, allocation criteria, and the like; the shall
provisions shall still be met however.
Uncertainty calculations shall be used to support the comparison of systems, especially to
identify whether differences can be considered significant or too small to justify the superi-
ority of one system over the other (ILCD 2010). For comparative meso/macro-level decision
support studies (i.e. Situation B), a more extensive use of scenarios is necessary to ensure that
the decision support is robust. In contrast to Situation A, in Situation B, and here exclusively for
assumption scenarios, the shall provisions of this document can be changed.
The choice of which parameters are used in the definition of the best, most likely, or reason-
ably worst case scenarios, of course, depends on the precise object of the study and on its
goal and scope. In the context of passenger cars, examples of parameters which could be
suitable are vehicle consumption, vehicle life expectancy, battery life expectancy, efficiencies
of the components used in the system, recycling rates, etc. For some studies the availability
of materials could be an issue that requires scenario analysis. Again, it is up to the practitioner
to understand which parameters are crucial for the results of the study and should be verified
through best, expected, and worst case analysis.
In the development of the scenarios, a close collaboration with interested parties should be
pursued in order to achieve the best possible consensus.
Since most of the recommendations on comparisons concern general aspects of LCA, the
reader is referred to the provisions of the general ILCD Handbook.
Provision 6.7: Comparison between systems
I. SHALL: Apply all provisions reported in box “6.10 'Comparison between systems'
from the general ILCD Handbook.
6.8 Identifying critical review needs
A critical review is an independent analysis of the LCA which can help identify errors, prob-
lems, inconsistencies, etc., concerning all aspects of the study. A critical review is mandatory
for comparative studies intended to be disclosed to the public, but is also beneficial for in-
house applications since, overall, critical reviews can enhance the quality, credibility, and value
of the study (ILCD 2010).
Various types of review requirements exist that depend on the goal, scope, and decision con-
text of the study. It is useful, already during scope definition, to decide whether a critical re-
view will be done, and, if so, which form of review, and performed by whom. This early decision
will allow the data collection, documentation and reporting of the LCI/LCA to be tailored to
meet the requirements of the review, typically lowering the overall effort. Hence, the key as-
pects required for addressing this topic during scope definition are given here while further
information is given in a dedicated chapter.
Specific guidance on the appropriate review schemes in the ILCD framework is given in the
document ‘’Review schemes for LCA’’. The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification
are, given in the separate document ‘’Reviewer qualification’’. Both documents can be found in
the ‘publication’ section of the ILCD framework internet site: http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assess-
ment/publications.
Provisions 6.8: Identifying critical review needs
I. SHALL: Identify in the scope definition whether a critical review shall be per-
formed and if so (ILCD 2010) [ISO!]:
a) Review type: Decide along the provisions of the separate document “Re-
view schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)” which type of review is to be
performed as minimum.
Note that an accompanying review can be beneficial. For Situation B, it can moreover help
to organise the best attainable consensus among interested parties, which is required for
certain scope decisions (see provisions of chapter 6.5.4).
b) Reviewer(s): It is recommended to decide at this point who is/are the

reviewer(s). The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification are given
in the separate documents 'Reviewer qualification'.
6.9 Planning reporting
The report is a vital element of any LCA. Without clear and effective documentation for experts
and communication to decision makers, LCAs can result in erroneous and misleading use and
will not contribute to improving environmental performance. Reporting shall be objective and
transparent, there shall be a clear indication of what has and has not been included in the study,
and which conclusions and recommendations the outcome of a comparative study supports.
Various types of reporting solutions exist and how to address the report should be decid-
ed during scope definition in order to ensure that the required documentation is collected
throughout the project. Hence, the key aspects required for addressing this topic during scope
definition are given here, while further information is given in a dedicated chapter.
The form and levels of reporting depend primarily on three factors (ILCD 2010):
the type of deliverable(s) of the study,
the purpose and intended applications of the study and report, and
the intended target audience (especially technical or non-technical, and internal, third-
party, and/or the public).
Next to the general purpose reports that will be sketched in this chapter, the various applica-
tions of LCA may have their own, specific forms of reporting (e.g. Environmental Product Dec-
larations (EPDs) or the reporting of indirect effects in Environmental Management reports con-
cerning sites or companies, etc.). These will not be addressed in this document as they are out of
its scope. Please refer to the respective application to identify the specific reporting needs.
Forms of reporting
Three principally different forms of reporting are relevant, and are often also used in combina-
tion (ILCD 2010):
a classical detailed project report, i.e. an often comprehensive text document, typi-

cally with graphics and tables, that provides all relevant details, e.g. on the analysed
system(s) or developed LCIA methods, and the project in which the work was done. It
is directed at LCA experts, but should contain an executive summary for non-technical
audiences. The full report provides detailed documentation about the system (or LCIA
methods), its modelling, the assumptions and – especially in the case of compara-
tive assertions – the interpretation, including conclusions and recommendations, if
any. Confidential information can be documented in a separate, complementary re-
port that is not published, but made available only to reviewers under confidentiality
agreements. If the detailed report is used for third party information, it shall contain a
reference (preferably a hyperlink) specifying where any related review reports can be
easily accessed.
a more condensed, formalised, and electronically exchangeable report in the form of

a data set. A data set is suitable for documenting individual unit processes or systems
(as a process data set), but not for documenting the outcome of comparisons. It is also
suitable for LCIA methods (LCIA method data set). This form is also directed toward
LCA experts, mainly as data input for use in other LCA studies. As an electronic data
set, it allows other users to import the inventory and other technical details without
manual transfer of values into their LCA software, thus limiting errors and enabling
direct use of the inventory data (or impact factors) for modelling and analysing their
own systems.
a very condensed Executive Summary report of, e.g. 1 to 2 pages, that condenses the

detailed project report to its essence in non-technical language. Note that this report
is the one that should also be used in the detailed project report. If it is used as a
separate report for third-party information, it shall contain a reference (preferably a
hyperlink) specifying where the detailed report and all related review reports can be
easily accessed.
Whenever the final output of the study is a data set, or when data sets are developed and should
remain available for subsequent use, the most useful way of reporting is to combine a well-doc-
umented process data set or LCIA method data set (being a condensed version of the detailed
report), the detailed report, and any review reports as an electronic attachment to that data set.
Levels of reporting
Three levels of reporting should be distinguished (ILCD 2010):

reports or data sets for internal use,
reports or data sets for external use (i.e. to be made available to a limited, well defined list
of recipients with at least one organisation that has not participated in the LCI/LCA), and
comparative assertion reports that are to be made available to the (non-technical) public.
More details on the different levels of reporting and the specific requirements for each of them
are presented in the ‘Reporting’ chapter.
Provisions 6.9: Planning reporting (based on Provisions 6.12 of the general ILCD
Handbook)
I. SHALL: Identify in the scope phase (and based on the goal, scope and intended
audience of the study) which form of reporting shall be used: [ISO!]
a. Detailed report
b. Data set
c. Data set plus detailed report
d. Non-technical executive summary
II. SHALL: Identify in the scope phase (and based on the goal, scope and intended
audience of the study) which level of reporting shall be used:
a. Internal
b. External (but limited, well defined recipients)
c. Third-party report, publicly accessible
d. Report on comparisons, publicly accessible.
6.10 Scope definition example13
The practitioner in charge of realising the study described in 5.8 ‘Goal definition example’
must now define the scope of the study. As decided in the goal definition, the comparison
between the two battery types will be made on the basis of the vehicle produced by the
key customer of the company (Customer X). This vehicle weighs (without battery) 1 200
kg and is designed to have a range of 120 km and a life expectancy of about 240 000 km.
While the life expectancy for battery type A is known to be 240 000, the one for battery
type B is estimated to be around 180 000 km. Further, since these systems would be used
in the near future, the time scope is set for the years 2012-2022. Taking all these factors
into account, the practitioner defines the following functional unit and reference flow:
Functional unit: 240 000 km driving in compact car of 1 200 kg without battery mass,
fuelled with average European electricity generated between 2012 and 2022, using bat-
tery A or B such that either allows a range of 120 km per charge in real world driving.
Reference flow: Driving 1 km in an electric compact car of 1 200 kg (without battery

mass), a life expectancy of 240 000 km, operation in Europe between 2012 and 2020,
and battery A (B) such that it allows a driving range of 120 km per charge in real world
driving.
The practitioner then addresses the issues of the Life Cycle Modelling framework:
Supply chains: Having realised that the comparison falls within Situation A, the prac-
titioner prepares for data collection, which will require depicting existing or forecast
supply chains involved in the production of the systems.
Multifunctionality: Remembering the ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality,

the practitioner recognizes the need to also collect data regarding the treatment of co-
products in multifunctional systems. This is in case multifunctionality cannot be solved
through subdivision and needs to be addressed with system expansion and substitu-
tion. In case that system expansion should also not be possible, he prepares to define
an allocation strategy and to collect the required data, should it be needed.
Scenarios: Based on his knowledge of the battery technologies under study, the prac-
titioner identifies two key parameters that can fluctuate in the new type of battery (B):
effective energy density and lifespan. For each, a parameter fluctuation of, respectively,
±10 % and ±20 % can be expected. The exact values will depend on the optimization of
the production process. The practitioner defines the positive shifts as favourable (since,
in the case of energy density, a lower amount of battery would be needed while, for
battery lifespan, a more reliable system would be produced. The practitioner therefore
13 The numbers presented in the examples have been invented for didactical purposes.
decides to analyse worst case scenarios with -10% energy density and -20% life expect-
ancy and best case scenarios with +10 % and +20 %, including all possible combinations:
(-10 %, -20 %); (-10 %, 0 %); (0, -20 %); (0 %, 0 %); (+10 %, 0 %); (0%, +20 %); (+10 %, +20 %).
The practitioner decides to include the scenarios with 20 % lower energy density for the
new battery even though this would mean that the development goal of a significantly
improved energy density in battery B over battery A would not have been achieved. In-
clusion, however, is justifiable since battery B should also be economically preferable to
battery A and might be used even if the increase in energy density is not achieved.
The subsequent steps concern system boundary definition, LCIA methods and repre-
sentativeness:
System boundary: The practitioner opts for a full cradle-to-grave approach without
fixed cut-off criteria relative to the overall battery mass. He decides to include every-
thing he, as an expert on batteries, is aware of.
LCIA methods: As already defined in the goal phase, the practitioner limits the analy-
sis to the Carbon Footprint due to the strong scoping nature of the study. He is aware
that a comparison on this basis must not be published, is not suitable for identifying
environmentally preferable alternatives, and that the scope needs to be expanded if
the carbon footprint shows favourable results for battery B.
Technological, Geographical and Time-related scope and data representative-

ness: The study addresses current technologies of high quality (both for the vehicle
as well as the batteries) that are supposed to be suitable for the market between 2012
and 2022. The vehicle is assembled in Europe and designed for that market although
various components are manufactured in other countries and are then shipped in.
After having verified that all special recommendations for the comparison of systems
have been respected, the practitioner finally identifies the review and reporting needs:
Critical Review needs: The study is intended for a technical and internal audience (the
research and development unit of the company). As such, there is no need for a critical
review of the study. However, to verify the correctness of the study, the practitioner
decides he will submit the study to an independent external review.
Reporting: The form of an internal detailed report and the unit process data sets are
chosen in order to give as much information as possible for subsequent decisions by
the company and to prepare for a potential subsequent LCA that is not limited to car-
bon footprint.
7 Life cycle inventory analysis
In the life cycle inventory phase, the data required for the analysis of the system is collected
and processed. The ultimate aim is to identify which exchanges with the ecosphere14 are trig-
gered during the life cycle of the product or service of interest. As will be discussed in more
detail in this chapter, a key aspect in the realization of the LCI is the different perspectives used
for the foreground and the background systems. For the foreground system, which is the main
object of the analysis and for which the practitioner will measure or derive specific data, the
aim is to collect data with a high level of detail with respect to the sub-processes within it, as
this will allow identifying the criticalities of the system. For the background system, on the
other hand, for which one typically uses data from available databases, the aim is to identify
the demand (amount needed) by the foreground processes and the best suited data set in
terms of technological, temporal and geographical representation as well as in terms of the
modelling principles applied within the database.
In general, based on the separation of foreground and background systems made during goal
definition, the implementation of an LCI requires the following steps:
1) Identifying processes within the system boundaries: First, all the unit processes be-
longing to the foreground system are identified. This typically requires decomposing the
component or system of interest into all the relevant sub-processes in order to be able
to identify the sources of major impacts in the system. Then, all exchanges between the
foreground system and the rest of the technosphere are identified. These flows link the
foreground to the background system. Consequently, suitable background data needs
to be identified.
2) Planning data collection: Based on the goal and scope of the study, the collection of
the data describing the identified processes is planned by choosing appropriate data
sources for foreground and background processes.
3) Collecting foreground data: The data (i.e. specific material and energy inputs as well
as produced wastes and emissions) describing the various processes in the foreground
system are collected and/or further processed or derived through models if necessary.
4) Solving multifunctionality: Multifunctionality situations within foreground processes
are addressed.
5) Modelling the system: All the unit process data from each part of the foreground sys-
tem is scaled and processed such that the various sub-parts can be linked consistently
to other data from the foreground system or to data from the background system.
6) Calculating LCI results: Once the whole system has been linked, the elementary flows
that are exchanged at the system boundary with the ecosphere due to the life cycle of
the product or service under analysis can be identified and quantified.
14 As specified on page 94 of the general ILCD Handbook, an exchange with the ecosphere occurs
through an elementary flow which is a ‘single substance or energy entering the system being
studied that has been drawn from the ecosphere without previous human transformation, or single
substance or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the ecosphere without
subsequent human transformation.
Even though some studies may focus only on components or on systems of components, in
the discussion below the LCI of an entire vehicle will be addressed for completeness. The prin-
ciples presented can then also be applied to specific components. Since the three phases of
the life cycle of an electric vehicle or of its components can be characterised by very different
challenges in terms of LCI modelling, part of the guidelines below have been subdivided ac-
cording to the specific life cycle they address.
7.1 Identifying processes within the system boundary

and data collection
7.1.1 The Production Phase
7.1.1.1 Identifying processes within the system boundary in vehicle production

In order to collect all the necessary data describing the system, it is first necessary to identify all
the relevant processes involved in the production of an electric vehicle. For simplicity, it will be
assumed that all the components for the vehicle will be fabricated within the same factory, even
though this usually is not the case in reality. Most companies have various specialized factories
or may outsource the production of certain components to other manufacturers and then have
them transported to the fabrication plant for the assembly of the vehicle. From a methodologi-
cal point of view, the only change is that one must also apply the concepts presented below to
the production of the outsourced component and then add the transport service to the vehicle
assembly factory. Figure 8 summarizes the main steps, inputs and outputs.
Emissions
Raw materials
(steel, aluminium, etc.) Factory and machinery
Energy carriers Production of
(electricity, oil, etc.) components:
Auxiliaries
- body
- battery
Assembly e-Car
(water, chemicals, etc.) - e-motor
Transport services - electronics
(road, rail, air) …
Recyclable Waste
production scrap
Figure 8: Main process in vehicle production.
As schematized in Figure 8, the vehicle is not manufactured in a single process but assembled
after its various components have been produced (Figure 9).
Emissions, body Emissions, assembly
Raw materials, body

Energy carriers, body
Body production
Auxiliaries, body Raw materials, assembly
Machinery A Energy carriers, assembly
Waste and scrap, body Auxiliaries, assembly
Machinery Y
Emissions, battery
Raw materials, battery

Energy carriers, battery Battery Assembly
Auxiliaries, battery production
Machinery B
Waste and scrap, battery
.....
Emissions, electronics
Raw materials, electronics

Energy carriers, electronics Electronics
Auxiliaries, electronics production
Machinery X
Waste and scrap, electronics
Figure 9: Assembly of vehicle out of its components.
Overall, Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the main processes that are involved in the production of
an electric vehicle. In decision-context A, all the materials, services or energy carriers which
enter the production system (e.g. steel, electricity, waste disposal) are typically part of the back-
ground system. Depending on the goal and scope of the study, the other modules and pro-
cesses in Figure 8 and Figure 9 may belong either to the foreground or background of the sys-
tem. If the foreground of the study focuses on a specific component within the vehicle (e.g. the
battery), then the analysis should further identify its specific production processes (Figure 10).
In order to be able to understand where the main impacts of the object under study come
from, the subdivision shown in Figure 10 has to continue, within the foreground system and
with all the subcomponents and sub-processes, until a level of detail is reached in which a
production process describes a single unit process (i.e. one which cannot be further subdivided
into discrete manufacturing steps) and in which the entries are not a specific characteristic of
the object of interest and can be taken from the background system.
For example, in an LCA in which the foreground concerns the production of a new type of
battery, the analysis would have to differentiate between the production of the case, the cell
and the battery management system (BMS), and the assembly and initialization of the battery.
Within the cell, differentiation would be needed for anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator
production, and for the assembly of the cell, etc. Further, if these sub-components are built out
of other elements, the processes required for the production of each of these elements have
Emissions Y
Emissions 1 Emissions, assembly
Raw materials 1
Energy carriers 1
Sub-component 1
Auxiliaries 1 Raw materials, assembly Y
Machinery 1 Energy carriers, assembly Y
Waste and scrap 1 Auxiliaries, assembly Y
Machinery, assembly Y
Emissions 2
Raw materials 2
Raw materials Y Energy carriers 2 Sub-component 2 Assembly Y
Energy carriers Y Auxiliaries 2
Auxiliaries Y Machinery 2
Waste and scrap 2
.....
Emissions X
Raw materials X
Energy carriers X Sub-component X
Auxiliaries X
Machinery X
Waste and scrap X
Waste and scrap Y
Figure 10: Processes within component production
to be identified. If the subsequent analysis shows, that the production of a sub-element can
be described through a single production step that only requires inputs and outputs from the
background system (e.g. general material inputs such as steel or aluminium), then the subdivi-
sion can stop. Chapter 7.4.2.2 of the general ILCD Handbook reports techniques for reducing
processes into single, separate unit processes.
In practical terms, the ultimate level of detail also depends on the goal and scope of the study.
If the entire vehicle is in the foreground and if the aim is to identify the relative contributions
of the different components, then decomposing every component into its sub-components
and then into the respective sub-processes and down to unit processes would be very difficult
due to the very large number of steps, and possibly not even needed to address the question
at the base of the analysis.
The analysis of the background typically occurs through a step-by-step procedure that starts
from the foreground system (for which a specific input or service from the background was
required) and follows the entire chain to the system boundary in order to identify which el-
ementary flows are ultimately exchanged. For example, if the production of a component in
the foreground requires steel at the car manufacturing plant, then the background system
should include the transport of the steel to the factory, the production of the steel, the mining
of the iron ore, etc. The background data provided by a database might have to be adapted if
not all the necessary processes are covered. E.g. if the transport of the steel from the producer
to the car manufacturer is not included in the background data for steel, this transport has
to be added separately. Or if the car manufacturer needs a steel sheet, background data for a
steel billet might need to be combined with background data for sheet rolling. This needs to
be done for all the products and services required by the foreground. As described above, a
lower level of detail is typically used for the background where the main aim is to identify all
the relevant processes in the chain (for example, as mentioned above, the production of steel
or the mining of the iron ore) rather than all the sub-processes within these. LCA software and
LCI databases can substantially reduce the effort in this context.
Provisions 7.1.1.1: Process identification in the production phase
I. SHALL: If the entire vehicle is part of the analysis, identify all the main processes
involved in its production. Particularly, the presence and the correctness of the
representation of the following processes should be verified:
Battery production
Electric motor production
Power electronics production
Non propulsion electrical system
Vehicle body production
Steering, braking and suspension system production
Wheels and tyres production
Transmission system production
Cockpit related equipment production (seats, belts, interiors, etc.)
For serial PHEVs: internal combustion engine (ICE) system production
Vehicle assembly
Variations from the above list may occur and shall then be documented.
II. SHALL: For components or systems (including the vehicle) belonging to the fore-
ground system, identify compatibly with the goal and scope of the study for all
sub-components and sub-processes reducing these down to a stage in which
each production step can be described as a single operation involving only ex-
changes with the background system and nature. These typically include:
Raw material acquisition
Energy carrier acquisition
Production infrastructure
Acquisition of auxiliaries
Use of transport services
Waste and scrap flows
Emissions
III. SHALL: Identify all the processes in the background that are necessary to real-
ize the production of the foreground system. This should be done by applying
a stepwise analysis for each input and output passing the border between the
foreground and background and following their supply to end-of-life chain in
order to ultimately identify what elementary flows are exchanged.
IV. SHOULD: Document the analysed system with a schematic diagram of the found
processes.
7.1.1.2 Background changes in Situation B

The above listed recommendations directly hold for a situation A study where, for example,
the LCA is for a new production technology for a given system, assumes that no large-scale
changes are being caused. In studies, in which big changes in the supply chain may be ex-
pected in consequence of the analysed decision, it is also necessary to identify how the back-
ground may change in response to the decision. In other words, within the ILCD framework
this requires identification of the long-term marginal mix of the processes affected by large
changes, i.e. the long-term mix of technologies that are more likely to be installed (or decom-
missioned) as a result of the increased (decreased) demand. In an unconstrained and fully
informed market, the technologies that will be installed as a result of increased demand will
be, in general, those processes that most cost effectively provide the required function (ILCD,
2010). However, since unconstrained and fully informed markets are an ideal and theoretical
case, other aspects need to be considered. In addition, as mentioned in chapter 5.3, in identify-
ing the key changes and affected processes of the background, one should analyse not only
the demand triggered by the production system, but also the influence of possible additional
supply (e.g. as co-product from a process in the analysed system).
Due to the vast scope of changes which may occur in the supply chain of a situation B study
and its strong goal and scope dependence, it is not possible to give extensive information
on situation B scenarios related to electric vehicles in this document. The reader is referred to
chapter 7.2.4 of the general ILCD Handbook for a topic-independent methodology.
Here, it is only possible to limit the discussion to identifying an ensemble of processes that are
likely to play an important role in situation B studies of electric vehicles.
First, electric vehicles currently have a growing market share within the overall market for pas-
senger cars, which is almost entirely dominated by ICE vehicles. Hence, for some materials that
these two technologies have in common, for example steel, a growth of EVs must not neces-
sarily lead to a request for increased capacity for these materials as long as the growth of one
technology is accompanied by the decline of the other. In other words, if the passenger vehicle
market overall is stable, but, in the long term, electric vehicles replace part of the ICEVs, then
for the materials these have in common, the market trends could be maintained. It is therefore
important to understand how the growth of one technology may affect the other in the defini-
tion of the scenarios for the materials shared between the two.
Then, there are a number of materials and services which are of specific importance for electric
vehicles. Of course, the first one is the electricity used for recharging the batteries. This topic
will be addressed in more detail in the subchapter on the use phase (chapter 7.1.2.1).
In terms of production, examples of materials that could play a key role in scenarios of higher
market penetration by electric vehicles are aluminium, copper, lithium, neodymium and met-
als typically present in electronics equipment like gold, platinum, silver, etc.
Aluminium is used for lightweight design, which is very important for BEVs as less weight
means less consumption and, consequently, less battery for the same final range. Hence, the
amount of aluminium in vehicles is likely to grow in the future. Copper is generally used in
large quantities as electrode material in batteries and is also present in electric motors as well
as in electronic devices. How the production of lithium may change in response to a mass
production of EVs is also a relevant issue for situation B studies since lithium-ion batteries are
currently the most successful, and for the next decades probably the most promising, technol-
ogy for energy storage in BEVs. Also the production of neodymium which is used in the perma-
nent magnets of many electric motors might be significantly affected by a BEV breakthrough.
Finally, other metals like gold, tin or silver, just to name some examples, are contained in most
electronic devices of which electric vehicles contain a higher proportion compared to conven-
tional vehicles. Demand for platinum group metals, on the other hand, might be reduced if
BEVs replace ICEVs that have catalytic converters.
A situation B study addressing the mass penetration of BEVs, would need to analyse what
changes in the mining and production processes of the above listed materials would be caused
by their increased or decreased demand.
The previous list is not exhaustive and is only meant as a first guidance.
7.1.1.3 Planning data collection

After identifying the processes within the system of interest, it is necessary to select appropri-
ate data sources. Since the focus of the study is mainly on the foreground system, the data de-
scribing it should come from the developer, producer or operator of the respective processes
and should be the outcome of measurements or specific simulations. The term ‘measurement’
is here intended in the wider sense of direct acquisition from the producer or operator of the
process of interest. For example, with respect to electricity consumption, electricity bills from
the production site can be important data sources. This type of data is typically referred to as
primary data. Instead, for the background system, due to the averaging effect across suppliers,
homogeneous average data sets depicting the average market situation can be assumed to
appropriately represent the respective processes (ILCD, 2010). Data of this type can often be
acquired from national and international LCI databases, consultants, and research groups; it is
commonly referred to as secondary data.
Hence, in the battery example mentioned in the previous section, data for the material types
and quantities, the energy inputs, and wastes and emissions outputs related to the produc-
tion process of the battery should derive from measurements at the specific production plant
involved, while data for the generation of the electricity may be taken from average data sets
provided, for example, by LCI data providers.
Moreover, in terms of what data is collected, it is also important to underline again the differ-
ences in the background system between situations A and B. As previously described, in situa-
tion A the supply chain belonging to the background system is ‘as is’. Average technology data,
as a market consumption mix, should be used (ILCD, 2010). In situation B, the processes facing
large changes in consequence of decisions made in light of the analysis should be modelled
according to the long-term expected technology mix (ILCD, 2010).
Secondary data may also be used for some parts of the foreground system, if the quality of the
secondary data is better than that of the available primary data.
Provisions 7.1.1.3: Planning data collection
I. SHALL: Identify newly required, study-specific unit processes for which primary
data has to be obtained from the respective developers, producers or operators
(typically, the complete foreground system).
II. SHALL: Identify for which parts of the analysed system secondary LCI data sets
are more appropriate (typically, the background system).
III. SHALL:
Foreground system (ILCD, 2010):
Technology-specific primary data shall be used for the foreground system and
for the specifications of the products and wastes that connect the foreground
system with the background system. Secondary data from the actual suppli-
ers or downstream actors should be preferred to other (third-party) second-
ary data if they are consistent with the scope defined in the study and are
at least of comparable quality. Technology-specific, generic, or average data
from third-parties should be used in those parts of the foreground system
where, for the given case, this is of higher quality (i.e. more accurate, precise,
complete) than the available technology-specific primary or secondary data
from suppliers or downstream actors (ILCD, 2010).
Background system (ILCD, 2010):
Situation A: Average technology data, as market consumption mix, should
be used.
Situation B: Models of the expected long-term technology mix for processes
expected to realize big changes in consequence of eventual decisions should
be used.
IV. SHALL: Secondary data sets shall be selected according to their technological,
geographical and temporal representativeness with respect to the process they
are meant to represent.
V. SHALL: Use secondary data sets which, if coming from multiple sources, are con-
sistent with each other and with the modelling principles of the overall LCA (e.g.
for the system boundaries or the addressing of multifunctionality).
VI. SHALL: Use secondary data for the foreground system, if this is of better quality
than the available primary data.
VII. SHALL: If no secondary data is available for the background system, or for only
part of it, then primary data shall be collected for it or for the part. Alternatively,
secondary proxy data might be used. In this case, proxies shall be selected to
rather overestimate environmental impacts. If these impacts are relevant to the
overall result of the study, the proxie data shall be replaced with primary data.
7.1.1.4 Data collection

Once the processes have been determined for which primary and secondary data must be
obtained, the data collection begins. As mentioned above, data for the foreground system will
typically be taken through measurements, while secondary data is often taken from LCI data
providers.
During data collection, two main problems can occur. First, it could be that some of the ex-
changes one is looking for cannot be found directly. For example, one may find the total elec-
tricity consumed by a specific manufacturing machine that implements several sub-process-
es, without finding the consumption for each sub-process. Again, the techniques reported in
chapter 7.4.2.2 of the general ILCD Handbook and the references therein help to isolate the
desired exchanges. Then, too, some data may simply not be available. This case will be ad-
dressed in the chapter 7.2 ‘Filling data gaps and future technologies’. To ensure an unambigu-
ous naming of the collected material and energy flows, and ILCD compliance, LCA practition-
ers should conform to the ‘ILCD Nomenclature and other conventions’ document and to the
ILCD elementary flows reference list, both of which can be found on the website of the ILCD
framework: http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications.
Below, specific provisions for data collection in the production phase are given. While most of
these principles can be directly applied to other phases, specific guidance will also be given in
the respective use and end-of-life sections.
Provisions 7.1.1.4: Data collection
I. SHALL: Characterise the unit process regarding the technology, geographical

market scope, and time it represents, and any possible limitations to its repre-
sentativeness (ILCD, 2010).
II. SHALL: For each unit process in the foreground system, all items required for
a comprehensive technical description shall be collected. The following inputs,
outputs and infrastructure (if present) shall be quantified:
Infrastructure (buildings, constructions, machinery, etc.)
Energy carriers, specifying type and amount:
� Electricity: the specific electricity mix (i.e. mix of electricity production
technologies) used for the production process shall be identified (e.g.
medium voltage; 50 % hydroelectric, 30 % coal, 20 % photovoltaic).
� Heat: the relevant properties (temperature, pressure, heat carrier, etc.)
and sources of heat (coal, oil, etc.) shall be identified as well as the infra-
structure used within the facility for heat generation (e.g. furnace).
Raw material inputs (steel, specific plastic types, etc.)
Ancillaries and consumables needed for production (water, chemicals, etc.)
Specific emissions to air, water, and soil released by the process (Provisions
7.4.3.2 to 7.4.3.4 of the general ILCD Handbook shall be considered in this
context)
Output and type of wastes and their treatment services

Output of scrap suitable for reuse or recycling
Transport services
III. SHALL: Data that is representative of the average operating conditions of the
process shall be collected (including, for example, the influence of start, closure,
and eventual stand-by times).
IV. SHALL: Secondary data used for the background processes shall include the same
exchanges presented above (infrastructure, materials, energy carriers, emissions,
wastes, and scrap flows). When this is not the case, the key discrepancies shall be
documented and the influence on the final results shall be assessed.
V. SHALL: The parameter source(s) for dimensioning the background system shall
be clearly stated and the values shall be justified. Values from the CPP can be
used as well as values from other sources.
VI. SHALL: Potentially dangerous substances that flow into the manufactured ve-
hicle shall be documented. This information will be used to prepare LCI data for
the end-of-life phase of the vehicle.
Simplification in practical LCA: Today, LCA software, combined with LCI databases, is common-
ly used for the implementation of LCAs. Hence, proper data collection will often only be neces-
sary for the foreground system and for those background systems that are not covered by the LCI
databases linked to the specific LCA software used by the practitioner. All the background pro-
cesses which link the foreground system with the environmental exchanges crossing the system
boundary are typically automatically included in the LCA software so that the practitioner does
not need to worry in detail about the collection of this part of the data. He only has to ensure that
the background data is consistent with the goal and scope defined in the study.
Below, specific critical issues in the LCI of the foreground system for various components
of electric vehicles are summarized. The recommendations provided in chapters 7.1.1.5 to
7.1.1.11 are not meant to be followed in all studies, but only in LCAs where the components
are in the focal point of the study. These recommendations are not meant to be exhaustive,
but do represent a first guide for the practitioner on key challenges that should be addressed.
7.1.1.5 Overview: LCI recommendations for battery production

In the LCI of a battery, important processes are typically the production of the electrodes, ac-
quisition of critical materials (e.g. lithium), production of the electrolyte, production of the
separator, production of the case, production of the battery management system, and the
assembly. Moreover, in terms of material inputs, some batteries require large quantities of
copper, which is used due to its good conductivity properties. The production of this copper
can have a significant influence on the LCIA results for batteries, especially due to acidifying
emissions and sulfidic tailings left over from mining. It is important that this is taken into ac-
count in the LCI data used for the modelling of raw material extraction. Even though lithium
production is not a major contributor to environmental burdens in today’s Li-ion batteries,
production processes may change in the future if the demand for lithium should increase due
to growth in the production of battery electric vehicles and, therefore, of lithium-ion batteries.
Modern batteries are equipped with electronic battery management systems; the same rec-
ommendations given for the high power electronics hold for this sub-component.
7.1.1.6 Overview: LCI recommendations for body production

In the LCI for body production, it is important to take into account all the specific material
manufacturing processes and machinery required for creating the body and doors, the coat-
ing processes, production of the insulation system, and the painting processes. In terms of
material inputs, today’s vehicle bodies typically require a large share of various types of iron
and steel. However, there is growing interest in lightweight materials due to the potential for
energy saving in the use phase, and a shift towards higher shares of aluminium, plastics and
carbon fibres can be observed. All these materials can have very different extraction, produc-
tion, and processing technologies, which have to be taken into account in detail in order to
analyse whether the introduction of a specific lightweight material effectively reduces the im-
pact of the vehicle over its entire life cycle. This is especially important if electric vehicles are
operated with environmentally friendly generated electricity since in this case the energy sav-
ings in the use phase due to the reduced vehicle weight will not result in substantial mitigation
of environmental burdens. If the effect of lightening by the use of different materials is to be
analysed, the inventory should therefore cover in detail the specific materials used, including
their extraction, production, and processing energy consumption.
7.1.1.7 Overview: LCI recommendations for electric motor production

There are various types of motors that may require different types of inputs. It is therefore
necessary to identify exactly what type of motor is being depicted in the analysis. In terms of
material inputs, electric motors are largely made out of metals. A good share of the metal in-
put might be copper, for which the same recommendations given for the battery hold. Some
types of motors might make use of permanent magnets that use rare earths (e.g. neodymium).
These require particular mining processes that should be taken into account in the analysis.
The inventory should therefore cover in detail the specific materials used as well as their ex-
traction, production, and processing energy consumption. Due to the scarcity of some of the
elements used, the inventory should also account for resource consumption.
7.1.1.8 Overview: LCI recommendations for SBSS, transmission and

ICE for serial PHEVs production
This paragraph brings together components that are subject to various forms of stress and
typically require resistant materials for reliable performance. Similar to body production, the
specific materials and their manufacturing play an important role in their LCI. A large quantity
of metals as well as plastics and carbon fibres are likely to be part of the system. Therefore,
the inventory should cover in detail the specific materials used as well as their extraction, pro-
duction, and processing energy consumption. In the production of braking systems another
important issue is the substances used in the brake shoes, disks, and disk pads, which can be
released into the environment as non-exhaust emissions when the friction of the braking pro-
cess detaches them from their support. The presence of these substances should therefore be
documented as this will be essential for evaluating the environmental impacts that will occur
during the use phase of the vehicle and its brakes.
7.1.1.9 Overview: LCI recommendations for tyres and wheels

Overall, very similar recommendations as in the previous paragraph hold, since the materials
used in the wheels need to have a high resistance to stress and the ones of the tyres can lead
to environmental impacts during the use phase of the vehicle due to abrasion. The inventory
should differentiate between the various materials used in the components and the efforts
required to process them as well as verify what substances in the tyres may be problematic in
terms of non-exhaust emissions.
7.1.1.10 Overview: LCI recommendations for the production of modules

within the cockpit
The cockpit comprises a large number of different components: interiors, seats, linings, the
dashboard, front and back windscreens, as well as windows, etc. It is out of the scope of this
handbook to provide guidance for each element. In general, plastics, synthetic materials, and
foams will play a dominant role in the LCI of the cockpit and should be analysed in detail,
including their production and processing. For all electronic components, the recommenda-
tions given below shall be used.
7.1.1.11 Overview: LCI recommendations for power electronics

and non-propulsion electrical system production
Various electronics modules are present in an electric vehicle. First, one should differentiate
between the power electronics, responsible for the energy processing in the electric drive-
train, and the non-propulsion electrical system. Further, the power electronics can typically be
subdivided into other components: AC/DC inverter, DC/DC converter, power distribution unit,
battery charger, and cables (other nomenclatures and configurations can be found). The LCI
should distinguish between these different components as they can lead to different impacts.
In general, electronic devices require a number of potentially critical materials such as, among
others, copper, gold, silver, tin, and platinum, which are used to varying degrees in the elec-
tronic devices (resistors, transistors, etc), printed circuit boards, and cables. These metals can
have substantial impacts, both because of the mining processes and in terms of resource con-
sumption. Consequently, the LCI should include the specific electronic components, printed
circuit boards, and cables used in the various devices of the power electronics and take into
account (typically through the background data sets) the extraction and processing of the
metals mentioned above. Further, the production of electronics can use resource intensive
machinery such as clean rooms, which also should be included in the LCI.
The non-propulsion electrical system brings together all the electronic and electrical elements
that address functions not related to the electric drivetrain. Modules which typically belong in
this class of devices are lighting systems, heating and air conditioning units, control electron-
ics, cables, entertainment devices, and navigation systems. In establishing the LCI, the same
recommendations given for the power electronic devices hold with the addition of also inven-
torying, with the same detail, the non-electronic parts that can be present, for example, in the
heating, air conditioning and lighting systems.
7.1.2 Use Phase
7.1.2.1 Processes within the system boundary and data collection: the use phase
In the use phase, the processes involved in the operation of the electric vehicle or of its compo-
nents have to be taken into account. Since the operation of each of the components depends
on the operation of the entire vehicle, and since it is outside of the scope of this document to
detail the operation of each component in the vehicle, the discussion will be developed for
the operation of a complete vehicle. Figure 11 summarizes the main elements which play an
important role.
Electricity generation
Vehicle infrastructure
Maintenance
Electricity networks
Consumption/
Driving
electricity at plug Non-exhaust emissions
Road infrastructure
Figure 11: Main elements in the use phase of a BEV.
As shown in Figure 11, one element in vehicle operation is the road infrastructure. The vehicle
uses the road and its production, maintenance and dismantling should be part of the analysis.
At the same time, vehicle maintenance is another crucial element in the use phase. This is of
fundamental importance for electric vehicles in which the battery, a key component of the
vehicle, may have to be exchanged during the vehicle’s lifetime. The production and end-of-
life treatment of the materials and components which are exchanged due to maintenance are
part of the inventory. They can be modelled together with the production and EoL of the car,
or they can be modelled separately as part of the use phase, depending on the goal and scope
of the study. Also, non-exhaust emissions such as particles generated by abrasion from the
braking system, tyres and road can have an impact on the environment and shall be included
in the use phase. Finally, the energy required due to use of the vehicle can have a strong impact
on the results since, based on the energy consumption, a certain amount of electricity needs
to be generated. Of course, the technologies with which the energy is converted, can lead to
substantially different environmental impacts. Also, to deliver electricity, electricity networks
are required. These extend from the high voltage parts typically leaving the power plants
and managing the transmission of the electricity, to the distribution part where, ultimately,
the electric car is connected for recharging. In this context, the various charging alternatives
should also be taken into account. This can be an on-board charger or dedicated charging
stations that provide, for example, high speed charging. Overall, to take all these factors into
account, it is first necessary to estimate the vehicle’s energy consumption.
7.1.2.1.1 Consumption calculation methods
7.1.2.1.1.1 Introduction
The energy consumption of a vehicle can be determined in two ways: by a measurement on a

real vehicle or on fleets of vehicles, or through calculation. Overall, the energy consumption of
an electric vehicle can be thought of as a combination of several sub-consumptions:
Basic consumption (driving from A to B, without the consumption of any device which is
not directly needed for propulsion)
Additional consumption due to heating and air conditioning of the passenger compartment
Additional consumption due to auxiliaries (Light, Radio, Navigation etc.)
Additional consumption due to internal battery losses in standstill
Additional consumption due to battery charging losses
Each of these sub-consumptions can exhibit a – in some cases large ‑ variability due to tech-
nological factors and/or due to user behaviour. Table 6 indicates the order of magnitude of
the influences. Basic consumption is strongly influenced by the type of vehicle (mainly its
weight, shape and tyres) and by driving patterns (mainly acceleration and speed driven). Cli-
matic conditions can have a limited influence on basic consumption since temperature can
affect the efficiency of the power train. A large influence due to climatic conditions on basic
consumption could only be observed if the user opens the windows when driving and thus
increases drag.
But climatic conditions are key to the additional energy consumption for heating and cooling.
The energy needed depends, on the one hand, on the system installed (efficiency, power), and,
on the other, it depends on use. A/C might always be on (as is often the case in conventional
vehicles) – even in the wintertime ‑ or it might only be switched on if it is really hot or sunny.
Some drivers might switch the heating on when the passenger cabin is below 20 °C while oth-
ers might only use the heater if it is much cooler. Consumption for heating and air condition-
ing per km also depends on average speed, since consumption relates both to the power of
the devices and the length of time they are used.
Energy consumption by auxiliaries also depends on the devices (efficiency, power), how long
they are used, and at which average speed.
The additional consumption due to internal battery losses during standstill depends on the
battery type and design and on the use of the vehicle. While most lithium-ion batteries com-
monly used in modern BEVs show quite low losses during standstill, high temperature batter-
ies and Li-ion batteries consisting of very many small cells can lose half their energy content
within a week when the vehicle is parked and not connected to the power grid.
The additional consumption due to charging losses mainly depends on the efficiency of the
charger, which can vary over a rather wide range. Another influence that can be observed is
the state of charge (SOC) at which battery recharging is begun. If a battery is almost depleted,
the relative charging losses are lower than if the battery is still almost fully charged. This is due
to energy losses from balancing, which is done towards the end of charging. Assuming that
most electric cars are normally charged every night, the average state of charge of the battery
before it is charged depends on the daily distance driven.
heating/AC
auxiliaries
standstill
charging
basic
total
Influencing factor
Vehicle design (mass, drag, tyres) +++ 0 0 0 0 +++
Vehicle design (component efficiency) + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Drive cycle (speed, driving behaviour, situation) ++ + + 0 0 ++
Climatic conditions and user behaviour (comfort) + +++ + 0 + ++
Frequency of use13 0 0 0 +/++ 0 +/++
Daily distance 0 0 0 0 + +
Influence on total consumption +++ ++ + + ++
Table 6: Influence of various factors on vehicle energy sub-consumptions. Values in ‘total’ refer to the vari-
ation of total consumption due to a variation of the influencing factor within a reasonable range for a best
case and worst case vehicle15
The following subchapters discuss the sub-consumptions of BEVs in more detail and present
ways to estimate them and overall consumption. Practitioners who want to use a more de-
tailed model or specific simulation tools are free to do so. Of course, in both cases, appropriate
documentation is required. Practitioners who have access to measurement facilities or fleet
measurements should use the guidelines for documenting and reporting their results.
7.1.2.1.1.2 Basic consumption
Basic energy consumption is the energy used by the vehicle’s drivetrain to travel from point A
to point B. Overall, it consists of the energy needed for the mechanical motion of the vehicle
(moving its mass and shape along a specific trajectory), the energy loss in the drivetrain of the
vehicle (how much electrical energy is lost in the conversion to mechanical energy, due to the
efficiency of the technology in the car), and the energy recuperated by inverting the energy
flow when decelerating (how much kinetic energy is converted to electricity and saved in the
battery).
To compute the mechanical energy required to sustain the motion of a given vehicle, one
first needs to define along which trajectory, and with what driving profile, the car is driven.
15 Depending on battery type and design: high for high temp. batteries or Li-ion batteries with very many small
cells, low for other Li-ion batteries.
Because this leads to an infinite spectrum of situations, these computations are typically
made on the basis of driving cycles. An often used driving cycle in relation to consumption
measurements is the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), which is also the one used in
some measurement standards (e.g. ECE R101, Annex 7). This driving cycle is commonly used
to communicate vehicle energy consumption under standard test conditions. But there
seems to be evidence that the NEDC underestimates the real-world average consumption
(Mock, 2012). Alternative driving cycles have therefore been developed that aim to depict
more precisely real-world consumption. Examples of such driving cycles are the Common
Artemis Driving Cycle (CADC) and the Worldwide Harmonized Light Duty Test Cycle (WLTC),
which is the result of a UNECE working group. These driving cycles use a more dynamic driv-
ing pattern based on measurements in everyday vehicle operation in European countries
(CADC) and in countries from all over the world (WLTC). CADC and WLTC consist of driving
situations depicting urban, rural and motorway conditions while NEDC only has urban and
extra urban elements. The separate parts of all drive cycles can be assembled in different
shares to estimate the consumption in a very specific driving situation. The following table
gives some key data on the three operating cycles and their parts. The CADC exists in two
versions: the CADC (130), which reaches a maximum speed of 130 km/h, and the CADC (150),
which reaches 150 km/h maximum. Since the maximum speed of many of today’s electric
vehicles is limited to 130 km/h (or even lower), the use of the CADC (150) cycle is often not
a reasonable choice for BEVs.
average speed basic consump-

Drive Cycle / part
time [s] distance [m] [km/h] tion [%]
Urban 780 4058 18.7

NEDC
Rural 400 6948 62.5

Total 1180 11006 33.6 100
Urban 920 4472 17.5
Rural 980 16441 60.4
Highway (130) 735 23793 116.5
CADC
Highway (150) 735 24575 120.4

Total (130) 3136 50833 58.4 135
Total (150) 3136 51642 59.3 140
Urban 590 3095 18.9
Rural 433 4755 39.5
WLTC
Highway slow 455 7158 56.6

Highway fast 322 8254 92.3
Total 1800 23262 46.5 112
Table 7: Duration, distance and average speed of various drive cycles and their parts. The basic consump-
tions relative to the basic consumption in the NEDC are to be understood as approximate values valid for
the same vehicle.
Rural 980 16441 60.4
Rural 980 16441 60.4
way slow 455Highway (130)7158 735 2379356.6 116.5
Total (150) (150)
Highway 3136
735 51642
24575 59.3
120.4 140
Highway (130) 735 23793 116.5
sing the trajectory that most fits the goal and scope of the study, it is
Urban
then
Total (130)necessary 3136to cal-
590 3095
50833 18.9
58.4 135
way fast 322Highway
Highway (150)
(150)8254 735735 24575
2457592.3 120.4
120.4 Rural
Total (150) 433
3136 4755
51642 39.5
59.3 140
orresponding contribution (130) to consumption.
Total (130) 3136 This is done
50833 58.4 by applying 135 the laws of mechanics
WLTC
Total 3136 50833 58.4 135
Highway
Urban slow 455 7158 56.6
77
y of the vehicle 1800 (150) 23262 46.5 112
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles 590 3095 18.9
in conjunction
Total (150)
Total with3136
3136the speeds
51642
51642 and accelerations
59.3
59.3 of
140
140 the trajectory.
Highway
Rural fast 322One can
433 8254
4755 92.3
39.5
tion, distance and average
Urban speed of various590 drive
3095 cycles and
18.9 their parts. The basic consump-
WLTC
his by calculating the wheel power for a specific motion according to the following
Total
Highway slow equation
1800
455 23262
7158 46.5
56.6 112
to the basic consumptionRural in the NEDC 433are to be 4755understood
39.5 as approximate
Table 7: Duration,values valid
distance and
Highway fast 322
forspeed 8254
average of various drive cycles and their parts. The basic consump-
92.3
nder the assumption Highway
of driving
slow on a455 flat road):
WLTC
tions relative to the basic consumption in the NEDC are to be understood as approximate values valid for
cle. 7158 56.6
the same vehicle.
Total 1800 23262 46.5 112
Highway fast 8254322 8254
92.3 92.3
⁄ Table 7: Duration, distance and average speed of various drive cycles and their parts. The basic consump-
After
g the trajectory choosing
that most fits the thetrajectory
goal andthat scope most fits
of the the goal
46.5study,
After
tions
isand
choosing
it samerelativescope
the
to the of consumption
trajectory
basic the study,
that most in
ittheNEDC
fitsthe
isgoal
then neces-
andtoscope
are of the study,
be understood it is then necessary
as approximate to cal-
values valid for
its then necessary to cal-
Total 1800 23262 112
culate
the corresponding
vehicle. contribution to consumption. This is done by applying the laws of mechanics
Table
Table 7:
7: Duration,
Duration, distance
distance and
and average
average speed
speed of
of various
various drive
drive cycles
cycles and
and their
their parts.
parts. TheThe basic
basic consump-
sary to
responding contribution
tions calculate
tions relative to to
relative to the itsconsumption
the basic
basic
corresponding
consumption.
consumption in This
in the
the NEDC
NEDC iscontribution
done
are
are to
to be
be understood
understood
to
by applyingto
as consumption.
the
the laws
body of the
approximate
asAfter
approximate values
values of This
consump-
valid for is donewith
validmechanics
vehicle in conjunction bythe applying
speeds andthe accelerations of the trajectory. One can
for that most fits the goal and scope of the study, it is then necessary to cal-
choosing the trajectory
the
the same
same vehicle. compute this by calculating the wheel power for a specific motion according to the following equation
of theisvehiclelaws
the vehicle ofmass
mechanics
vehicle.
in conjunction in kgwith to thethe body
speeds ofand
the vehicle
accelerationsin conjunction
of the
(derived under
with the
trajectory.
culate its corresponding
the assumption
speeds
One
contribution
can
of driving
and
to accelerations
consumption.
on a flat road):
This is done by applying the laws of mechanics
After choosing the trajectory that most fits the goal and scope of the to the
study, it body
is then ofnecessary
the vehicleto in conjunction with the speeds and accelerations of the trajectory. One can
cal-
by calculatingofculate
theacceleration
After
the trajectory.
choosing
wheel
the
power One
trajectory
for can
that compute
most fits
a 2specific
the thisThisby
goal
motion
and scope calculating
of the study, it the
is then wheel
necessary power
to cal- for power
a specific motion
Thisaccording to the the following equation ⁄
is the vehicle
culate its corresponding
its corresponding in m/s
contribution
contribution to consumption.
to consumption.
compute
is done by applying
is done by applying
thislaws
the by calculating
laws ofof mechanics
mechanics
the wheel for a specific motion according to the following equation
according
to the body of
er theisassumption
to theof to
driving
body the
the following
vehicle
on
of the vehicle a equation
in conjunction
inflat road):
conjunction (derived
with the speeds underwhere:
and accelerations the
(derived assumption
under
of the the assumption
trajectory.
with the speeds and accelerations of the trajectory. One can
One can of driving
of driving on on a
a flat flat
road):road):
the vehicle
computespeedthis byin m/s the wheel power for a specific motion according to the following
calculating
compute this by calculating the wheel power for a specific motion according to the following equation
equation
is the vehicle mass in kg ⁄
(derived under the assumption of driving on a flat road): is the vehicle acceleration in m/s
2
⁄
(derived under the assumption of driving on a flat road):
is the vehicle's drag coefficient
where:
⁄ is the vehicle speed in m/s
⁄ is the vehicle mass in kg
where:
where: 2
is the vehicle's cross sectional area in m
where:
is is
the vehicle's
the vehicle drag coefficient
acceleration in m/s
2
is the vehicle mass in kg

is the vehicle mass in kg is theisvehicle’s
the
is cross
vehicle's
the vehicle cross
speedsectional
sectional
in m/s area areaininm2m2
is the vehicle
is the mass in
air density in kg/m
kg is the vehicle
(1.2041 kg/m )
is the vehicle
3
is the vehicle
mass in kg
acceleration
accelerationin m/s
3 2 2
in m/s 2 is theisair
the density
air in
density kg/m
in kg/m
33
(1.2041
is the vehicle's drag coefficient kg/m
(1.2041 kg/m ) )
3 3
is the vehicle acceleration in m/s
is the vehicle is the vehicle
acceleration speedspeed
is the vehicle
in m/s coefficient
2in m/s
in m/s is theisvehicle’s
the
is rolling
vehicle's
the vehicle'srolling
crossresistance
resistance
sectional area coefficient
coefficient
in m
2
is the vehicle's rolling resistanceis the vehicle speed in m/s
is the vehicle’s drag coefficient
is the vehicle's drag coefficient 3 3
is the air density in kg/m (1.2041 kg/m )
is the vehicle's drag coefficient
is the vehicle speed in m/s is the vehicle's cross sectional area in m
2
2
As an alternative, the
is thewheel power
vehicle's demand
rolling can also
resistance be calculated with the coefficients of a so called
coefficient
is the vehicle's cross sectional area in m3
As an alternative, the wheel power demand can also be calculated with the coefficients of a so
3
is the air density in kg/m (1.2041 kg/m ) coast down test according to ECE Regulation 83, Annex 7. With the coefficients F0, F1 and F2, the vehi-
is the
native, thevehicle's drag coefficient
wheel power demand can also be calculated with the coefficients of a so called
is the
is the vehicle's
air density in kg/m
rolling
3 3
(1.2041coefficient
resistance kg/m ) cles air and rolling resistance is defined depending on vehicle speed in km/h. The wheel power de-
called coast down test according to ECE Regulation 83, Annex 7. With the coefficients F0, F1
is the vehicle's rolling resistance
2 coefficient
As an alternative, the wheel power demand can also be calculated with the coefficients of a so called
mand for vehicle acceleration must be calculated separately.
n test according
is the tocross
vehicle's ECE Regulation
sectional area 83, Annex
in m 7. With the coefficients F0, F1 and F2, the vehi-
coast down test according to ECE Regulation 83, Annex 7. With the coefficients F0, F1 and F2, the vehi-
and F2, the vehicles air and rolling resistance is defined depending on vehicle speed in km/h.
As an alternative, the wheel power demand can also be calculated with the clescoefficients
air and rolling
of aresistance
so called is defined depending on vehicle speed in km/h. The wheel power de-
d rolling resistance
is the air density is defined
in kg/m
coast
As an down depending
3
(1.2041
test according
alternative, kg/m
the wheeltopoweron )vehicle speed in km/h. The wheel power de-
ECE Regulation
3
demand can 83,also
Annex 7. With thewith
be calculated
where:
mand
coefficients
the for
F0,vehicle
of acceleration
F1 and
coefficients aF2,
sothe vehi-must be calculated separately.
called
The wheel power demand fordepending
vehicleonacceleration must be calculated
is power
the
separately.
ehicle acceleration must be calculated separately.
cles
coastairdown
and rolling
test resistance
according to is
ECEdefined
Regulation 83, Annexvehicle
7. Withspeed in km/h. The
the coefficients F0,wheel
F1 and F2,vehicle
de-
the mass in kg
vehi-
is the vehicle's
mand rolling
cles airfor
and resistance
vehicle
rollingacceleration coefficient
resistance ismust be calculated
defined depending separately. where:
on vehicle speed in km/h. The wheelis power
the vehicle
de- acceleration in m/s
2
mand for vehicle acceleration1 must be calculated separately. is is the

the vehicle
vehicle massininm/s
speed kg
where:
/2 2
is is the
the vehicle
first coastacceleration inNm/s
coefficient in
tive, the wheelwhere:

where:
power demand is the vehicle mass in kg
can also be calculated with the coefficientsis isthe
ofthesecond
avehicle
so called
speed
coast in m/s in N/(km/h)
coefficient
is the vehicle mass inisis kg
2
is the vehiclethe
the vehicle
mass acceleration
vehicle mass in kg in m/s
in kg is theisfirst
is the
the coast
third coefficient
firstcoast
coast inininNN/(km/h)
coefficient
coefficient N 2
est according to ECE Regulation is the 83,

vehicle Annex
speed in m/s7. With2 the coefficients F0, F1 and F2, the vehi-
is the vehicle acceleration
is the vehicle in m/s
acceleration
2
2
in m/s is the second coast coefficient in N/(km/h)
is the second coast coefficient in N/(km/h)
ollingisresistance
the vehicle acceleration
is defined is depending
is
is the vehiclethe incoast
the first
speed
vehicle
m/s
speed on
m/s vehicle
incoefficient
in m/s in N speed in km/h. The wheel
is is power
the thirdthe coast de-
coefficient
third coast coefficientininN/(km/h)
N/(km/h) 2
2
75
is the first
second coast coefficient in N/(km/h)
icle acceleration
is the vehiclemust
speedbe in
calculated
is m/s
the coast separately.
coefficient in N
2
is the third coast coefficient in N/(km/h)
is the second coast coefficient in N/(km/h) 75
is the first 60coast coefficient
is the thirdin N coefficient in N/(km/h)2
coast 120 The correlation between a speed profile
50 100 (for example the75 NEDC) and wheel pow-
is the second coast coefficient in N/(km/h)
vehicle speed [kW/h], SOC [%]
40 80
er can be seen75in the figure on the right.
is the vehicle
is the third30mass
coast in kg
coefficient in N/(km/h)
2
Wheel power [kW]
60
20 2 40
It is possible to calculate wheel power
is the vehicle10acceleration in m/s 20 for every step of the driving cycle with
is the vehicle 0speed in m/s 0
one of the formulas described above.
-10 -20 75
is the first coast coefficient in N
-20 -40
Once the mechanical power required
is the second
-30
coast
0 coefficient
200 400 in N/(km/h)
600 800 1000 1200
-60
for moving the vehicle is known for
time [s]
2
is the third coast coefficient
P_wheel [kW] in N/(km/h)
SOC [%] Vehicle speed [kW/h] each step of the trajectory, it is then
possible to estimate how much electri-
cal power needs to be taken from the
battery in order for 75the drivetrain of
e-Car the vehicle to sustain that motion. This

Power Electric can be done by backtracking how the
electronics motor
power is dissipated within the drive-
Battery Transmission train due to the efficiencies of the vari-
ous components, as schematised in
Figure 12, or a simplified approach can
be taken if the LCA is not performed
to assess the effect of changes to driv-
Figure 12: Drivetrain consumption contribution. etrain efficiency.
7.1.2.1.1.2.1 Simplified approach to calculate basic consumption from battery
If the focus of the study is not on the optimization of the electric drivetrain, then another ap-
proach that does not require knowing all the efficiencies (and their dynamic behaviours) of the
components within the vehicle can be convenient for the computation of energy consump-
tion. This method is called the Willans approximation and is commonly used in combustion
engine analysis (Soltic, 2011). This method can also be applied to the drivetrain of an electric
vehicle to evaluate the battery power demand versus the mean positive wheel power. The latter
can be computed from the wheel power described above, setting all negative values to zero
and averaging over the trajectory or driving cycle of interest.
It is important to note that this part of the methodological guidance is proposed only for
practitioners whose foreground system is not concerned with optimization of drivetrain ef-
ficiency. Practitioners who are involved in studies concerning optimization of drivetrain ef-
ficiency through, for example, high efficiency power electronics and electric motors, and who
are interested in exactly quantifying the benefits deriving from this optimization, should use
the approach described in 7.1.2.1.1.2.2.
The framework presented in this chapter was developed to focus on typical, passenger orient-
ed transportation patterns and not on sport or extreme uses. The boundary conditions under
which it has been developed are the following:
Basic technical vehicle specifications:

One electric motor with fixed transmission ratio
Lithium-ion type battery
No sports car or other special application
Input parameter limitations

The vehicle mass should be lower than 2 000 kg
The maximum driving cycle speed should not exceed 90 % of the vehicle’s maximum speed
The ambient temperatures during vehicle charging should be assumed to be between
-5 °C and 30 °C
If the above limits are not exceeded, the over- Willans approach NEDC
all calculation accuracy of the proposed so- WLTC CADC
lutions for energy consumption should be IUFC15 Ra
around +/- 5 % provided the driving pattern is Rb L2
exactly known. 16
14
A linear relationship between mean positive 12
battery power demand [kW]
wheel power and battery power demand 10

was empirically found for several BEV models 8
available on the market in 2012 (see figure on 6
the right). Parameter A in the formula below 4
corresponds to the power needed to run all 2
the systems necessary to operate the vehicle 0
when it is in “ready” mode. That means, main 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
mean positive wheel power [kW]
switch on, but the vehicle is at a standstill.
the systems necessary
ThisIfIf power to operate
This power demandthe
is vehicle when
caused by it iscomponents
several in “ready” like control
available the above
the aboveondemand
the are
limits
limits market
are is exceeded,
not
not caused
in 2012
exceeded, byoverall
the
the several
(seecalculation
overall figurecomponents
calculation on theof
accuracy
accuracy likeproposed
ofright).
the
the control
Parameter
proposed
solutions for en-
solutions for en-
mode.ergy That means,
consumption units,
main
should power
be switch
around electronics,
+/-on,
5 %but instrument
the
provided vehicle
the cluster,
driving is at
pattern a and
exactlyother
known.systems in
isstandstill.
units,
ergypower
consumption
A in the formula standby electronics, instrument
should be around
below mode. cluster,
+/- 5 % provided theand other
driving
corresponds to the power needed to run all patternsystems in
is exactly known.
This power
standby
Guidelines formode.demand
the LCA of electricis caused by several components like control
vehicles 79
the Asystems
units, power
A linear
necessary
linear relationship betweento
Parameter
electronics,
relationship Boperate
mean
between instrument
mean inpositive
positive
the power
wheel
combinationcluster,
wheel
vehicle
with
power
and
and
when itA is
bat-
parameter
and other systems
bat-
in in
“ready”
describes the overall
Parameter
mode. tery powerB demand
That in combination
means, was empirically
wasmain
with
switchfoundparameter
foundon,
for several BEV
but the A describes
models
BEV vehicle istheat overall
a standstill.
tery power
standby mode. demand drive train efficiencies
empirically forversus
several wheel power demand.
models Basically, the ef-
available on the market in 2012 (see figure on the right). Parameter
drive train on
available efficiencies
the market inversus
2012 (see wheel
figure power demand.
on the right). ParameterBasically, the ef-
This A power
Parameter B
A in the formula
demand
in the formula
in combination
is caused
ficiencies
below corresponds
below corresponds
of to theby
electric
with
to the
several
motors
power
parameter
are
needed to
power needed A
components
normally
run all
describes
to run all
represented
the
like control
overall
in efficiency maps which are graphs with the e
ficiencies of electric motors
gineto torque are
operate on normally
the one axis represented
and the engine in efficiency
speed on maps
the other. whichas are graphs with theapproach,
en-
units,
This
drive
the systems necessary
the power
powersystems
train demand electronics,
necessary
efficiencies is to versus by vehicle
operateinstrument
caused theseveral
wheel
when it is
cluster,
components
vehicle when
power
in “ready”
and
like
it is in “ready”
demand. otherthe
control
Basically, systems
units,
ef- power in But a more
electronics, simplified it
ginemode.torque
mode. That on
That means, one
means,and
mainaxis
possible
mainother and
switch
switch
on,
toon, the
but
reduce engine
the
but the
vehicle
the speed
is
mapisto
vehicle
at a
one
atmode. on the
standstill. other. But as a more simplified
line, which represents mean drive train efficiency.
a standstill. approach, it is
instrument
standby cluster,
mode. systems in standby
ficiencies
This power
This power of electric
demand ismotorscaused by
demand is caused by are normally
several
several
componentsrepresented
like control in efficiency maps which are graphs with the en-
possible to reduce the map to one line, which represents mean drive train efficiency.
components like control
units, power electronics, instrument cluster, and other systems in
gineunits,
Parameter
Parametertorque BB
powerinonin one axis
combination
electronics,
combination and
instrument
with thewithengine
cluster,
parameter speed
parameter
and other on the
A describes
systems
A describes in the other.
overallBut
the as atrain
overall
drive more effisimplified
ciencies approach, it is
standby mode.
standby mode.
possible
versus
drive wheel
train
Parameter
to efficiencies
reduce the map
power demand.
B in combinationversus
to one
Basically,
wheel
with parameter
line,
the which
power
A describes
represents
efficiencies
demand.
the
of electric
overall
mean drive
motors
Basically, train
are
the ef-efficiency.
normally repre-
where: with parameter A describes the overall
Parameter B in combination
sented in effi ciency maps which are graphs with the
drive train efficiencies versus wheel power demand. Basically, the ef-engine torque on one axis and the engine
ficiencies
drive trainof electricversus
efficiencies motors are normally
wheel power represented
demand. Basically, the ef- in efficiency maps which are graphs with the
where:
speed on theof
ficiencies
ficiencies ofother.
electricBut as aare
motors
electric motors more
are simplifi
normally
normally edisapproach,
represented
represented
the electrical
in efficiency
in efficiency
power
it ismaps
maps
whichdemand
possible are
which are
graphsof
to reduce thethe
the
with
graphs with
specific
map
the
cycle in kW (only energy fl
en- to one
en-
ginegine
line, torque
which
gine
torque onononeone
represents
torque
axisthe
axis and
on one axismean and
engine
drive
and the
the
trainspeedengine
effi outthe
on
ciency. speed
ofother. But on
battery, as the simplified
more other. But
noaa recuperation as ait ismore simplified approach,
more simplified considered)
approach,
possible to reduce the map is theengine
to one line,
speed
electrical on the
power
which represents
other. But as
demand
mean drive train ofefficiency.
the specific approach, it is
cycle in kW (only energy flow
possible
possibleto
where: reduce
to reduce the the
map to map to which
one line, one represents
line, which
is the mean represents
mean drive mean
powerdrive
train efficiency.
positive wheel demand trainforefficiency.
the specific cycle in kW
out of battery, no recuperation considered)
is the electrical power demand of the specific cycle in kW (only energy flow
is the mean positive wheel power demand for the specific cycle in kW
where:
where: with: out of battery, no recuperation considered)
where:
is the electrical
is the mean power demandwheel
positive of the specific
power cycle in kW (only
demand for energy
the flow
is the electrical power demand of the specific
is the electrical cycle
power demand in kW (only
of the c specific
energy
specifi flowin kWcycle in kW
cycle
where:
with: out of battery, no recuperation considered)
∑(only energy
flow out of battery, no recuperation considered)
is the mean positive wheelis power
the demand
mean for wheel
positive the specific
power cycle in kWfor the specific cycle in kW
demand
is the
is the mean electrical
positive power
wheel power demanddemand ofcycle
for the specific the in specific
kW cycle in kW (only energy f
with: A ∑1.118 (from measurement at Empa (Bütler, 2013))
with:
with: B 0.436 (from measurement at Empa (Bütler, 2013))
with:
A 1.118 (from
is the mean
∑duration
measurement
positive wheel power demand for the specific cycle in kW
TC∑
∑ ofatdriving
Empacycle
(Bütler,
in s 2013))
B A 0.436 (from measurement
1.118 (from measurement1.118
at(Bütler,
(from Empa (Bütler,
measurement 2013))
at Empa (Bütler, 2013))
A BAA 1.118 (frommeasurement
1.118 (from measurement at Empa
at Empaat
0.436 (from
Empa
(Bütler,
2013))
(Bütler,
2013))
measurement at
2013))
Empa (Bütler, 2013))
with:
TC BB duration To get the
0.436 (fromofmeasurement
driving cycle
0.436 (from measurement
consumption
in of
at Empa
at Empa s(Bütler,
(Bütler,
in Wh/km,
2013))
2013))
has to be transformed to W and then divided by t
B TCTC
0.436 (from
duration ofmean
measurement
driving cycle
duration
cycle inspeed.
s
at driving
Empa cycle in
(Bütler,s 2013))
TC duration of driving cycle in s
TCget theduration
To consumption of driving cycle in s
in Wh/km, has to be transformed to W and then divided by
To get the consumption ∑in Wh/km, has to beto transformed to by
W the
and then divided by the
the mean
To get cycle speed. in
the consumption
To get the consumption
Wh/km,
in Wh/km,
has to be transformed W and then divided
has to be transformed to W and then divided by the
mean
mean
meancycle
cyclespeed.
speed.
cycle speed.
ATo get the
1.118 (from measurement
consumption in Wh/km, at Empa (Bütler,
has to be 2013))
transformed to W and then divided by the
31.01.2013
mean cycle speed. 31.01.2013
B 0.436 (from measurement at Empa (Bütler, 2013))
TC where:
where:duration of driving cycle in s
where: 77
is the electrical consumption of the specific cycle in Wh/km (without recuperative 77
is the electrical consumption ofconsumption
is the electrical the specific cycle
of theinspecifi
Wh/km (without
c cycle recuperative
in Wh/km
braking).
braking). (without recuperative braking). 77
is the mean cycle in
is the mean cycle is Wh/km,
speed
the
speed
of the specific
mean
of thecycle
cycle
speed
specific
in
ofin
cycle has ctocycle
km/h.
the specifi
km/h. bein km/h.
transformed to
W and then divided by
mean cyclecharging
speed.the battery by recuperation of kinetic energy is not considered in the 77
Up to now,
Up to now, charging the battery by recuperation of kinetic energy is not considered in the proposed
Up to now, charging the battery by recuperation of kinetic energy is not considered in the proposed
proposed
approach.approach.
However, in However, in electric
electric vehicles, vehicles,
the electric theactelectric
motor can motorwhen
as a generator cannoact as aflows
energy generator
approach. However, in electric vehicles, the electric motor can act as a generator when no energy flows
whenfromnothe
from energy
the
batteryflows
battery and
and thefrom
the theofbattery
inertia
inertia
of the and
vehicle
the vehicle
in the inertia
motion
in motion of the
continues
continues
to vehicle
spin
to spin
the in motion
motor.
the motor.
This continues
leads
This leads
to
to a
a to
braking effect on the vehicle as well as to the 'recuperation' of energy, which is fed back to the battery.
spin braking
the motor.effect This
on theleads
vehicletoasawell
braking eff'recuperation'
as to the ect on the vehicle
of energy,as wellisas
which fedto theto‹recuperation›
back the battery. of
The determination of the maximum energy that can be recuperated is very complex, since different
The which
energy, determination
is fed of
backthe maximum
to the energy that
battery. The can be recuperatedof
determination is the
very maximum
complex, since different
energy that can
systems affect the recuperative behaviour. The following steps describe a procedure, based on actual
systems affect the recuperative behaviour. The following steps describe a procedure, based on actual
be recuperated is very complex,
vehicle measurements, since
for estimating different systems
the recuperated energy. affect the recuperative behaviour. The
vehicle measurements, for estimating the recuperated energy.
following steps describe a procedure, based on actual vehicle measurements, for estimating
the recuperated
First, the maximumenergy.
recoverable energy for every operating point of the cycle has to be determined.
First, the maximum recoverable energy for every operating point of the cycle has to be determined.
This energy is calculated by inverting the Willans approach defined in the previous section to evaluate
This energy is calculated by inverting the Willans approach defined in the previous section to evaluate
First,the
thewheel
maximum recoverable
power through the cycle energy for every
speed (including operating
positive point
and negative of the
wheel cycle
power, has to
necessary for be de-
the wheel power through the cycle speed (including positive and negative wheel power, necessary for
termined.
the firstThis energy
the first calculation
calculation is calculated
steps).
steps). In this way, by
In this way, the inverting thethe
efficiencies of
the efficiencies of
theWillans approach
drive system
drive system defi
are taken
are taken ned
into
into in thealso
account,
account, previous
also
for recuperation. Since recuperation is highly dependent on the operating point, these calculations, in
section to evaluateSince
for recuperation. the wheel power
recuperation through
is highly the cycle
dependent speed
on the (including
operating positive
point, these and negative
calculations, in
order to achieve an acceptable accuracy, are performed for each time interval, and not just with mean
wheel order to achieve an acceptable accuracy, are performed for each time interval, and not
power, necessary for the first calculation steps). In this way, the efficiencies of the drive just with mean
values, as has been done before. The calculated values have a negative sign since the energy flow is
system are taken
reversed into
(wheel to account, also for recuperation. Since recuperation is highly dependent
battery).
reversed (wheel to battery).
where:
where:
is the wheel power for the specific operating point in kW
theUp
First, first
fromtothe
the calculation
now,battery and the
charging
maximum steps).
the battery
inertia of
bythe
recoverable In this
vehicle
recuperation way,
in motion
of
energy the
continues
kinetic energy
for efficiencies
istonot
every
spinconsidered
the motor. ofinThis
the
the drive
leads to a system are taken into account
proposed
braking
approach. effect on theinvehicle
However, electricasvehicles,
well as tothethe 'recuperation'
electric motor can of energy,
act which operating
as a generator is fed back
when thepoint
notoenergy battery.
flows
of the cycle has to be determ
for recuperation.
Thisfrom
energy
The is and
determination
the battery of Since
calculated
the maximum recuperation
the inertia of by inverting
energy
the vehicle that can is
in motionthe
be highly
Willans
recuperated
continues dependent
to spin approach
is very complex, on
the motor. This defined
since the
different
leads to a operating point, these
in the previous calculatio
section to eva
systems effect
affect on
thethe
recuperative behaviour. The following steps describe a procedure, based
to theonbattery.
actual
80 order
braking
the The
wheel to achieve
power an acceptable
vehicle as well
through
as to the
the accuracy,
'recuperation'
cycle are
of energy,
performed
which is fed back
for each time interval, and not just with
that canspeed (including positive and for negative wheelvehicles
power, necessar
vehicle measurements,
determination for maximum
of the estimating energy
the recuperated energy.
be recuperated is very complex,
Guidelines
since different
the LCA of electric
values,
the systemsas has
affect
first measurements, beensteps).
the recuperative
calculation done before.
behaviour. The steps
The following
Inrecuperated
this way, calculated
the values
describe a procedure,
efficiencies have
ofbasedtheondrive a negative
actual
systemsign since the
are taken into energy fl
account,
vehicle for estimating thefor energy.point of the cycle has to be determined.
reversed
for
First, the
recuperation. (wheel to
maximum recoverable
battery).
Since
energy
recuperation
every operating
is highly
This energy is calculated by inverting the Willans approach defined independent
the previous section onto the
evaluate operating point, these calculation
the wheel power through the cycle speed (including positivepoint
and negative wheel power, necessary for
orderFirst,to calculation
the
the first
achievesteps).
maximum an Inacceptable
recoverable energy
this way,the
for
theWillans
accuracy,
every operating
efficiencies
are performed
of thedefined
of
drive system
the cycle has to
are takensection
for each
be determined.
into account, also
time interval, and not just with m
This energy is calculated by inverting approach in the previous to evaluate
on the
values,
for
operating
as power
has through
recuperation. Since
point,
beenthedone these
recuperation is
calculations,
before.
highly The
dependent
in order
calculated
on the operating
to
values
point,
achieve
these have an acceptable
a negative
calculations, in
accuracy,
sign sinceare
the energy flo
the wheel cycle speed (including positive and negative wheel power, necessary for
performed
order
the first for each
to calculation
achieve an steps).time
acceptable interval,
accuracy,
In this way, theare and
performed
efficienciesnot just
offor
theeach with
drivetime
system mean
interval, values,
and
are taken not
intojust as
withhas
account, alsobeen done before. The
mean
reversed
values,
for as(wheel
has been
recuperation. Since
torecuperation
done battery).
before. The is calculated
highly dependentvalues have
on thea negative sign since the calculations,
energy flow is
calculated
reversed
order
values
(wheel to
to achieve
have a negative
anbattery).
sign since theoperating
energy point,
flow
acceptable accuracy, are performed for each time interval, and not just with mean
these
is reversedin (wheel to battery).
where:
reversed (wheel to battery).
where:
where:
where:
Another
where: value that has to be calculated is the maximum vehicle specific recuperation power. The
ysisAnother
Anotherof vehicle
value that
value that iswheel
is the
has the
has
to wheel
bepower
measurements
to ispower
for the specific
be calculated
calculated the
shows foristhat
operating
maximum the specific
point
therecuperation
vehicle maximum
specific operating pointby
in kWrecuperation power. The anal-
is limited
vehicle specifi cin kW vehicle's
the
recuperation control software
power.
ysis of vehicle measurements shows that recuperation is limited by the vehicle's control software; the
The analysis
reasons
reasons
Another for
valueofthat
forthis vehicle
this
behaviour measurements
hasbehaviour
have
to be alreadyhave
calculated isbeen shows
already
mentioned
the maximum that
been
above.
vehicle recuperation
Based
specific mentioned
on the existing
recuperation ismeasurement
limited
power. The anal-by
above. the vehicle’s
Based on thecontrol
existing measure
software;
data,
ysis
data,
an
of the
vehicle
an value reasons
engine'smeasurements
engine's for this
speed-dependent
shows behaviour
power
that limit was
recuperation have already
characterized
is limited as
by been
follows:
the mentioned
vehicle's control above.
software; the Based on the exist-
Another
reasons for thatspeed-dependent
this behaviour has
have to bebeen
already calculated power is the
mentioned above.
limit
Based
was characterized
maximum
on the existingvehicle
measurement
as follows:
specific recuperation power. The
ing measurement data, an engine’s
data, an engine's speed-dependent power limitspeed-dependent
was characterized as follows: power limit was characterized as follows:
ysis of vehicle measurements shows that recuperation is limited by the vehicle's control software
reasons
where:
for this behaviour have already been mentioned above. Based on the existing measurem
data, an engine's speed-dependent
is the speed dependent recuperationpower pow- limit was characterized as follows:
where:
where: er limit in kW
where: is the speed

is the speed dependent recuperation dependent recuperation power limit in kW
pow-
The adjacent figureer limit in kW
shows the maximum theoretically pos-
The adjacent figure is the
shows speed dependent recuperation pow-
the maxi-
sible recuperation (red marks) and limited recuperation versus vehicle speed (blue line, proportional to
motor speed)figure
for theshows
WLTCthedriving cycle. theoretically
The values for the maximum theoretically possible vehicle speed [kW/h]
recupera-
The adjacent maximum pos-
mum theoreticallyerpossible
tion that fall below(red limit inrecupera-
the marks)
blue line kW
represent points that would not be possible to achieve due to
sible recuperation and limited recuperation versus vehicle
0 speed
20(blue line,
40 60 lim-
the
proportional to 80
100 120 140
tion
where: (red marks) and limited recu-
itationsspeed)
motor of the for
recuperation
the WLTC system. 0
driving cycle. The values for the maximum theoretically possible recupera-
tion that fall below the blue line represent points that would not
-5 be possible to achieve due to the lim-
peration versus vehicle speed (blue
The proportional
adjacent figure is theshowsspeedthe
itations of the recuperation system.
dependent
maximum recuperation
-10 theoreticallypow- pos- 78
line, to motor speed) for
Recuperation power [kW]
sible driving er
recuperation limit
(red in kW and
marks) for limited recuperation versus vehicle speed (blue line, proportion
-15
the WLTC cycle. The values 78
-20
motor
the speed) theoretically
maximum for the WLTC driving cycle. The values for the maximum theoretically possible recu
possible
-25
tion that
recuperation fall below
that fall the
below bluethe line
blue
The adjacent figure shows the maximum-30theoretically represent points that would pos- not be possible to achieve due to the
itations
line
sible of thepoints
represent
recuperation recuperation
thatmarks)
(red would system.
not limited
and -35recuperation versus vehicle speed (blue line, proportion
be possible to achieve due to the lim- -40
motor speed) for the WLTC driving cycle. The values for the maximum theoretically possible recup
itations of the recuperation system. -45 31.01.
tion that fall below the blue line represent -50
points that would not be possible to achieve due to the
itations
In addition, of the recuperation
a value can be inserted system. in P_el_recuperation_max P_el_recuperation_limit
order to take into account advanced
In addition, a value can be inserted in order to take into account advanced energy recovery of cu
energy
and futurerecovery of current
vehicles. and future
Advanced energy recovery can be achieved with a brake pedal that is connect
vehicles. Advanced energy recovery can be achieved with a brake pedal that is connected to
the recuperation strategy or a special shift lever position where the driver can choose a forced
the recuperation strategy or a special shift lever position where the driver can choose a forced
peration. For current technologies, a suitable value for this factor is around 1.2.
recuperation. For current technologies, a suitable value for this factor is around 1.2.
With these values, P(t)el.recu.max and P(t)el.recu.lmit, the maximum and the limit are determined.
With these values, P(t)el.recu.max
These two calculated values
and P(t)el.recu.lmit
are now compared
, the maximum and the limit are determined. These
to each other for each operating point in order
calculated
to determinevalues
the effare now
ective comparedpower.
recuperation to each other
If the for each
maximum operating
value point
is higher than in
theorder
limit,to determin
iteffective recuperation
is reduced power. If the maximum value is higher than the limit, it is reduced to the
to the limit value.
value.
{ }
Conceptually, this corresponds, in the figure above, to assigning all the red marks that fall below
blue line to the corresponding point on the blue line.
In the steps before, the values for P(t)el.recu have been calculated by using the positive and negat
With these values, P(t)el.recu.max and P(t)el.recu.lmit, the maximum and the limit are determined. These two
value.
calculated { now compared{ to each other } }
With these valuesvalues,{are P(t)el.recu.max and P(t)el.recu.lmit, the for each operating point in order to determine the
} maximum and the limit are determined. These two
Conceptually,
effective recuperation this corresponds,
Conceptually,
power. inthisthe
If the maximum figure
corresponds, above, in
value the to assigning
figure
iseach
higher above, alltothe
than thepoint
31.01.2013 red marks
assigning
limit, all
itorder thethat
is reduced redfalltobelow
marks thethatthe
fall below
limit
calculated
Conceptually, values this are now
corresponds, compared in the tofigure
each other above, forto operating
assigning all the red inmarks to
that determine
fall below the
the
blue
value.lineforrecuperation
Guidelines to
thethe
LCA of
{be blue
corresponding
electric line to the
vehicles point corresponding
on the blue}point line. on the blue line. 81
effective
blue line toa value
In addition, thecan correspondingpower.
inserted in order If theinto
topoint
take maximum
on theadvanced
account blue valueenergyisrecovery
line. higher than the limit, it is reduced to the limit
of current
value.and future vehicles. Advanced energy recovery can be achieved with a brake pedal that is connected to
Conceptually, this corresponds, inposition
the where
figure above, to assigning all the red marks that fall below the
In
the recuperation strategy or
the steps before, Ina the
the
specialsteps
values before,
shift lever
for the values
P(t)el.recu
the driver
have forcanP(t)el.recu
been
choose a forcedhave
calculated
recu-been calculated by using the positive and negati
by using the positive and negative
blue line For
peration. tocurrent
the corresponding
{
technologies, point
a suitable value onfactor
for this theis blue
around line.
} 1.2.
In the steps before, the
wheel values
power. for But P(t)el.recu
wheel power. But the electric motor can only regain energy when the wheel
the electric have motor been cancalculated
only regainby usingwhen
energy the
powerpositive
the wheeland power
is negative negative
is negative (dur
(during
Conceptually,
wheel power. But this { corresponds,
thedeceleration).
electric motor in the
Therefore,
can figure above,
to compute } to assigning
the average all the
recuperated red marks
electrical that fall
energy, below
the(duringthecalculat
values
deceleration). Therefore, to compute the only
average regain energy
recuperated when the wheel
electrical energy,powerthe is negative
values calculated
blue
In theline
Conceptually,steps
deceleration). to thebefore,
thiscorresponding
Therefore, thean
for values
corresponds, operating
to compute point
for the on
in P(t)el.recu
point
the the
with
figure blue
average have
aabove, line.
positivebeen calculated
towheel
recuperated power
assigning by the
must
all
electrical using
be the
set
red
energy, at positive
zero.
marks thatand
the values fall negative
below the
calculated
for an operating
Conceptually,
With this
these values, pointand with
P(t)corresponds, P(t) a inpositive
, the figure
the maximum wheel above,
and power
the to
limit must
assigning
are beall
determined. setthe
These at zero.
twored marks that fall be-
wheel
blue linepower.
for calculated
an to
operating
values
But the
el.recu.max
thearecorresponding
point
now
electric
with
compared to each
motor
el.recu.lmit
point
other for on
a positive can
each
only
the
wheel blue
operating
regain
powerpointline. energy
in must
order to be
when
set at
determine
the
the zero.
wheel power is negative (during
low effective
the blue line to the corresponding point on the blue line.
deceleration).
In the steps before, Therefore,
recuperation power. If the to
the values compute
maximum the average
value is higher
for P(t)el.recu
than the limit,recuperated
it is reduced to theelectrical
have been calculated
limit
by usingenergy, the values
the positive andcalculated
negative
value.
for
In the
wheel ansteps
operating
power. before,Butpoint
the
the withfor
values a positive
P(t)el.recucan wheel
have been power must
calculated be set atthe
by using zero.positive and nega-
In the steps before, theelectric
valuesmotor for P(t)el.recu only regain
have been energy when
calculated the wheelthe
by using power
positiveis negative (during
and negative
tive wheel
deceleration). power. { But the electric motor
Therefore, to compute } can only
theonly average regain energy when the wheel power is neg-
wheel power.thisBut theAfter this
electric step,
motor forcan each phase
all regain
ofrecuperated
the cycle,
energy theelectrical
that fall when
mean effectiveenergy, the valuespower
recuperation
below thethe wheel power is negative (during
calculated
can be determ
ativeConceptually,
(during corresponds,
deceleration). in the figure
Therefore, above, to
to assigning
compute the red marks
the average recuperated electrical energy,
for blue
After anthisoperating
deceleration).
line tostep, forpoint
Therefore,
the correspondingeach with
inphase
(aspoint a positive
section
to compute
on the of7.1.2.1.2.1).
blue thethe
line. wheel
cycle,average power
the mean must
recuperated be setelectrical
effective at zero. energy,
recuperation power can becalculated
the values determined
the
Aftervalues
this calculated
step, for for anphase
each operating of point
the withthe
cycle, a positive
mean wheel power
effective must be setpower
recuperation at zero.can be determined
(as Inan
for inthesection
operating 7.1.2.1.2.1).
steps before, thepoint with
values for a positive
P(t)el.recu wheel bypower
have been calculated using themust be negative
positive and set at zero.
(as wheel
in section 7.1.2.1.2.1).
power. But the electric motor can only regain energy when the wheel power is negative (during
After this step,
deceleration). fortoeach
Therefore, computephase
the average of recuperated
the cycle, theenergy,
electrical mean effective
the values calculatedrecuperation power can be determined
for an operating point with a positive wheel power must be set at zero.
∑
(as inthis
After section
step, for7.1.2.1.2.1).
each phase of the cycle, the mean effective recuperation power can be de-
termined ∑
After this(asstep, in section
for each 7.1.2.1.2.1).
∑ phase of the cycle, the mean effective recuperation power can be determined
(as After
After inthis
sectionstep,
this step,
7.1.2.1.2.1).
forphase
for each
Toofget
each phase
the
the consumption
cycle, theofmean theeffective inthe
Wh/km,
cycle,recuperation mean power effective
hasrecuperation
can be determined
to be transformed power fromcankW betodetermined
W and then divide
section 7.1.2.1.2.1). the∑ mean cycle speed.
(as (as
in insection 7.1.2.1.2.1).
To get the consumption in Wh/km, has to be transformed from kW to W and then divided by
To get the
the mean cycle ∑ consumption
speed. in Wh/km, has to be transformed from kW to W and then divided by
the mean cycle speed. ∑ in Wh/km, has to be transformed from kW to W and then
divided by the mean
∑ in Wh/km,
cycle speed. has to be transformed from kW to W and then divided by
To get the consumption in Wh/km, has to be transformed from kW to W and then divided by
thethemean cycle speed.
mean cycle speed.
The power
To get the consumption that has to be provided
in Wh/km, has to to
bethe drivetrain from
transformed fromthe
kWbattery
to W can
andbe calculated
then dividedwith
by the fo
theget
mean ing formula.
To the cycle speed.
consumption in Wh/km, has to be transformed from kW to W and then divided by
Thepower
The
the powercycle
mean thathas
that hastotobebe
speed. provided
provided to tothethe drivetrain
drivetrain fromfrom the battery
the battery can be cancalculated
be calculated
with with the follow-
The Thepower
power that
ingfollowing
the formula. that
has tohas to
be providedbe toprovided to
the drivetrain from the
the drivetrain
battery from
can be calculated the
with battery
the follow- can be calculated with the follow-
ing formula. formula.
ing formula. where:
The power that has to be provided to the drivetrain from the battery can be calculated with the follow-
is the total electrical consumption of the drive train for the specific cycle in Wh/km
ingwhere:
formula.
where:
is
isthe
thetotal electrical
total consumption
electrical of the drive
consumption train drive
of the for thetrain
specific
forcycle
theinspecifi
Wh/kmc cycle in Wh/km 31.01.2013
where:
The power that has to be provided to the drivetrain from the battery can be calculated with the follow-
where:numerical values have been presented in this chapter, they were based on current tech-
Where
ing formula.
The power that has is the to total electricaltoconsumption
be provided the drivetrainoffrom the drive train
the battery for
canthebespecific cyclewith
calculated in Wh/km
the follow-
79
nology applied in is
massthemarket
total electrical
vehicles. consumption
In order to take ofinto
theaccount
drive train vehiclesfor the
thatspecific
may cycle
differ in Wh/km
Where
ing numerical values have been presented in this chapter, they were based on current technology
formula.
where:
from the average, adjustments to the above calculated results can be made by introducing a
31.01.2013
applied in mass market vehicles. In order to take into account vehicles that may differ from the aver-
variation factor. is the total electrical consumption of the drive train for the specific cycle in Wh/km
age,Where
adjustments to the above calculated results can be made by introducing a variation factor.
where: numerical values have been presented in this chapter, they were based on current technology 79
applied in mass market vehicles.of In order tois
take into account vehicles that may system
An average peak efficiency of 90 % is found for the drive train system considered above (from approx-
An average peak effi ciency 90 % found for the drive train differ fromconsidered
the aver- above (from 79
where:age, adjustments tois thethe
above total electrical
calculated results canconsumption of the
be made by introducing drive factor.
a variation train for the specific cycle in Wh/km
approximately
imately 95 % 95 %
for theforelectric
the electric motor and approximately 9595 % forthethepower
power electronics).
electronics). If the efficiency
An average peak efficiency of 90 % is motor
found for and approximately
the drive train system considered % for
above (from approx-
Ifvalues
theimately
effi is the total electrical consumption of the drive train for the specific cycle in Wh/km 79
ofciency
95the
% for values
vehicle,
the electricof the and
which
motor vehicle,
is examined which95
approximately is%the
in examined
LCA,
for the power in
differ thefromLCA,
electronics). diffefficiency
these
If the er from
values,these
theyvalues,
can be used to calcu-
they can
values
latelate betheused
of
a variation towhich
vehicle,
factor calculate a variation
is examined in the LCA,factor forthese
differ from the values,
drivetrain.
they can be used to calcu-
a variation factor for thefor the
drivetrain. drivetrain.
79
79
where:
where:
is the variation factor is
forthe
thevariation
drive trainfactor for the drive train consumption
consumption
where:
is the average
is the average peak efficiency for thepeak
drive efficiency
train forinthe
defined thedrive train defi
guidelines (90 ned
%) in the guidelines (90 %)
is efficiency
is the the variation factor
of theiselectric
the for
effimotor
ciency ofthe
from the drive
the electrictrain
examined motor consumption
vehiclefrom the examined vehicle
is the efficiency of theispower electronics
the effi ciency offrom
the the examined
power vehicle from the examined vehicle
electronics
is the average peak efficiency for the drive train defined in the guidelines (90 %)
is the
The calculated variation efficiency
factors can then beof the to
applied electric motor
the calculation from
of total the examined
consumption. vehicle
is the efficiency of the power electronics from the examined vehicle
where:
is the average peak efficiency for the drive train defined in the guidelines (90 %)
is the variation factor for the drive train consumption
isisthe
the efficiency
average of the forelectric motor from inthe
the examined
guidelines (90vehicle
calculated variation factors can then be applied to peak efficiency
the calculation the drive
of totaltrain defined
consumption. %)
82 is the efficiency of the electric motor from the

is the efficiency of the power electronics from examined vehicle
the examined
Guidelines for the LCA of vehicle
electric vehicles
is the efficiency of the power electronics from the examined vehicle
TheThe
calculated variation
calculated variation factors
factors canbethen
can then betoapplied
applied to the
the calculation calculation
of total of total consumption.
consumption.
e: The calculated variation factors can then be applied to the calculation of total consumption.
is the total electrical consumption of the drive train in the specific cycle in Wh/km con-
sidering the variation
where: factor
where:
where: is the
is the total electrical total electrical
consumption consumption
of the drive train inofthe
thespecific
drive train
cycleininthe specific
Wh/km con-cycle
in Wh/km
sidering the variation factor considering the variation factor
is the total electrical consumption of the drive train in the specific cycle in Wh/km c
.1.1.2.2 Calculation of basic consumption via drivetrain
sidering the variation efficiencies
factor
LCA focusses on optimisation of components in the drivetrain, the via
7.1.2.1.1.2.2
7.1.2.1.1.2.2 Calculation
Calculation of of basic
basic consumption
consumption via drivetrain drivetrain
efficienciesefficiencies
simplified approach described
If an LCA focusses on optimisation of components in the drivetrain, the simplified approach described
e cannot be used. In these cases,
If an above
LCA a more
focusses
cannot be on
used.detailed
optimisation model
In these cases, ofa moreof the
components powertrain
detailed in the
model needs
drivetrain,
of the tothe
powertrain be estab-
simplified
needs approach
to be estab-
d. The framework proposed 7.1.2.1.1.2.2
described here
lished. The takes
above Calculation
intoproposed
cannot
framework be of
account basic
used. hereIn consumption
functional
these
takes intocases,
accountavia
component
moredrivetrain
functionaldetailed efficiencies
efficiencies
component model atof the
efficienciesthe atpowertrain
the
component's operational load, but it does not reflect the energy demand to overcome the inertia of
ponent's operational load, needs
If anbut toitbe
LCA does
focusses noton
established. reflectThethe energy
framework
optimisation demand to
proposed
of components here overcome
in takes intothe
the drivetrain, inertia
account of
the functional
simplified com-
approach describ
rotating elements. Thus, a detailed dynamic powertrain model needs to be used if this influence is im-
ponent
ing elements. Thus, a detailed
above efficiencies
dynamic
cannot
portant for a study
at
used.the
bepowertrain component’s
model
In these
(e.g. if the effects needs
cases,
of
operational
differenta tomore
tyres
load,
beareused
detailed but
this it
to be ifassessed).
model does
influence not
of theis
A current
reflect the energy
im- drive needs to be est
powertrain
standard
demand
ant for a study (e.g. if the effects to
train The
lished. for anovercome
offramework
different
electric the inertia
vehicletyres
is composed
proposed of rotating
are toofhere be elements.
assessed).
a high voltageinto
takes Thus,
Aaccount
traction current a detailed
battery (B),standard dynamic
which provides
functional drive the powertrain
componentelec- efficiencies at
model needs
trical
for an electric vehicle iscomponent's
power;tothe
composed ofoperational be used
power if this
electronics
a high voltage influence
(PE), whichisprocesses
important for a
the electricalstudy
power (e.g.
and if the
feeds iteffects
into theof different
elec-
load,traction
but it does battery not(B), which
reflect theprovides
energy the demand elec- to overcome the inertia
tyrestric aremotor
to be (EM); an electric motor, which converts the electrical energy into mechanical energy; and a
assessed). A current standard drive train for an electric vehicle is composed of
power; the power electronics
rotating (PE),
single which processes
elements.
transmission Thus,
(T) stageawith the
detailed electrical
a built indynamic
differentialpower and feeds
powertrain
that transfers model
the it into
power needs
to thethe toelec-
wheels. beEach
usedone if this influence is
a high voltage traction battery (B), which provides the electrical power; the power electronics
motor (EM); an electric motor,
portant which
of these a converts
forcomponents
study has (e.g.the
its if
own electrical
the dynamic
effects energy
behaviour, into mechanical
meaning
of different that its are
tyres energy;
efficiency
to changes
be and a Atocurrent standard d
according
assessed).
(PE), itswhich
current processes
operating the point.electrical
Hence, thepower power and takenfeeds
from theit into theatelectric
battery a specificmotor (EM); ian
time instant, de-electric
e transmission (T) stage train
withpends
a built
for an in differential
electric vehicle that
is transfers
composed the
of a power
high to
voltagethe wheels.
traction Each
battery one (B), which provides the e
motor, which on theconverts the electrical
wheel power energy into
and the efficiencies of themechanical
four modulesenergy;mentioned andabove
a singleat thetransmission
given
ese components has its(T) own
trical dynamic
power;
time,
stage with the
i:
a behaviour,
power
built meaning
electronics
in differential that that
(PE), its efficiency
which
transfers processes
the power changes
thethe
to according
electrical
wheels. power
Each tooneand offeeds
these it into the e
tric motor
urrent operating point. components
Hence, the(EM);has itsanown
power electric
taken from
dynamic motor, the which converts
batterymeaning
behaviour, the its
at a specific
that electrical
time energy
instant,
efficiency changes intoaccording
i de- mechanical to energy; an
ds on the wheel power its single
and transmission
the
current efficiencies
operating point. (T)ofstage
the
Hence, withthe
four amodules
built
powerintaken differential
mentioned
from the that
above transfers
battery atatthe the given
a specific powertimetoinstant,
the wheels. Each o
i: i of these components
depends on the wheelhas power its own
and the dynamic
efficienciesbehaviour,
of the meaning
four modules that mentioned
its efficiency changes
above at according
its given
the current operating
time, i: point. Hence, the power taken from the battery at a specific time instant, i
31.01.2013 80
pends on the wheel power and the efficiencies of the four modules mentioned above at the gi
time, i:
Where P(i)el.bat.out and P(i)wheel are, respectively, the power taken from the battery and the power at the
wheel, and the remaining Where P(i)el.bat.out
terms describe and P(i)
thewheel are, respectively,
efficiency thedischarge,
of battery power taken from electronics,
power the battery and the power
electric
motor, and transmission. at the wheel, and the remaining terms describe the efficiency of battery discharge, power
80
electronics, electric motor, and transmission.
As described
As described in the previous in the previous
paragraphs, paragraphs,
kinetic energy can bekinetic energyand
converted canfedbe converted
back into the and battery
fed back into
therecuperation
in electric vehicles. The battery in electric
ratio vehicles.
describes Thethe
recuperation
relationshipratio describes
between thetheenergy
relationship
amount between
re- the
leased from the battery and the regained energy through regenerative braking. In order to define the brak-
energy amount released from the battery and the regained energy through regenerative
ing. In by
amount of energy regained order
thetobattery
define the
dueamount of energy regained
to regeneration, by the to
it is necessary battery
sum due to regeneration,
up the contribu- it is
necessary to sum up the contributions in which the trajectory does not require energy from
tions in which the trajectory does not require energy from the battery (except for standstill, of course).
the battery (except for standstill, of course). There are some physical limitations (discharge cur-
There are some physical limitations (discharge current ≠ charge current). To improve drivability and to
rent ≠ charge current). To improve drivability and to protect the hardware of the vehicle, some
protect the hardware control
of the strategies
vehicle, some control
have been strategies in
implemented have been implemented
the control units. In order in to the control
describe the recu-
units. In order to describe the recuperation behaviour of a vehicle, information about the vehicle's
peration behaviour of a vehicle, information about the vehicle’s control strategy is required. con-
trol strategy is required.
ThisThis vehicle
vehicle software
software definesdefines the amount
the amount of energy ofrecuperated
energy recuperated
at differentat different
speeds and differ-
speeds and different accelerator or brake
ent accelerator pedal
or brake positions.
pedal positions.Also,
Also,data
data on the efficiencies
on the efficienciesofof thethe devices
devices involved
involved in the recuperation system are needed.
in the recuperation system are Therefore an additional
needed. Therefore parameter
an additional (k) is introduced
parameter in
(k) is introduced in
the formula,
the formula, which represents which represents
the maximum softwarethe and
maximum software
hardware and hardware
dependent dependent
recuperation ratio:recuperation
ratio:
In the two formulas above, it is important to note that the efficiencies are not constants, but functions
of the specific working point, meaning that, for this computation, the efficiency characteristics of the
In the two formulas above, it is important to note that the efficiencies are not constants, but
functions of the specific working point, meaning that, for this computation, the efficiency
characteristics of the different devices need to be known.
In a battery, efficiency mainly depends on internal resistance. It defines the energy losses dur-
ing charging or discharging. Moreover, efficiency can also be dependent on battery tempera-
ture. It is further to be noted that the efficiencies of discharging and charging can be different.
The inverter and the motor both have variable efficiencies over torque and speed. Both com-
ponents in combination can have an efficiency of 90 to 95 % at their best point. But at a low
load and at a low or very high speed range, their combined efficiency is rather small and can
drop below 50 %. Considering the specific operating-points through efficiency maps is there-
fore very important for a detailed analysis.
The mechanical transmission, including differential, currently with usually only one gear ratio,
is, however, rather simple to characterize. Energy transmission through the gears is almost
lossless over the entire speed range. The efficiencies of these mechanical power transmissions
can be considered around 98 %.
The recuperation ratio depends on the battery, the size of the electric motor (rated power)
31.01.2013
and the software settings of the control modules. Depending on the operating point, actual
recuperation ratios can lie between 5 % and 30 %. But for a detailed simulation, information
concerning from the manufacturer is needed.
the dynamic behaviour of the various components. In this case, it is im-
n mind the approximation
Calculations can that comes
be found with
in the this simplification
literature and of
in which, instead the need tomodel,
a dynamic docu-fixed efficien-
it appropriately.
cies (typically the nominal ones given by the manufacturer) are used in the formula above.
Often this is due to the lack of data concerning the dynamic behaviour of the various com-
ponents. In this case, it is important to bear in mind the approximation that comes with this
nd scope of the study require detailed modelling of the vehicle’s drive train, the mo-
simplification and the need to document and report it appropriately.
f the rotating components during acceleration and deceleration cannot be neglected.
ding on the When
amount theofgoal and scope
inertia, have of the study require
a significant impactdetailed
on themodelling
required of the vehicle’s drive train,
acceleration
the moment
must the vehicle of inertia to
be accelerated of the rotating components
its translational velocity,during acceleration
the rotating massesandwith-
deceleration can-
not be neglected. This may, depending on the amount of inertia, have a significant impact on
ectric motor, transmission, tires) must be brought to their corresponding rotational
the required acceleration energy. Not only must the vehicle be accelerated to its translational
velocity, the rotating masses within the vehicle (electric motor, transmission, tyres) must be
brought to their corresponding rotational speeds.
led modelling of a vehicle drivetrain for calculating the required electrical power from
Overall, the detailed modelling of a vehicle drivetrain for calculating the required electrical
ower requires many
power fromparameters
a given wheeland considerable
power technical
requires many information
parameters about the
and considerable technical infor-
in the drivetrain.
mation Toabout
date, the
various softwarewithin
components tools the
existdrivetrain.
to facilitate thesevarious
To date, calculations.
software tools exist to
facilitate these calculations.
coming outOnce
of the
thebattery for each
power coming outstep of battery
of the the trajectory
for each is known,
step of the the energy
trajectory con- the energy
is known,
computed by integratingcan
consumption power over the by
be computed time, TC, during
integrating which
power overthe
themotion has
time, TC, takenwhich the mo-
during
tion has taken place:
ting and air conditioning

of heating and air conditioning devices vary from user to user. Basically, the ambient
human comfort lies around 20-23 °C (ArGV3, 2011), but, of course, there are also per-
7.1.2.1.1.3 Heating and air conditioning
The use patterns of heating and air conditioning devices vary from user to user. Basically, the
ambient temperature for human comfort lies around 20-23 °C (ArGV3, 2011), but, of course,
there are also personal preferences. At the start of a car journey, one typically brings the tem-
perature in the cabin to the comfort range by using heating and air conditioning. The energy
needed to reach this temperature depends on the ambient conditions of the vehicle, e.g. tem-
perature, direct and diffuse radiation, vehicle insulation, etc., (Khayyam, 2011).
In a vehicle with an internal combustion engine, the air in the vehicle cabin is heated with the
engine coolant, which normally has a temperature of over 80 °C. The heat in the coolant is
caused by the relatively low efficiency of the ICE in which a big part of the fuel energy is dis-
sipated as heat. A BEV has relatively high drivetrain efficiency so heat losses are small and with
the low temperature level of the coolant it is not possible to heat up the interior adequately.
A special heater is needed. In current vehicles there are two main technologies. One option is
a PTC heater (Positive Temperature Coefficient heating element), comparable with a normal
immersion heater. The power demand of such a heater is up to 5 kW. The second option is a
heat pump. It can be operated as an air conditioning and a heating device. When operated as
a heating device the power demand is around 3 kW (depending on the outside temperature)
in order to achieve an acceptable heating of the interior.
Air conditioning in current BEVs uses the same system found in normal ICE vehicles. Compared
to heating, the power demand of air conditioning is relatively low. Current systems require
around 1 kW (standard ICE air conditioning system driven by an electric motor).
For evaluating the contribution to consumption caused by heating and cooling devices, one
needs to define exactly how these devices are used within the situation of interest. However,
detailed statistics about the real usage of heating and air conditioning are missing. One strat-
egy for addressing this issue is to correlate their use profile to the outside temperature of the
driving area (Jung, 2011). This allows an estimation of the operational time of the air condi-
tioner and heater during the year.
Morning temperature Afternoon temperature
To do this, one needs a tempera- 30
ture profile of minimum and maxi-
25
mum temperatures per day in the
desired driving area. These values 20
number of days [-]
are available from weather stations

15
in different countries. The website
of the European Climate Assess- 10
ment & Dataset project provides

5
all the necessary data (http://eca.
knmi.nl/dailydata/predefinedser- 0
-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
ies.php). ambiente temperature [°C]
To determine when heating or air conditioning is used, ambient temperature areas can be
defined to characterize that use. Assuming, as described above, that a comfortable ambient
temperature is between 20 and 23 °C, the following boundaries could describe a strategy for
maintaining this temperature interval inside the vehicle using the heating and air condition-
ing devices:
Heating set to maximum: ambient temperature < 10 °C
Heating set to medium: 10 °C ≤ ambient temperature < 15 °C
Air conditioning set to medium: 20 °C < ambient temperature ≤ 25 °C
Air conditioning set to maximum: ambient temperature > 25 °C
In the area between 15 °C and 20 °C it is assumed that neither the heating nor the air condi-
tioning is active. It has to be borne in mind that the temperature in the vehicle is usually above
the ambient temperature due to solar gains and internal gains from passengers. The medium
setting means that the system is running at half its maximum power.
For the morning trips, the minimum temperature curve can be used to determine the activa-
tion time, for the afternoon trips the maximum temperature curve can be used. The total op-
eration time can then be weighted between morning and afternoon trips (for example 1/3 in
the morning, 2/3 in the afternoon). The fraction can be based on driving data from the chosen
region. If one is interested in the average contribution to consumption, including the influ-
ence of the various seasons, one can use the temperature curves to evaluate the total days of
operation of the corresponding use of the heating and cooling devices:
Heating Heating A/C A/C No heating

maximum medium medium maximum No A/C
Morning 221 139 0 0 0
Afternoon 122 49 141 0 48
Total operation days (weighted) 155 79 94 0 32

Afternoon 122 49 141 0 48
31.01.2013
86 Guidelines for
temperature curves to evaluate the total days of operation of the corresponding usetheofLCA
theofheating
electric vehicles
In addition
and coolingto the comfort related operation of heating and air conditioning, there is also a safe
devices:
pect that makes users activate the air conditioner; some climatic parameters (low outside temper
and high humidity) might lead to a fogged
Heating Heatingwindscreen.
A/C ThisA/C happens when the surface temperatu
No heating
maximum medium medium maximum No A/C
In addition
the Morning to the comfort
glass is equal to or below the related operation
221 dew point
of heating and
139 temperature,0
air conditioning, there
which0 is determined 0
is also a cabin tem
by the
safety aspect
tureAfternoon
and that makes
humidity (Park,users activate
2006). the air conditioner;
Simultaneous
122 49 use of141 some climatic
the heating parameters
0 and 48 (low out- devices is
air-conditioning
side temperature
typical to de-fogand thehigh humidity) and
windscreen might lead to the
prevent a fogged windscreen.
formation This happens
of further condensation. when This leads
the surface
increase intemperature
consumption. of the
Dueglass
to theis equal
complexto orinteraction
below the dew point temperature,
of outside which
and inner temperature and hu
In addition toby
is determined thethe
comfort
cabin related operation of
temperature andheating and air(Park,
humidity conditioning,
2006).there is also a safety
Simultaneous useas-of the
ity, pect
thethatprecise
makes usersmodelling
activate theof the fogging
air conditioner; phenomenon
some climatic parameters for evaluating
(low outside use of heating and
temperature
heating and air-conditioning devices is then typical to de-fog the windscreen and prevent the
conditioning devices
and high humidity) mightlies
leadoutside thewindscreen.
to a fogged scope ofThis these guidelines.
happens when the surface temperature of
formation
the glassofisfurther
equal to condensation.
or below the dewThispointleads to an increase
temperature, in consumption.
which is determined Duetempera-
by the cabin to the com-
plextureinteraction
and humidityof outside andSimultaneous
(Park, 2006). inner temperature
use of the and humidity,
heating the precisedevices
and air-conditioning modelling
is thenof the
Here, the mean activation time of the air conditioning for the defog functiontowill
typicalphenomenon
fogging to de-fog the windscreen
for and prevent
evaluating use theheating
of formationandof further condensation.devices
air-conditioning This leadslies an
outside
be estimated by
increase in consumption. Due to the complex interaction of outside and inner temperature and humid-
the scope of these guidelines.
tifying the number of days in which the climatic conditions lead to an increased risk of condens
ity, the precise modelling of the fogging phenomenon for evaluating use of heating and air-
Forconditioning
Here, outside
the mean temperatures
devices lies outside
activation timebetween
the scope
of the air0ofconditioning
and
these 10 °C and
guidelines. humidity
for the >80 %, will
defog function a dew point between 0 and
be estimated
results
by if the cabin
identifying temperature
the number of days is in around
which the 20 climatic
°C. Thisconditions
corresponds leadtotoaanhigh risk of risk
increased windscreen fog
Here,
Hence, the mean activation
the following time of
conditions the air conditioning
represent for the
suitabledefog function
ranges will be estimated by iden-
of condensation. For outside temperatures between 0 and 10 °C for
anddriving
humidity situations that may requir
>80 %, a dew
tifying the number of days in which the climatic conditions lead to an increased risk of condensation.
useFor
point of air conditioning
between 0 and 8 °C for defogging:
results if the cabin temperature is around 20 °C. This corresponds to
outside temperatures between 0 and 10 °C and humidity >80 %, a dew point between 0 and 8 °C
a high riskif of
results thewindscreen
cabin temperature fogging. Hence,
is around °C.the following
correspondsconditions
to a high riskrepresent suitable ranges
Temperature range: 0°C20to This°C
10 of windscreen fogging.
for driving
Hence, the situations
following that may require
conditions representthe use of
suitable air conditioning
ranges for defogging:
for driving situations that may require the
Relative
use ofTemperature humidity:
air conditioning for defogging:
range: over 80 %
0°C to 10 °C
Temperature
Relative range:
humidity: 0°C to 10 °Cover 80 %
Relative humidity: over 80 %
Formorning
For morningand and afternoon
afternoon temperatures,
temperatures, the the number
number of daysof days
has tohasbe to be determined
determined by look-by looking, a
cussed
ing, For
above, atafternoon
as discussed dataatfrom
morning andabove, data weather
from weather
temperatures,
stations in which
stations
the number of daysinhas
which both criteria
to be both
apply.
criteria
determined apply.Afterwards,
by looking, Afterwards,
as dis-
the morning
afternoon
the morning
cussed days
and
above, at are weighted
afternoon
data daysas
from weather arehas been
whichdone
weighted
stations in as has
both forbeen
criteriathe normal
done
apply. for activation
thethenormal
Afterwards, morningtimes.
and This results in a
activation
crease
times. in the
afternoon
This operational
days
resultsare
in weighted time
an increase inof
as has the
been
the air conditioner
done for the normal
operational atthe
medium
time ofactivation times.power.
This results
air conditioner in an in- pow-
at medium
crease in the operational time of the air conditioner at medium power.
er.
These
These
Thesevalues,
values, then,provide
values,then,
then, provide
provide the
thethe basis
basis
basis for for
thethe
forenergy
the energy
energy
demand demanddemand
calculation calculation
calculation
for heating for heating
forairheating
and and airand air cond
condition-
ing. With
conditioning. the average driving speed profile and the annual driving distance, the annual vehicle operat-
ing. With theWith the average
average drivingdriving
speedspeed profileprofile andannual
and the the annual driving
driving distance,
distance, thethe an- vehicle op
annual
ing hours can be calculated.
nual vehiclecan
ing hours operating hours can be calculated.
be calculated.
where:
where:
is the total annualisvehicle operation
the total time in operation
annual vehicle hours time in hours
where: is the annual vehicle mileage
is the annualinvehicle
km mileage in km
31.01.2013
is the total annual vehicle operation time in hours 31.01.2013
31.01.2013
The individual annual energy demand for air conditioning or heating is then calculated ac-
The individual annual energy demand for air conditioning or heating is then calculated according to
ied according to the used is(Standard
the annualPTCvehicle mileage in km
thetechnology
cording to thebelow
formula formulawherebelow where
device powerHeater,
neededStandard
is device power
as A/C or future
is parameter.
an input needed as heating/cooling
an values
These input parameter.
have to be var-These
ied
ied according
according to
to the
the used
used technology
technology (Standard
(Standard PTC
PTC Heater,
Heater, Standard
Standard A/C
A/C or
or future
future heating/cooling
heating/cooling
system). values have to be varied according to the used technology (Standard PTC Heater, Standard 84 A/C
system).
system).
or future heating/cooling system).
The individual annual energy demand for air conditioning or heating is then calculated accordin
the formula below where device power is needed as an input parameter. These values have to be
where:
where:
where:
is
isisthe
the annual energy
the annual
consumption
energyconsumption
annual energy consumption of
of the
of thethe device
device (heating
device (heating or
or A/C)
A/C) in
in
Wh/year
Wh/year
(heating or A/C) in Wh/year
is the annual energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in
is the
is the total
total time
time of
ofisdevice
device operation
operation
the total in days
in daysoperation in days
time of device
Wh/year
is the total annualisvehicle operation
the total time in operation
annual vehicle hours time in hours
is the total annual vehicle operation time in hours
is the total time of device
is the
is operation
the power
power demandinof
ofdays
is the
demand heating
power or air
air conditioning
demand
heating or conditioning inair
of heating orin Wconditioning in W
W

Of course,
Of course, without
without explicitly
explicitly repeating
repeating the
the formulas,
formulas, the
the above
above contributions
contributions have
have also
also to
to be
be evaluated
evaluated
is the power demand
separately
separately for of heating
for “medium”
“medium” and or air conditioning
and “maximum”
“maximum” use of
use of the in W
the specific
specific device and
device and then
then added
added together
together for
for its
its to-
to-
tal consumption.
Wh/year
Wh/year
where:
isisthe
thetotal
totaltime
timeofofdevice
where: deviceoperation
operationin indays
days
is the annual energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in
isisthe
thetotal
totalannual
annualvehicle
vehicleoperation
operationtime
timeininhoursis the annual energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in
hours
Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehiclesWh/year 87
is the total time Wh/year
of device operation in days
isisthe
thepower
powerdemand
demandofofheating
is heating
the total ororair
time airconditioning
of conditioning
device inin
operation in WW
days
is the
is the total
powerannual
demandvehicle operation
of heating time
or air in hours in W
conditioning
is the power demand of heating or air conditioning in W contributions have also to be
without explicitly
thout explicitly repeating
Of course,
repeatingwithout the
the formulas,
explicitly
formulas, theabove
repeating
the above contributions
thecontributions
formulas, have
the have
above alsototobebeevaluated
also evaluated
ror“medium” evaluated
“medium”and Of
and“maximum”separately
course, without
“maximum”use for “medium”
explicitly
useofoftherepeating and
the
thespecific “maximum”
formulas,
specificdevice the
deviceand use
above
andthen of the specific
contributions
thenadded have
addedtogether device
also
togetherforto and
be
for then
to- added
evaluated
itsitsto-
Of course, without
separately for explicitly
“medium” and repeating
“maximum”theuse
formulas,
of the the above
specific contributions
device and then have also
added to be evaluated
together for its to-
ption. together for its total consumption.
ion. separately
tal for “medium” and “maximum” use of the specific device and then added together for its to-
consumption.
Andtalwith
consumption.
the annual distance driven, the mean energy consumption over the year can be
eannual estimated.
annualdistanceAnd with the annual distance driven, the mean energy consumption over the year can be estimated.
distancedriven,
driven,thethemean
meanenergy
energyconsumption
consumption overthe theyear
yearcancan beestimated.
estimated.
And with the annual distance driven, the mean energyover
consumption over the be
year can be estimated.
where:
where:
where: is the mean energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in
is the mean energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in
Wh/km
is the mean energy consumption of the device (heating or A/C) in Wh/km
is Wh/km
the mean energy consumption dueconsumption
to comfort devices
isisthe
themean
mean energy
energy consumption
is the mean energy
consumption ofofthe
thedevice
device (heating
due to comfort
is the mean energy consumption due to comfort devices
(heating ororA/C)
devices A/C)inin
Wh/km
Wh/km
Pre-cooling or pre-heating
is the Pre-cooling
mean A energy
is the mean energy orconsumption
orpre-heating
special consumption
Pre-cooling case pre-heating
of comfort device dueuse
due totocomfort
iscomfort
pre-cooling devices
devices
or pre-heating the vehicle while plugged into the
A special device.
charging case of In comfort device
this case, the use is pre-cooling
vehicle’s heating oror air-conditioning
pre-heating the vehicle
system while
is notplugged
poweredinto by the
A special
charging
case of comfort
device. In this
device use is pre-cooling or pre-heating the not
vehicle while plugged
high voltage battery, butcase, the from
directly vehicle’s heating
the main orThe
grid. air-conditioning
maximum heating systemor is
coolingpowered
capacityby the
is de-
or into
pre-heating
or pre-heating the
high
pendent charging
voltage
on the device.
battery,
maximum but In this
directly
output ofcase,
from thethe the
main
power vehicle’s
grid.
supply. The
At heating
maximum
a quick or air-conditioning
heating
charging or cooling
station, all system
capacity
functions is
can be is not
de-
powered
pendent
used atby onthe
their the high
maximum
maximum voltage
output
device battery,
of the
power, but but
at a directly
power Atfrom
supply. household
normal the
a quick main
charging
plug, grid.
the station,
maximumThe maximum
all functions
power heating
can be
is limited
ase
e ofofcomfort
comfortdevice
device
used
(220V, atuse
10
use
their
to is ispre-cooling
16A).
pre-cooling
maximumThe device
systems or or
power,
can be
pre-heating
pre-heating
but at a
programmed normal the
so
the vehicle
vehicle
household
the vehicle plug,
is
while
while
the
plugged
plugged
maximum
conditioned to the
into
into
power
desired the
is
the
limited
degree
or cooling capacity is dependent on the maximum output of the power supply. At a quick
evice.
ice. InInthis
thiscase,
case, the
the vehicle’s
vehicle’s The heating orbe air-conditioning system isnot
not powered bythe the
all heating orcanair-conditioning
(220V,
by the 10 to
desired16A).
departure systems can
time. Then theprogrammed so thesystem
vehicle is is topowered
conditioned to the the by
desired degree
charging station, functions beairused
conditioning
at theirsystem just
maximum needs
device maintain
power, operational
but at a normal
ebattery,
battery,butbut by the desired
directlyfrom from departure
the time.
maingrid. Then
grid.The the air
Themaximumconditioning
maximum system
heating just needs to maintain the operational
interior
directly
household
temperature
plug,the
once
themain
unplugged.
maximum power
If one arrives
isarrives
limited
at the
heatingcar
(220V, ororto
later
10
thancooling
the
cooling capacity
pre-set time,
capacity it
isisde-
is de-be pro-
possible
interior
that the temperature
interior has to once unplugged.
be cooled downIfor one
heated upatagain.
the car later than16A). The
the pre-set systems can
time, it is possible
themaximum
he maximum output
output
that theof
grammed so ofthe
thehas
the
interior
power
power
vehicle issupply.
to besupply. AtAtaoraquick
conditioned
cooled down
quick
to the
heated up
charging
charging
desired station,
station,
again. degree allall
by functions
functions
the desired can canbebe time.
departure
irmaximum
maximumdevicedevice
Then the power,
power, butatata anormal
but
air conditioning normal household
systemhousehold
just needs to plug,
plug, themaximum
the
maintain maximum
the power
power
operational isislimited
interior limited
temperature
The range of the vehicle is preserved by this type of pre-conditioning. However, one must not forget
o16A).
16A).The
Thesystems
systems
onceThe
thatcancan
unplugged.
rangebebe programmed
of If one arrives
of programmed
this type the vehicle
heating or soso
atthe
is preserved
cooling the
the vehicle
car
thislater
byvehicle
also type is
consumes is
than
of conditioned
the
thatpre-set
conditioned
energy to
pre-conditioning.
must be to the
time,
However,desired
theitdesired
isone
consideredpossible degree
that
thedegree
in must not the inte-
forget
overall con-
ed departure time.
rior that
has Then
this
to
sumption type
be the
cooled
analysis.air conditioning
of heating
downor cooling
or alsosystem
heated consumes
up just
again. needs
energy to
that must
d departure time. Then the air conditioning system just needs to maintain the operational maintain the
be considered inoperational
the overall con-
sumption analysis.
peratureonce
erature onceunplugged.
unplugged.If Ifone onearrives
arrivesatatthe the carlater
laterthan
thanthe
thepre-set
pre-settime,
time,it itisispossible
possible
The range of the vehicle is preserved car by this type of pre-conditioning. However, one must not
erior hastotobebe
ior has cooled
cooled
forget that down
down ororheated
this type heated upagain.
up
of heating again.
or cooling also consumes energy that must be considered in
the overall consumption analysis. 85
85
ofthe
thevehicle
vehicleisispreserved
preservedbybythisthistype
typeofofpre-conditioning.
pre-conditioning.However,
However,one
onemust
mustnotnotforget
forget
epeofofheating
heating7.1.2.1.1.4 Auxiliaries
ororcooling
coolingalso
alsoconsumes
consumesenergy
energythat
thatmust
mustbebeconsidered
consideredininthe
theoverall
overallcon-
con-
nalysis.
alysis.
There are additional auxiliary consumers that have to be considered for determining energy
consumption. The standby and mean electrical power demand of each device (e.g. lighting,
navigation, etc.) define its energy consumption. Again, exact data on the consumption of aux-
iliaries is lacking. This contribution can be estimated from the power demand and a use strat-
egy for the devices. 8585
Some typical parameters are presented below (Geringer, 2012). Their use is defined in terms
of mean ratios:
bution can be estimated from the power demand and a use strategy for the devices.
88 Some typical parameters are presented below (Geringer, Guidelines

2012). Their useof is
31.01.2013
for the LCA defined
electric vehiclesin terms of
ratios:
7.1.2.1.1.4 Auxiliaries
There are additional auxiliary consumers that have to be considered for determining energy consump-
Lighting
tion. The standby and mean electrical power demand of each device (e.g. lighting, navigation, etc.,) de-
Lighting
Meanconsumption.
- its energy
fine electrical Again,
power:
exact data on the140 W (conventional),
consumption 50 WThis
of auxiliaries is lacking. (LED)
contri-
– Mean
bution electrical
can be estimatedpower:
from the power demand140and
Wa(conventional),
use strategy for the50 W (LED)
devices.
- Mean use ratio: 75 %
– Mean use ratio: 75 %
Some typical parameters are presented below (Geringer, 2012). Their use is defined in terms of mean
ratios:
Radio/Navigation
Radio/Navigation
- Mean electrical power: 20 W
Lighting
– - Mean electrical power: 20 W
- Mean use ratio:
Mean electrical power: 75W%(conventional), 50 WAuxiliaries
140 (LED)
– Mean use ratio:
- Mean use ratio: 75 % 75 %
Seat heating (per seat)

Radio/Navigation
- - Mean (perelectrical
seat)power:power: 20 W
Mean electrical
Seat heating 30 W (max. 70W)
- Mean use ratio: 75 %
Mean
– - Mean use ratio:
electrical power: 5 %30 W (max. 70W)
– Mean use ratio:
Seat heating (per seat)
5%
- Mean electrical power: 30 W (max. 70W)
These- systems are all connected
Mean use ratio: 5%
to the vehicle’s 12V grid and the grid is powered by the high vo
Auxi
battery through a DC/DC converter. To calculate the power consumption for the auxiliaries, the
These systems are all connected to the vehicle’s 12V grid and the grid is powered by the high
ciency
These of the are
systems DC/DC converter
all connected needs 12V
to the vehicle’s to grid
be included.
and the grid isItspowered
efficiency
by the basically
high voltage depends on the powe
voltage battery through a DC/DC converter. To calculate the power consumption for the aux-
battery through a DC/DC converter. To calculate the power consumption for the auxiliaries, the effi-
mand the
iliaries, of the 12V grid,
effiDC/DC
ciency of thebutDC/DC
for a converter
simple approach,
needs theincluded.
to be averageIts efficiency can be assumed to be ar
ciency of the converter needs to be included. Its efficiency basically depends oneffi
theciency basically
power de- de-
90 mand
pends %.onofthe
the power
12V grid,demand of theapproach,
but for a simple 12V grid,
the but for efficiency
average a simplecan approach,
be assumedthe average
to be around efficiency
can90
be%.assumed to be around 90 %.
Tocalculate
To calculate
To calculatethethe
the resulting
resulting
resulting additional
additional
additional consumption
consumption
consumption of the
of auxiliaries, of auxiliaries,
auxiliaries,
following thethen
the following
formula can following
formula formula
be can can the
used:
used:
then be used:
∑
∑
where:
where:
is the mean energy is
consumption of all auxiliaries
the mean energy consumptionin Wh/km
of all auxiliaries in Wh/km
where: is the mean annual speed according to the driving profile intokm/h
is the mean annual speed according the driving profile in km/h
is the
is the mean
average energy
efficiency
is the consumption
theofaverage
DC/DC converter
efficiency of%)
(90
of the all auxiliaries
DC/DC in Wh/km
converter (90 %)
is the mean power demand of the
is the mean auxiliary
power deviceof
demand in the
W auxiliary device in W
is the mean annual speed according to the driving profile in km/h
is the user defined use ratio
is the fordefi
user the ned
device
use ratio for the device
is the average efficiency of the DC/DC converter (90 %)
Since thetheauxiliary
Since power demand
auxiliary power is relatively
low, theirlow, their cumulative consumption usually has
is thedemand
mean ispower
relatively
demand cumulative consumption usually
of the auxiliary device inhasWlittle ef-
little effect on total consumption.
fect on total consumption.
is the user defined use ratio for the device
Since the auxiliary power demand is relatively low, their cumulated consumption has mostly a
little effect on the total consumption. 86
Since the auxiliary power demand is relatively low, their cumulative consumption usually has litt
fect on total consumption.
7.1.2.1.1.5 Battery losses in standstill
The additional consumption due to internal battery losses during periods of standstill de-
pends on the battery type and design, and on the use pattern of the vehicle. Sodium nickel
chloride batteries, which operate at around 300 °C constantly need about 60-80 W to maintain
that temperature. A battery of 18 kWh capacity would thus be discharged after roughly 10
days of standstill. Lithium-ion-batteries operate at ambient temperatures and can have very
low internal losses if they consist of not too many cells and have a good balancing strategy.
31.01.2013
y type
lossesand
in standstill
design, and on the use pattern of the vehicle. Sodium nickel chloride batteries, which
eumption
at around due300to °C constantly
internal battery need lossesabout during 60-80 W to maintain
periods of standstill thatdependstemperature. on theA battery of
Since the auxiliary power demand is relatively low, their cumulated consumption has mostly a little ef-
hsign,
capacity
and onwould
thefect thus
use
Guidelines be
pattern
onforthe discharged
thetotal
LCA of of after roughly
thevehicles
electric
consumption. vehicle. Sodium10nickel days chloride
of standstill. Lithium-ion-batteries
batteries, which 89
e at °C
300 ambient temperatures
constantly need about and can have
60-80 W to very maintainlow internal losses if they
that temperature. consist of
A battery of31.01.2013
not too many
nd
ould have
thusa be
good balancing
discharged strategy.
after roughly In special
7.1.2.1.1.5 Battery losses in standstill
10 dayscases, however,
of standstill. a Li-ion battery can lose up to 50%
Lithium-ion-batteries
nergy content and
temperatures inThethe
Since can first
have
additional
the week very oflow
consumption
auxiliary power non-use.
internal
due
demand to This
is internal
relatively can
losses
battery be
low, their the
iflosses
they caseperiods
consist
during
cumulated forofvehicles
consumption ofnot has which
too
standstill many
depends
mostly a have ef-batter-
on the
little
14 Sodium nickel chloride batteries, which
sisting
od of several
balancing In special
strategy.thousand
battery
fect on cases,
the In special
type and
total smallcases,
however,
design,
consumption.cells (e.g.
and a onLi-ion
however,
the usethe 18650
battery
pattern can
a Li-ion
of the type
lose up). Since
battery
vehicle. to canstandstill
50% of its
lose up toenergylosses
50%have in
content to the
be first
operate at around 300 °C constantly need about 60-80 W to maintain that temperature. A battery of
nttointhe firstweek
thedistance week ofofnon-use.
driven by theThis
non-use. cancan
vehicle,
This beitbe
18 kWh capacity would thus be discharged after
the
hasthecase
to case
be forknown
vehicles
for vehicles (orwhich
assumed)
whichhavehave batterieslongconsisting
howbatter-
roughly 10 days of standstill. Lithium-ion-batteries
vehicles of re-several
nused
veral and how
thousand thousandfar they
small
7.1.2.1.1.5
operate
small
cells are cells
(e.g.
Battery
at ambient
(e.g.in
driven
the
losses the
in
18650
temperatures a 18650
given
standstill
andtype type
14
canperiod
16
). Since
veryof
). Since
have time standstill
lowstandstill
internal(e.g. alosses
ifmonth
losses
losses theyhave
have
or to
consist
toyear).
aof betoo
be
not
related
many
to the dis-
tance driven
cells and have byconsumption
the vehicle, dueittohas to be known (orduring
assumed) how longcanvehicles remain
50% unused
nce
casedriven
The
of highbytemperature
the additional
vehicle, ita good
has to
batteries,
balancing
bethe
strategy.
known
loss
internal Inbattery
(or special
assumed) cases,
losses however,
howby a Li-ion
periods
long battery
of standstill
vehicles re- lose up
depends onto the
of
andbattery
howits energy
far
typethey content
and areindriven
design, the
andfirst
onin week
the ause ofcan
given
pattern
be
non-use.
period
calculated
of This
the of cantime
be the
vehicle. case
(e.g.
Sodium
simply
a for
month
nickel
multiplying
vehicles which
or
chloride a year).
batteries,
the power
have batter-
which
ow
d forfarmaintaining
they are operate
driven
ies consistingin aofgiven
theattemperature
around 300 °Cperiod
several by the
thousand
constantly of
smalltime
period
need cells
about(e.g.
of
(e.g. the
60-80 a 18650
time month
W to and or
14 a year).
typedividing
maintain). Since the result
standstill
that temperature. losses by
havethe
A battery toofbedistance
related
18 kWh to the distance
capacity driven
would thus beby the vehicle,
discharged it has
after to be10
roughly known
days (or assumed)Lithium-ion-batteries
of standstill. how long vehicles re-
in this period.
temperature Inbatteries,
the case of the highlosstemperature
can be calculatedbatteries, bythe simply
loss can multiplying
be calculated theorby
power simply multiplying the
main unused
operate and how
at ambient far they are
temperatures anddriven in a given
can have very low period of time
internal (e.g.if athey
losses monthconsist aof
year).
not too many
power
ining the temperature cells
In the
demand
and by
have
case a for
of the
highgood maintaining
period
balancing
temperature
theand
ofstrategy.
time
batteries,
temperature
In dividing
special
the loss cases,
can
by
thethe
be however,
calculated aperiod
resultLi-ion
by simply
of
bybattery
the time
can and
distance
multiplyinglosethedividing
up to 50% the result
power
d. by the
of itsdistance
energy driven
content in in
the this
first period.
week of non-use. This can be the case
demand for maintaining the temperature by the period of time and dividing the result by the distance for vehicles which have batter-
14
ies consisting
driven in this of several thousand small cells (e.g. the 18650 type ). Since standstill losses have to be
period.
related to the distance driven by the vehicle, it has to be known (or assumed) how long vehicles re-
main unused and how far they are driven in a given period of time (e.g. a month or a year).
is the In
mean energy consumption due to heat losses from the battery in Wh/km
the case of high temperature batteries, the loss can be calculated by simply multiplying the power
where:
where:
is the demand
mean power is demand
for maintaining for ismaintaining
the temperature
the mean energy consumption
the mean energy duebattery
by the period of time and
to temperature
heat losses
consumption
dividing the result
from theheat
due to
in W
battery
losses
by the distance
in from
Wh/kmthe battery in Wh/km
driven in this period.
he mean energy consumption due to heat losses from the battery in Wh/km
is the time period isunder the mean power is
demand
investigationthe mean for
in maintaining
hoursdemand
power battery
(e.g. temperature
1foryear = 8760
maintaining inbattery
W
h) temperature in W
he mean power demand for maintaining battery temperature in W
is the time period under
is the investigation
time period in hours
under (e.g. 1
investigationyear =in8760
hours h) (e.g. 1 year = 8760 h)
is the where:
distance driven in the time
is the distance driven
period
is the distance
in the
under investigation
driven under
time period in the time
in
period under
investigation
km (e.g.
in kminvestigation
10000 km)
in km (e.g. 10000 km)
(e.g. 10000 km)
he time period under investigation in hours (e.g. 1 year = 8760 h)
EV with a ZebraFor Battery
a BEV withthat is used
aisZebra
the mean 10that
000
energy
Battery km/yr,
consumption
is used one
10 000due tofinds
km/yr,heat battery
onelosses
finds from the
battery losses
battery
losses ofofin 53
53Wh/km Wh/km.
Wh/km.
For a BEV with
he distance driven in the time a Zebra
is theperiod
Battery
mean power
that
underdemand
is used 10 000
investigation
for maintainingin
km/yr,
km (e.g.
battery
one finds
10000
temperature
battery
in W km) losses of 53 Wh/km.
For Lithium-ion isbatteries,
For Lithium-ion the timethe
batteries, period
lossunder
theone investigation
in standstill
lossfinds in hours (e.g.
highly depends
in standstill on the1 year = 8760
design h) batteries. Therefore,
of the
bra Battery that is used 10 000 km/yr, batteryhighly lossesdepends
of 53 Wh/km. on the design of the batteries.
hium-ion batteries, thepossible
it is not lossisinto
thestandstill
provide highly
distancea driven
reasonable depends
in theestimate
time period on the
in these
under design
guidelines.
investigation ofkmthe
However,
in batteries.
10000 km)of Therefore,
a description
(e.g. how
Therefore, it is not possible to provide a reasonable estimate in these
to use information, which might be easily available for existing vehicles, for estimations can be given. If
guidelines. However, a
t possible to provide
For a BEVawith reasonable
a Zebra Battery estimate
that is usedin 10 these
000 km/yr, guidelines.
one finds battery However,
losses of 53 a Wh/km.
description of how
description
the per day ofstate
how oftocharge
use information,
percentage losswhich might
in the battery atbe easily available
unplugged standstill isfor existing
known, one can vehicles, for
information,
teries, which
the loss in might
standstill
calculate the be
loss easily
highly
per hour, available
depends
assuming on
a forthe
linear existing
design
relationship vehicles,
of the
(which
estimations can be given. If the per day state of charge percentage loss in the battery for estimations
batteries.
will most probablyTherefore, can
underestimate be thegiven.at If
un-
For Lithium-ion batteries, the losscapacity,
in standstill highly depends on the design ofloss
theper
batteries. Therefore,
r provide
day state of charge
a reasonable
real
plugged
loss).percentage
estimate
Together with
standstilltoisprovide in loss
these
battery in the
known, one canestimate battery
guidelines.
one can at
then
calculatethese unplugged
However,
calculate
the loss a
the standstill
description
energy
per hour, assuming ofis
hour. known,
how
This result
a linear one
is can
relationship
itmultiplied
is not possible
with the numberaofreasonable
hours the vehicle isin parked guidelines.
unpluggedHowever,
during aacertain
description
period of (e.g.
how a
te the loss
which per
might behour,
(which
to easily assuming
will
useand
year) available
most
information, a
probably
then dividedwhich linear
for
bymight
relationship
existing vehicles,
underestimate
be easily
the distance available
driven
(which
thefor real
forperiod.
in this
will
estimations
loss).most probably
can
Together bewith underestimate
given.
battery
existing vehicles, for estimations can be given. IfIf capacity, the
one
ss). Together
f charge with
percentage
can the
thenbattery
per loss capacity,
day in the
state
calculate of charge
the energyone can
battery at then
percentage
loss unplugged
loss in
per hour. calculate
the battery the energy
Thisstandstill
at
resultunplugged loss per
is known,
standstill
is multiplied one
is
with hour.
known,
the oneThis result
cannumber can is
of hours
calculate the loss per hour, assuming a linear relationship (which will most probably underestimate the
iedhour,
er withassuming
thethe
number
vehicle of
a linear
real loss).
hours
is parked
Together
the
relationship vehicle
unplugged (which
with battery capacity,
isone
during parked
will a then unplugged
certain
canmost
period
probably
calculate
during
(e.g. aloss a certain
year)
underestimate
the energy
and thentheperiod
per hour. This
divided
result is
(e.g.
by athe
where:
distance driven in this period.
ndwiththen divided
battery by the
capacity,
multiplied onedistance
with can
the driven
then
number of in this
calculate
hours period.
the
the vehicle energy
is parkedloss per hour.
unplugged during This result
a certain periodis(e.g. a
is the mean
year) and then divided by theenergy consumption
distance due
driven in this to battery standstill losses in Wh/km
period.
number of hours the vehicle is parked unplugged during a certain period (e.g. a
is the total battery capacity in Wh
ded by the distance driven in this period.
where:
where:
31.01.2013
31.01.2013
14 is the
18650 cells are mean energy
cylindrical is the
Li-ion cells ofmean
consumption
around energy
due
3.7V consumption
toand
battery
2-4 Ah thatdue
standstill to battery
losses
are in Wh/km
typically standstill
used losses in Wh/km
in laptop
is the mean energy
computers. consumption
is the due
is the
total battery capacity into
total battery
battery
Wh standstill
capacity in Wh losses in Wh/km
is the
the mean
meanis loss
loss of state
state ofofcharge percharge
hour (e.g.
(e.g. if the
the loss
loss is
is x%
x% per
per hour,
hour,
is the total battery capacity is in Wh of
the mean of
loss charge per
state of hour if
per hour
87
x/100 has to be used.)
x/100 has to be used.) (e.g. if the loss is x% per hour, x/100 has to be used.)
he mean energy consumption due to battery standstill losses in Wh/km
is the
the number
number of of hours
is thethat the BEV
number BEV is parked
parked
of hours unplugged
thatunplugged
the during
BEV isduring the
parkedthe period under
unplugged under in-
during
18650 cells areiscylindrical Li-ion hours
cells ofthat the 3.7Visand usedperiod
in laptop in-
14
around 2-4 Ah that are typically
he total battery computers.
capacity in Wh vestigation
vestigation the period under investigation
is
is the
the distance
distance driven in
in the
is the
driven time
time period
distance
the driven
period under
in the
under investigation
time periodin
investigation km
km (e.g.
inunder 10
10 000
000 km)
investigation
(e.g. km) in km
0 cells are cylindrical Li-ion cells of around 3.7V and 2-4 Ah that are typically used in laptop
(e.g. 10 000 km) 87
ters. Assuming Assuming that a BEV is left parked unplugged for 8 hours per day and twice per year for one continu-
that aa BEV
BEV isisleft parked unplugged for 8 hours
Assuming that left parked unplugged forper day andper
8 hours twiceday
per and
year for one continu-
twice per year for one
ous
ous week,
week, one
one gets
gets values
values of
of less
less than
than 1
1 Wh/km
Wh/km for
for a
a 20
20 kWh
kWh battery
battery with
with 2%
2% loss
loss per
per day
day or
or of
of more
more
ylindrical Li-ion cells
than
of
continuous
50
around
week,
Wh/km forone
a
3.7V
56 gets
kWh
and 2-4
values
battery
Ah
of
with 50%
that
lessloss
are
thanin 1
the
typically
Wh/km
first week.
used
for a 20 in laptop
kWh battery with 2% loss per
than 50 Wh/km for a 56 kWh battery with 50% loss in the first week. 87
day or of more than 50 Wh/km for a 56 kWh battery with 50% loss in the first week.
7.1.2.1.1.6
7.1.2.1.1.6 Battery
Battery charging
charging 87
Up
Up to now, the discussion has
to now, the discussion has been
been focused
focused on
on the
the energy
energy which
which is
is taken
taken from
from the
the battery
battery of
of the
the vehi-
vehi-
cle,
cle, which is composed of the contributions from motion, comfort devices, auxiliaries, and internal bat-
which is composed of the contributions from motion, comfort devices, auxiliaries, and internal bat-
tery
tery losses
losses during
during standstill:
standstill:
16 18650 cells are cylindrical Li-ion cells of around 3.7V and 2-4 Ah that are typically used in laptop computers.
However,
However, inin the
the total
total “plug-to-wheel”
“plug-to-wheel” consumption,
consumption, itit is
is also
also important
important toto include
include the
the energy
energy losses
losses
caused by
caused by the
the devices
devices used
used to
to charge
charge the
the battery.
battery. Overall,
Overall, this
this contribution
contribution depends
depends onon the
the efficiency
efficiency
of the
of the charging
charging system,
system, including
including the
the battery.
battery. A
A general
general formula
formula for
for obtaining
obtaining the
the energy
energy taken
taken from
from
the grid
the grid as
as a
a function
function of
of the
the total
total energy
energy taken
taken from
from the
the battery
battery is:
is:
is the mean loss of state of charge per hour (e.g. if the loss is x% per hour,
hat a BEV is left parked
Assuming unplugged
that a BEV for 8 hours
is left parked unpluggedper dayforand twiceper
8 hours perday
year fortwice
and one continu-
per year for one continu-
x/100 has to be used.)
ne gets90
values of less than 1 Wh/km for a 20 kWh battery with 2% loss per day or Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
ous week, one gets values of lessis than 1 Wh/km
the number of hours for
that a
the20 kWh
BEV battery
is parked 2%ofloss
withduring
unplugged
more per under
the period day orin- of more
/km for a 56 kWh battery with 50% loss in the first week.
than 50 Wh/km for a 56 kWh battery with 50% loss in the first week.
vestigation
is the distance driven in the time period under investigation in km (e.g. 10 000 km)
7.1.2.1.1.6
Assuming thatBattery charging
a BEV is left parked unplugged for 8 hours per day and twice per year for one continu-
Battery charging Battery charging
7.1.2.1.1.6 ous week, one gets values of less than 1 Wh/km for a 20 kWh battery with 2% loss per day or of more
the discussion hasthe beenUp to
focusednow, thethe
on discussion
forenergy has
kWh which been focused
is taken inon
lossfromthethe
the energy which
battery is taken from the battery of
Up to now, than
discussion 50 has
Wh/km been a 56
focused battery
on with
the 50%
energy which is taken of
first week. the
from vehi-
the battery of the vehi-
composed of the the vehicle,
contributions which
from is composed
motion, comfort of the contributions from motion, comfort devices, auxiliaries,
cle, which is composed of the contributions from devices,
motion, auxiliaries,
comfort devices,and internal bat- and
auxiliaries, internal bat-
duringtery
standstill: and internal battery losses during standstill:
losses during standstill:
7.1.2.1.1.6 Battery charging
Up to now, the discussion has been focused on the energy which is taken from the battery of the vehi-
cle, which is composed of the contributions from motion, comfort devices, auxiliaries, and internal bat-
n the total “plug-to-wheel”
However, consumption,
in the totaltery
“plug-to-wheel” it isconsumption,
losses during standstill: also importantit istoalso
include the energy
important lossesthe energy
to include losses
However, in the total “plug-to-wheel” consumption, it is also important to include the energy
he devices used to charge
caused by the devices the
used battery.
toby Overall,
charge this contribution
the battery. depends on the efficiency
losses caused
However, in the the devices
total “plug-to-wheel” to Overall,
used consumption,
charge the this contribution
it isbattery. Overall,
also important
depends on thedepends
this contribution
to include the energy losses
efficiency
on
ging system, includingsystem,
of the charging the battery. A general
including formulaA for
thecharging
battery. obtaining
general formula the forenergy taken the
obtaining fromenergy taken from
the caused
efficiency
by theof the
devices used system,
to charge the including
battery. Overall,the
this battery. A depends
contribution generalonformula for
the efficiency obtaining
a function of the
the grid as total energy
a function taken
ofthe
the from
total the battery
energy is:
the of
energy charging
taken system,
thetaken
from including
gridthe
asfrom the
battery. battery
A general
a function of the is:
formula
totalforenergy
obtaining the energy taken from
taken from the battery is:
the grid as a function of the total energy taken from the battery is:
where:
where:
where: cons
consel.plug.total is the total energy
is thetaken from the
total energy battery,
taken fromcomprising
the battery,basic motion, basic
comprising recuperation,
motion,
el.plug.total
iscons
theel.plug.total
total energy taken
from the battery,
heating, cooling, comprising
recuperation,
auxiliaries, and basic
heating,
standstill motion,
cooling,
losses
is the total energy taken from the battery, comprising basic motion, recuperation, recuperation,
auxiliaries,
in the and
battery standstill in losses the battery
η(i)
heating, cooling, auxiliaries, and standstill lossesandinstandstill
the battery
 (i) is the internal is the internal
efficiency of the efficiency
battery of
during the battery
charging during charging
heating,BB cooling, auxiliaries, losses in the battery
η(i)
(i)CHG is the efficiency is
ofthe
theefficiency of the charging device.
charging device.
isthe
(i)B internal efficiency of the battery during charging
CHG
is the internal efficiency of the battery during charging
isthe efficiency ofistheVarious parameters
charging device. can have a large influence on the overall efficiency of the charging pro-
(i)CHG theVarious
efficiencyparametersof the charging
can have device.on the overall efficiency of the charging process, which
a large influence
cess,is why
which in the above formula the efficiencies are not given as constants,are
is why in the above formula the efficiencies but not givenfunctions.
as general as constants,
First, but as
general functions.
there are First,ofthere
different types charging aredevices,
different
rangingtypes
from of charging
on-board devicesdevices,
that can ranging
be connected from to on-board
ameters can have a large the power
influence point at home to high voltage systems for faster charging. Moreover, batteries used in BEVs
Various parameters devices
can that can
have aonlarge
the overall
be connected
influence efficiency
to
onthe the of the
power
overall pointcharging
at home
efficiency process,
oftothe
are assembled out of many small cells. This leads to complex charging strategies, which depend on cell
which
highcharging
voltage systemsprocess,forwhich faster
e above formula
is why in the the efficiencies
above charging.
formula
and battery arethe not
Moreover,
size, given
batteries
efficiencies
voltage asbattery
level, constants,
used
are not in given
BEVs
temperatures,butare as assembled
as
and general
constants,
other functions.
out
parameters. ofasmany
butFurthermore,First,
general small cells.a ThisFirst,
evenfunctions.
within leads
fferentthere
typesare of different to
chargingtypescomplex
devices,
given charger charging
ranging
of charging type (e.g. strategies,
fromlow on-board
devices, which
rangingdevices
voltage charger depend
for homethat
from on cell
can beand
applications),
on-board battery
aconnected size,
large spread of
devices that can voltage
toefficiencies level,
be connected is battery
to
found among and
temperatures, different
otherproducts due to theFurthermore,
parameters. various technology levels
even used, which
within a can reach
given charger fromtypebe- (e.g. low
point at home to high
the power point at homevoltagelow 80%
systems
totohigh for
abovevoltage
90%.
faster charging. Moreover, batteries used
systems for faster charging. Moreover, batteries used in BEVs in BEVs
ed outareof assembled
many smallout voltage
cells. This charger
leads forcomplex
to home applications),
charging a large spread
strategies, which of efficiencies
depend oniswhich
found among different
cell
of many small cells. This leads to complex charging strategies, depend on cell
products due to the various technology levels used, which can reach from below 80% to above
size, voltage level, battery
and battery size, voltage temperatures,
Since literature and and
data other
on the parameters.
average influence ofFurthermore,
level, battery temperatures, and other parameters. Furthermore, even
the charger is even
currently within
missing, a a
simplified cal- within a
90%. culation approach for battery charging efficiency of a standard device that might be used at home is
er type (e.g.charger
given low voltage charger
type (e.g. low for homecharger
voltage applications),for home a large spread ofaefficiencies
applications), large spread is of efficiencies is
proposed. This approach is based on the analysis of available measurements. The data analysis showed
ng different products
found among different due to
Since the
that,productsvarious
literature
when charging, and
due technology
data
theto on the
thestate
initial levels
average
various
of battery used,
technology which
influence
charge can have of can
the
levels reach
charger from
used, which
a big influence is be-
currently missing,
can reach
on the overall a
chargingfrom be-simpli-
abovelow 90%.80% to above 90%. fied calculation
efficiency. approach
This effect is causedfor by battery
the batterycharging efficiency
charging strategy. of
After every a standard
charging, all device
the smallthatbat- might be
tery cells need to be balanced, meaning that the cells must all
used at home is proposed. This approach is based on the analysis of available measurements. be brought to the same voltage level.
The data analysis showed that, when charging, the initial state of battery charge88can have a
ure and data on the
Since literature and average
bigdata influence
on the
influence of the
onaverage
the charger
overall influence
charging is currently
ofefficiency.
the charger missing,
This iseffecta simplified
currently
is caused cal-thea battery
missing,
by simplified cal-
charging
proachculation
for battery charging
approachstrategy. efficiency
for battery of
Aftercharging a standard
every charging, efficiency device
all theof smallthat
a standard might
batterydevicebe used
cells need at
that to home
might is
be usedmeaning
be balanced, at homethat is
his approach is based
proposed. This approach on the analysis
the cells is mustbased of
all be available
onbrought
the analysis measurements.
to theofsame voltage
available The data analysis
level. This process
measurements. showed
Theisdatarelatively
analysis energy inten-
showed
charging,
that,the initial
when statesive
charging, ofthebattery
and leadscharge
initial to
state can
a smaller
of have
charging
battery acharge
bigefficiency
influence
can have ona the
if the big overall
initial state of
influence charging
battery
on thecharge overallischarging
high, as it
his effect is caused
efficiency. might
Thisbyeffect
the batterybe,
is caused for example,
charging after
by the strategy. driving
battery charging just
After every a short distance.
charging,
strategy. A
Afteralleverylower
the small state
charging,bat- all the smallhigher
of charge yields bat-
eed toterybe balanced, overall that
meaning charging the efficiency.
cells must Also
all thebrought
be outside temperature
to the same during
voltage charging
level. has an influence on
cells need to be balanced, meaning that the cells must all be brought to the same voltage level.
the charging efficiency, but assuming the vehicle is charged in a garage most of the time, this
88 88
circumstance can be neglected.
Based on the data analysis, the following equation has been derived to characterize energy
storage efficiency, depending on the consumed energy from the battery per discharge and
battery
Based oncharge
This process theisdata is high,
analysis,
relatively as itintensive
energy might
the be,leads
following
and for equation
example,
to a smaller has afterbeen
charging driving
derived
efficiency just
if the ainitial
to short distance.
characterize
31.01.2013
state of A lower
energy state ef-
storage of
This process
battery charge is relatively
is high, asenergy
it mightintensive
be, forand leads to
example, a smaller
after drivingcharging
just a shortefficiency
distance. if the initial state
A lower state of
of
charge
ficiency,
battery yields
dependinghigher
chargehigheris high, overall
on
as it the
might charging
consumed
be, for example,efficiency.
energy
after Alsojust
from the
the outside
battery temperature
per A discharge during chargingtravelled
and distance has an
charge
This yields
This process
process is
is relatively
relativelyoverall
energy
energy charging
intensiveefficiency.
intensive and leads Also
and leads to
to a the driving
outside
a smaller
smaller charging
charging
a short
temperature
efficiency
distance.
efficiency during
if
if the
the initial
lower state
charging
initial state
state of
of
of
has an
influence
(Bütler,
Based
charge
This on
influence
battery
battery
ononisthe
2013).
the
yields
process
charge
charge These
data
higher charging
relatively
the is
is charging
high,
high, parameters
analysis,
overall
energy
as
as it efficiency,
the
charging
intensive
itefficiency,
might
might be, but
be, for
forcombine
following
and butAlso
efficiency.
leads
assuming
example,
example, toassuming
athe
equation
the
after
after
the battery
outside
smaller
vehicle
driving
driving isthe
aand
has
charging
just
just a vehicle
been the
temperature
efficiency
charged
short
short
is
charger
in aderived
garage
distance.
distance.
charged
ifduring
theA initial
A most
lower
lower
in
toefficiency
state
of
state
state of
the
ofa garage
oftime,in one
characterize
charging has an most
energyof the time,
parameter
storageset.
ef-
where:
influence
Guidelines
thisbattery
charge for on
the
circumstance
charge
yields the
LCA ofcharging
electric
is high,
higher can be
as it
overall efficiency,
vehicles
neglected.
might but assuming
be, efficiency.
charging for example, Also the
after
the vehicle
driving
outside is
just charged in a
a short distance.
temperature garage
during most
Acharging
lower stateof
hastheof
an time, 91
ficiency, depending on the consumed energy from the battery per discharge and distance travelled
this circumstance
charge yields higher can be
overallneglected.
charging efficiency. Also the outside temperature during charging has an
this
chargecircumstance
yields higher can be neglected.
overall chargingbut efficiency. Also
influence
influence on
on the
the charging
charging efficiency,
efficiency, but assuming
assuming thethe
the outside
vehicle
vehicle is temperature
is charged
charged in
in a duringmost
a garage
garage charging
most of
of the
thehas an
time,
time,
(Bütler,
influence on the
is the
this circumstance can be parameters
2013). These
charging
total plug energy
combine
efficiency, but assuming
neglected.
demand
the the
vehicle
for
battery
is charged
one
and discharge
in athe charger
garage
cycle
most of efficiency
in
the time,
kWh in one parameter set.
this circumstance can be neglected.
Based
this on the data
circumstance analysis,
can the following equation has been derived to characterize energy storage ef-
be neglected.
BasedBased ononthe data
the data isanalysis,
the total
analysis,
on the the
battery
the
following energy
following
equation demand
equation
has been for
has
derived one
been
per to
discharge
derived
characterize tocycle
and energy
in kWh
characterize
storage ef- energy storage ef-
where:
ficiency, depending consumed energy from the battery discharge distance travelled
ficiency,
Based
Based on
ondepending
the
the data
data on the
analysis,
analysis, consumed
the
the following
following energy
equation
equation from
has
has the
been
been battery
derived
derived per
to
to discharge
characterize
characterize and
energy
energydistance
storage
storage travelled
ef-
ef-
ficiency,
distance depending
(Bütler,travelled
2013). These onthe2013).
the
parameters
(Bütler, consumed
combine
These energy
theparameters
battery and thefrom the
charger
combine battery
efficiency
the perand
in one
battery discharge
parameter set. andef-
theef-charger distance travelled
Based
(Bütler,on2013).
ficiency,
ficiency, the data
depending
depending is
These the
analysis,
on
on total
parameters
the
the plug
following
combine
consumed
consumed energy
equation
the from
energy
energy from demand
has
battery been
the
theand thefor
battery
battery perone
derived
charger
per discharge
todischarge
characterize
efficiency
discharge energy
andin
and onecycle
storage in kWh
parameter
distance
distance travelled
travelled set.
fi(Bütler,
(Bütler,2013).
ciency
where: in2013).
ficiency,
with:
(Bütler, 2013). These
one parameter
depending
These
These on parameters
the
parameters
parameters
set.combine
consumed
combine combine
energy
the from the
the battery
battery thebattery
and
and battery
the
the charger
charger and theand
per discharge
efficiency
efficiency incharger
in distance
one
one efficiency
parameter
parametertravelled
set.
set. in one parameter set.
(Bütler, 2013). Theseis parameters
the totalcombinebatterytheenergy
battery and demand
the chargerfor one discharge
efficiency in one parametercycle set.in kWh
where: ∑ is the total plug energy demand for one discharge cycle in kWh
where:
where: is the total plug energy demand for one discharge cycle in kWh
isisthe
the total battery energy demand forcycle
one in discharge cycle in kWh
where:
where:
with:
where:
total plug energy
is the totaldemand for one
plug energy discharge
demand for one kWh cycle in kWh
discharge
where:
where: isisthe
is thetotal
the totalplug
total battery
plug energy
energy
energy demand
demand
demand for fordischarge
for one
one one discharge
discharge cycle
cycle incycle
in kWhin kWh
kWh
∑ isisthethetotal
totalplug
battery
the energy
isenergy
total demand
battery
demand fordischarge
forenergy
one one discharge
demand incycle
for one
cycle in kWh cycle in kWh
discharge
kWh
is
is the
the total
total battery
battery energy
energy demand
demand forfor one
one discharge
discharge cycle
cycle in
in kWh
kWh
∑ with: is the total plug
is the energy
sum demand
of all mean for one
energy discharge
consumptions cycle between
in kWh two battery charging
with:
with: is the total battery energy demand for one discharge cycle in kWh
with:
with:
with: ∑
∑ is the total battery energy
procedures demand for one discharge cycle in kWh
in Wh/km
where:
with: ∑
∑
∑
∑
is the distance between two battery charging procedures in km
∑ where: is the sum of all mean energy consumptions between two battery charging
with:
where:
where:
where:
where:
∑ procedures
is the sum of all mean in Wh/km
energy consumptions between two battery charging
∑
where: ∑ is thesumsumofof allmean
mean energy consumptions between
two two battery charging
With
∑ the resulting values
∑ is
is the is
is itthe
procedures
the sum isofsum
possible
in Wh/km
all
all of
sum mean
of to calculate
energy
energy
all an additional
consumptions
consumptions
mean energy
between
between two consumption
battery
battery
consumptions
charging
charging
between caused
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ing. is the distance
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is the distance between two battery charging procedures in km
where:
With the resulting values it isispossible
the distance between
to calculate twoconsumption
an additional battery charging procedures
caused by battery charg- in km
With
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is
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ing.ing.
tery charging.
ing. the resulting values it is possible to calculate an additional consumption caused by battery charg-
ing. procedures in Wh/km
With the resulting values it is possible to calculate an additional consumption caused by battery charg-
where: is the distance between two battery charging procedures in km
ing.
where:
where:
is the additional consumption caused by the battery charging process in Wh/km.
where:
where:
where: is the additional consumption caused by the battery charging process in Wh/km.
is the additionalcaused consumption caused by the battery charging process in Wh/km.
is
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where: the resulting thevalues
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possible
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to calculate
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batteryancharging
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in Wh/km.
consumption
process in Wh/km. caused by battery charg-
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consumption of the or energy
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efficiency 81 % isvalues
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where:
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where:
where:
where: is the variation factor for the consumption of the energy storage system
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variation variation
factors
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then
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forapplied the calculation
to the
of consumption
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calculation energyattributable
storage
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to
system
attrib- 89
battery
The
battery
where: charging.
charging. factors can then be applied to the calculation of consumption attributable to
utable to battery charging.
battery charging.
is the variation factor for the consumption of the energy storage system
89
where:
where:
where:
where:
is the additional consumption attributable to the battery charging process in 89
where: is is theconsumption
theadditional
is the variation additional consumption
factor for toattributable
the battery to
the consumption
attributable ofthethe
battery
charging charging
energy
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Wh/km
Wh/km withwith applied
applied variation
variation factor.factor.
process in Wh/km with applied variation factor.
is the additional consumption attributable to the battery charging process in
7.1.2.1.1.7 Wh/km with applied variation factor.
7.1.2.1.1.7 Total energy
Total consumption
energy consumption
The 89
Thetotal
totalplug-to-wheel
plug-to-wheel energy consumption
energy for thefor
consumption defined driving driving
the defined situationsituation
is composed of the basicof the basic
is composed
drivetrain consumption, the consumption for heating and air conditioning, the consumption of auxilia-
drivetrain consumption, the consumption for heating and air conditioning, the consumption of auxilia-
ries, standstill losses, and the additional consumption of the battery charging process:
7.1.2.1.1.7
ries, standstillTotal
losses,energy consumption
and the additional consumption of the battery charging process:
The total plug-to-wheel energy consumption for the defined driving situation is composed of the basic
where:
The calculated variation factors can then be applied to the calculation of consumption attributable to
where:
The calculated
battery variation factors can then be applied to the calculation of consumption attributable to
charging.
battery charging.
is the additional consumption attributable to the battery charging proce
92 Wh/km with applied variation factor. Guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles
where:
where: is the additional consumption attributable to the battery charging proce

where: is Wh/km with consumption
the additional applied variation
attributablefactor.
to the battery charging process in
7.1.2.1.1.7 Totalis energy the
consumption
additional consumption attributable to the battery charging process in
7.1.2.1.1.7 TotalWh/km
energy withconsumption
applied variation factor.
The total plug-to-wheel Wh/km with energy
appliedconsumption
variation factor. for the defined driving situation is composed of the
The total plug-to-wheel
drivetrain consumption, energy
the consumption
consumption for for heating
the defined anddriving situation is the
air conditioning, composed
consumption of au
7.1.2.1.1.7 Totalenergy
7.1.2.1.1.7 Total energy consumption
consumption
ofries,
thestandstill
basic drivetrain
losses, consumption,
and the the
consumption for heating
of and
the battery air conditioning,
charging the
process:
7.1.2.1.1.7
The Total energyenergy
totalplug-to-wheel
plug-to-wheel consumption
consumption for the defined driving situationdriving
is composed of the basic
The total
consumption energy
of auxiliaries, standstill consumption
losses, for the
and the driving defined
additional consumption situation
of the is composed
battery of the
The total plug-to-wheel
drivetrain consumption, energy consumption
the consumption for for the defined
heating situation
and air conditioning, theisconsumption
composed ofofthe basic
auxilia-
drivetrain
charging consumption,
process:
drivetrain consumption,
ries, standstill losses, andthe
the consumption
theconsumption for heating
for
and heating
of theairbattery and
conditioning, air
charging
conditioning,
theprocess: the consumption of au
consumption of auxilia-
ries,ries,
standstill losses,
standstill losses, andand the additional
the additional consumption
consumption of the battery of the battery
charging process: charging process:
where:
where:
where: is the mean annual consumption in Wh/km for a given driving cycle/trajectory an
where:
isspecific
the mean annualisconsumption
meteorological
in Wh/km
the mean annual for a given
consumption
conditions,
drivingfor
in Wh/km
comfort
cycle/trajectory
anda given drivingand the
auxiliaries
and cha use pattern,
where: is the mean
specific annualcycle/trajectory
consumption
meteorological inand
conditions, Wh/km
comfort for
anda given driving
auxiliaries
the specific usecycle/trajectory
meteorological pattern, and theand
and comfort
conditions, charging
characteristics.
specific meteorological
characteristics. conditions,
auxiliaries comfort
use pattern, andand auxiliaries
charging use pattern, and charging
characteristics.
is the mean annual consumption in Wh/km for a given driving cycle/trajectory an
characteristics.
specific meteorological conditions, comfort and auxiliaries use pattern, and cha
7.1.2.1.1.8
7.1.2.1.1.8 Range
Rangeestimation
estimation
characteristics.
7.1.2.1.1.8
7.1.2.1.1.8 Range
Range estimation
estimation
The first four terms of the formula described above can also be used to estimate the mean driving
TheThe
The firstfirst
first
range four
four
offour terms
theterms
terms of
vehicle,ofthe
of formula
the
the
because formuladescribed
formula
this above
described can
described
represents the energy also
above
abovebe used
can
consumed toalso
also
can
from estimate
be be the
the used tomean
used
battery. todriving
estimate the mean
estimate the mean driving
range of the vehicle, because this represents the energy consumed from the battery.
driving range
range of the Range of the vehicle,
vehicle,estimation because this represents the energy consumed
because this represents the energy consumed from the battery. from the battery.
7.1.2.1.1.8
The first four terms of the formula described above can also be used to estimate the mean driving
where:
range of the vehicle, because this represents the energy consumed from the battery.
where:
where: is the estimated range, in km, according to the annual consumption
is
is the
the estimated range,
is the
usable battery in km, in
according
estimated
capacity Whrange, to
in the
km,annual consumption
according to the annual consumption
where: is the usable battery capacity
is the usableinbattery
Wh capacity in Wh
is the estimated range, in km, according to the annual consumption
is Consumption
Provisions 7.1.2.1.1:
where: the usablecalculation
battery capacity
methods in Wh
Provisions 7.1.2.1.1: Consumption calculation methods
I. SHALL: The various consumption contributions shall be detailed in the calculation:
Provisions 7.1.2.1.1: Consumption
is the estimated calculation
range, methodsto the annual consumption
in km, according
-Basic
SHALL:consumption
I. (motion)
The various consumption contributions shall be detailed in the calculation:
-Basic consumption
-Heating (motion) systems
and air conditioning
I. SHALL: The is the usable
various battery capacity
consumption in Wh shall be detailed in
contributions the calcula-
-Heating and air conditioning systems
-Auxiliaries
tion:
-Auxiliaries
Basic consumption (motion) 90
I. SHALL: The various consumption contributions shall be detailed in the 90 calculation:
Heating and air conditioning systems
-Basic consumption (motion)
Auxiliaries
-Heating and air conditioning systems
I. Standstill
SHALL: lossesconsumption contributions shall be detailed in the calculation:
The various
-Auxiliaries
Charging device
-Basic consumption (motion)
II. -Heating
SHALL: The and air conditioning
driving systems
cycle/ trajectory used for the consumption calculation shall
-Auxiliaries
be documented. Particularly, it shall be detailed whether the aim was to identify
an average real-world consumption or the consumption of specific driving situ-
ations, in accordance with the goal and scope of the study.
III. SHALL: It shall be clearly stated how the electricity consumption from the bat-
tery is derived from the mechanical energy demanded by propulsion of the ve-
hicle.
IV. SHALL: It shall be clearly stated how the electricity consumption from the bat-
tery is derived from the energy demand for heating and air conditioning, includ-
ing information on the power requirements of the various devices.
V. SHALL: It shall be clearly stated how the electricity consumption from the bat-
tery is derived from the energy demand for the auxiliaries, including the power
requirements of the various devices.
VI. It shall be clearly stated how battery losses occurring when the vehicle is parked,
but not plugged in, are derived.
VII. SHALL: It shall be clearly stated how charging losses are derived.
VIII. MAY: The methodological steps given in paragraph 7.1.2.1.1.2 and 7.1.2.1.1.6 for
numerical estimation may be used, if this is compatible with the goal and scope
of the study. Studies whose foreground system involves the optimization of the
vehicle's energy consumption (e.g. high efficiency electric drivetrains) should
use tailored models in which the specific contributions from the key devices can
be detailed (e.g. as in 7.1.2.1.1.2.2).
7.1.2.1.1.9 Example for energy consumption calculation
The following points show the values of an example calculation for the LCA of a vehicle
driven in Switzerland. With a focus on estimating the impacts of typical use, the driving
profile for a real-world energy consumption is chosen and the temperature profile is
generated according to the annual minimum and maximum temperatures of the area.
For the calculation, the procedures described in the previous points are used. To keep
this overview simple, not all calculation steps are shown.
3.1 Input parameter

Vehicle: City car, 1 300 kg
Annual Mileage: 10 000 km
Battery capacity: 20 kWh
Mean discharge distance: 50 km
Driving Pattern: 40 % urban WLTC sub cycle
30 % rural WLTC sub cycle
10 % motorway - slow WLTC sub cycle
20 % motorway - fast WLTC sub cycle
Ambient temperatures: 0 °C, min. monthly average, lowest day temperature
(Zürich 2011)
25 °C, max. monthly average, highest day temperature
(Zürich 2011)
Auxiliary use: Radio/Navigation, 100 %
Lighting, 80 %
Standstill hours, unplugged 3 144 h/yr
State of charge loss per hour 0.014 %
3.2 Basic consumption

3.2.1 Electrical consumption (EC) in the different sub cycles
Mean EC urban = 106.6 Wh/km
Mean EC rural = 115.2 Wh/km
Mean EC motorway - slow = 120.8 Wh/km
Mean EC motorway - fast = 177.0 Wh/km
3.2.2 Weighted electrical drive train consumption
Mean EC basic = 0.4 x 106.6 + 0.3 x 115.2 + 0.1 x 120.8 + 0.2 x 177.0
Mean EC basic = 124.7 Wh/km
3.3 Heating and air conditioning

30
3.3.1 Activation days according to the sample
ambient temperature [°C]

25
temperature profile. The used temperature
profile is shown in the diagram below. 20
Heating - maximum = 155 days 15

Heating - medium = 79 days 10
Air conditioning - medium = 94 days
5
Air conditioning - maximum = 0 days
0
3.3.2 Mean annual energy consumption
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Heating - maximum = 49.4 Wh/km
Mean
Heating - medium = 12.6 Wh/km Temperature
Air conditioning - medium = 3.0 Wh/km Minimum
Temperature
Air conditioning - maximum = 0.0 Wh/km
Maximum
Mean EC for heating and air conditioning = 65.0 Wh/km Temperature
3.4 Auxiliaries
3.4.1 Mean power demand of auxiliaries
Radio/Navigation: 50 W
Lighting: 130 W
3.4.2 Mean annual energy consumption
Mean EC due to auxiliaries = 3.5 Wh/km
3.5 Battery losses

Standstill losses per year: 20 000 Wh*0.014%*3 144 h = 8 733 Wh/yr
Standstill losses per km: 8 733 Wh/yr / 10 000 km/yr = 0.873 Wh/km
3.6 Battery charging

3.6.1 Battery discharge energy
Mean discharge =(124.7 + 65.0 + 3.5 + 0.9)kWh/km
Mean discharge total = 194.1 Wh/km
Energy demand per discharge distance = 9.705 kWh
Plug energy demand per discharge distance = 11.772 kWh
3.6.2 Charging losses
Charging efficiency = 82.4 %
Mean charging loss consumption = 41.3 Wh/km
3.7 Result
Mean EC basic = 124.7 Wh/km
Mean EC for heating and air conditioning = 65.0 Wh/km
Mean EC due to auxiliaries = 3.5 Wh/km
Mean standstill loss = 0.9 Wh/km
Mean charging loss consumption = 41.3 Wh/km
Total energy consumption = 235.4 Wh/km

Figure 13 graphically shows the contributions coming from the various consumption
components.
250
Charging / Energy
storage losses
consumption [Wh/km]
200
Standstill losses
150 Auxiliaries
Heating
100
Air conditioning
50 Basic consumption
Figure 13: Example of consumption calculation.

7.1.2.1.2 Recommendations on electricity sources
A number of studies (see, for example, (Hawkins, 2012)) confirm that the overall results in the
LCA of an electric vehicle strongly depend on the specific electricity source or mix, i.e. the types
and shares of technologies used for the production of the electricity with which the battery
of the vehicle is charged. Depending on the impact indicator and on the electricity mix, the
contribution coming from the electricity used for charging can be anything from negligible to
dominant in the entire life cycle. For example, a mix largely based on coal power plants will typi-
cally lead to very different impacts when compared to one based on photovoltaic electricity.
Finally, various changes in how electricity is produced can be expected for the future. Firs, due
to the current efforts to fight climate change through the reduction of CO2 emissions and to
move to more sustainable production systems, a substantial increase in the share of renew-
able energy sources (RES) is likely to occur. Further, if electric vehicles reach mass penetration,
it needs to be understood whether the current electricity capacity is sufficient to guarantee
supply despite the added demand. All these variables show how correct modelling of the elec-
tricity used for charging the battery, and one consistent with the goal and scope of the study,
is of key importance for obtaining meaningful results.
Overall, in defining the electricity source or mix of sources for the study, the guidelines given in
relation to ”Technological, geographical and time-related representativeness” and “Planning
data collection” also hold. Generally speaking, the most appropriate electricity generation is
therefore the one that best describes the electricity production technologies used for charg-
ing the battery in the geographical area and time frame defined by the goal and scope of
the study. When identifying these electricity sources, the practitioner is required to take into
account a number of factors. First, geographical dependence is very strong; just as an exam-
ple, the average electricity used today in Germany is produced through a larger share of coal
power plants as opposed to the average electricity used in Europe (Figure 14). 17
1,6% 2,8% 1,1% 0,2%
0,6% 4,9% 11,1%
0,1% 28,8% 0,7% 31,7%
0,8% 0,3%
9,5% 0,8%
Nuclear
Brown coal 6%
Hard coal
1,2% Blast furnace gas
Peat
Natural gas 17%
Heavy fuel oil
Solid biomass
Gaseous biomass
Waste
Hydro 0,3%
23,4% 11,3%
Wind 1%
26,4% Geothermal
Others 18,3%
Figure 14: Comparison of the EU-27 electricity mix with Germany’s specific electricity mix
(Source: ELCD database15, data set from 2002)
17 Detailed data set for electricity mix in Europe: http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasetList.vm?top

Category=Energy+carriers+and+technologies&subCategory=Electricity
Moreover, even within a country, local communities may decide to rely on particular technol-
ogies for their electricity supply. A study analysing the use of electric vehicles in such a com-
munity should identify and use the specific mix in that area and consider regional differences
in technologies. For example, a coal power plant in one country may lead to different impacts
compared to one in another country due to regional differences in the heating values and
levels of sulphur for the coal. Hence, in modelling the electricity mix, one should use data as
far as possible consistent with the local reality one is analysing.
Another factor which can play an important role is time since the composition of the mix may
change during the day or through the seasons. If a study focuses on the average impacts in
a specific country, without any constraints on where and when the vehicle is charged, then
the country’s average mix could suffice. However, new supply schemes are being proposed
by electricity providers. In the context of electric vehicles, an important idea is the concept of
smart charging, which aims to reduce the problems that may be caused to the electricity grid
by the simultaneous connection of a large number of electric vehicles. The idea is to let the
BEVs communicate with the local utilities so batteries are recharged only (or preferably) when
electricity is abundant (and cheapest) and the impact on the grid is smallest. Often this would
correspond to charging during the night, a time when the electricity mix can be different com-
pared to the one available during daytime periods of very high demand. Here, again, if the aim
of the study is to investigate the impacts of electric vehicles in the context of a smart charging
strategy, meaning ultimately that the vehicle would mainly be charged at specific times, the
corresponding electricity mix should be identified.
Within the ILCD framework, the choice of electricity mix will also depend on the decision con-
text and, specifically, on whether within situation B, a mass penetration of electric vehicles is
contemplated that might require new electricity production capacity to be installed.
For situation A, assuming that penetration of electric vehicles is such that the electricity
demand can be satisfied by the available production facilities, the choice should fall on the
electricity mix best describing the actual charging situation of the analysed system. This may
mean using, for example, an average national consumption mix of electricity18 if the goal and
scope are focused on a national average assessment; or a time-specific, local mix involving
only selected technologies if it is known that in the specific analysis the batteries are charged
only at a specific time and with a particular technology due to special constraints or the use of
smart charging strategies. Further, to enhance comparability among studies within the EU, the
electricity mix found in the EU-27 electricity mix data (see, for example, Figure 14)19 should be
included in the analysis.
In situation B studies involving a mass penetration of electric vehicles that causes large chang-
es in the electricity production infrastructure, the same recommendations on goal and scope
related technological, geographical and time representativeness hold with the addition of long-
18 In chapter 7.7 of the ILCD, the relationship of the production mix, the consumption mix, and the supply mix is
explained.
19 A possible resource is the ELCD database: http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasetList.vm?topCategory
=Energy+carriers+and+technologies&subCategory=Electricity
term marginal electricity use. This corresponds to understanding which new production plants
will be installed (and old plants decommissioned) to satisfy long-term changes in demand.
Identifying the long-term mix is not straightforward since choices on such key infrastructure
components are governed by technological, economic and political factors. As an example, hy-
dropower in Germany is not scalable anymore due to technological and economic restrictions20
so increased demand for electricity there cannot be covered by using this technology.
A five-step procedure to assist in the identification of the marginal technology is present-

ed in Weidema (1999) and Ekvall (2004) and an example of a European Electricity Scenario is
given. A short extract from this procedure is presented below to answer two main questions
(Weidema, 1999):
1. ‘What is the situation in which the studied change in demand occurs?’ (Step a-c)
2. ‘Given this situation, what specific technology is affected by the change?’ (Step d-e)
Step a: Time horizon: First a distinction between the short-term and long-term effects of the
change has to be made. Short-term effects influence the intensity of utilization of existing pro-
duction capacities, whereas long-term effects influence the development of installed capacity
while intensity of utilization remains constant. Most changes in the demand will have effects
on both aspects (Mattsson, 2001) and, for usability, some simplification could be made such
as ignoring dynamic effects. In the example from Weidema (1999), only long-term marginal
technologies are considered.
Step b: Specific processes or market: This step answers whether specific processes or overall
markets are affected. In the example, electricity in Europe is delivered through markets, lead-
ing to steps c and d.
Step c: Trend in market volume: If markets are affected, the trend within the market has to
be identified. The trend in the EU shows that the electricity market is increasing. Therefore,
marginal technology is the preferred technology that is unconstrained and has the lowest,
long-term production costs.
Step d: Constraints on capacity increase for the involved technologies: If production capacity is
restricted, a higher demand will not lead to production capacities above this limit. Constrain-
ing factors could be: natural constraints such as available amount of water in a specific region;
political constraints such as ban of specific technologies, e.g. nuclear power in Germany; and
market constraints for co-products, e.g. co-generated heat.
Step e: Preferences based on potential production costs: Marginal technology is the technology
in which production capacity can be adjusted along with the production costs for the technol-
ogy. In decreasing markets, long-term technology is the one that is phased out, having the high-
est short-term cost. In increasing markets, long-term technology is the one that will be most
likely installed, having the lowest long-term costs. The resulting marginal technology can be a
20 The future development of power plant expansion regarding each technology in each country depends on a
number of different criteria such as technical feasibility, availability of resources, acceptance of the technology,
and costs that are highly country specific.
mix of different technologies. In the example, the marginal technology in Europe is a composite
of fossil and wind power, until the expansion limit of wind energy is reached (Weidema, 1999)).
Another, more complex approach for the identification of the environmental consequences of
marginal electricity supply is given in Lund (2010).
In using the methodologies mentioned above, it is important to remember that, within situa-
tion B studies, the focus is set on the long-term technology mix. The reported methods can be
also used for the identification of other marginal technologies.
Once the appropriate electricity mix has been identified, the selection of data sets describing
the various technologies involved can be made. These data sets can be obtained from LCI data
providers and should include all the infrastructure required for the specific electricity produc-
tion technologies.
7.1.2.1.3 Distribution Networks and other charging infrastructure
The chapters 7.1.2.1.2 to 7.1.2.1.4 provide guidance on how high the energy demand from the
electricity network is and on how the generation technology of the electricity can be assessed.
But between the power plant and the plug of the vehicle there is an electricity network that
demands infrastructure and causes energy losses that need to be accounted for in LCA studies.
A transmission network is used to transport the electricity over longer distances from the pro-
duction sites to the area where it will be distributed to the consumers. Typically, transmission
occurs at very high voltage levels over long distances, while subsequently lower voltage levels
are used the more the electricity advances down the distribution part of the network. Overall,
all the components used to realize the transmission and distribution network (electricity lines,
transformers, switches, etc., differentiating between the specific voltage level in the network
where these are used) should be part of the inventory. Data on electricity transmission and
distribution infrastructure is typically also available from LCI data providers. It should further
be considered that all these components have losses which accumulate along the line. Hence,
losses from production site to plug have to be accounted for when quantifying how much
electricity is ultimately taken from the plants.
The vehicle is charged through an on-board charging device or through an external charging
station. The various solutions differ with respect to the energy they can transfer to the battery
in a certain amount of time, i.e. they are characterized by different power levels. Also, some
charging devices are bidirectional, meaning that energy can be loaded into the battery or
that energy can be taken from the battery and be fed back to the grid. Generally speaking,
the higher the power, the higher the technical complexity of the charging station. Hence, in
addition to the on-board charger, which is often taken into account in the inventory during
the production phase of the vehicle, it is also necessary to include other charging stations that
may be used by the vehicle. These could be, for example, a particular external charging device
used in the garage at home or dedicated, high-speed charging stations in structures similar to
the petrol stations used by ICE vehicles. Since, as mentioned above, these solutions are char-
acterized by a different infrastructure and technological complexity, these differences should
be taken into account in the inventory, especially if the focus of the study lies on the use of a
BEV or includes a comparison of different charging options.
The different charging methods can be divided according to the standard DIN IEC 61851-1
‘Electric vehicle conductive charging system’ [IEC61851-1]21, which defines the four different
categories (corresponding to increasing charging speeds) shown in Table 8.
Installation Maximum appar- Note

ent power [kVA]
One phase 16A 3,7 AC charging  Conventional charging at home (230V).
Three phases 16A 11 AC charging  Conventional charging at home (400V)
For three-phase charging, a three-phase power point is
required. In some cases a special plug has to be used.
Three phases 32A 22 The higher charging power normally requires a special
charging station that allows the high, 32 A current.
Three phases 63A 43,7 The higher charging power requires a special charging
station that allows the high, 63 A current. Charging can
be AC or DC. DC charging stations are more complex and
require more components than AC charging stations.
Table 8: Different categories for charging installations (Source: G4V, www.g4v.eu)
In the context of electricity networks, a key evolution is the one of smart grids, which is also be-
ing considered by the European Union (European Commission, 2006). The idea is to further de-
velop the electricity grid and to integrate it with information and communication technologies
(ICT) in order to enhance its flexibility and efficiency. An important aspect of this vision is to al-
low for a greater share of RES to be connected to the grid, since the current infrastructure is not
designed for the locally discontinuous and unpredictable supply from some of these sources.
While the ultimate vision of smart grids will require the electricity grid infrastructure to be
revolutionized on the large scale, some first applications that are relevant to the field of elec-
tric vehicles are already being implemented. One of these is the idea of smart charging men-
tioned in the previous section that, in its simplest form, just consists of charging the vehicles at
periods of low electricity tariff. More advanced smart charging demands two way communica-
tion between the vehicle and the grid in order to verify whether the conditions for charging
are satisfied. Communication can be achieved via the power line or via mobile data transmis-
sion. Studies investigating smart charging strategies need to include the additional devices
required for this service in the inventory.
A more complex concept which is being envisaged is that of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applica-
tions, meaning the active use of the energy storage capacity of electric vehicles for the man-
agement of the grid. For example, BEVs connected to the grid could be used to absorb peaks
of production from wind-farms during low demand phases, or as an energy supplier (within
21 Detailed information is available in the EV parameter manual of the EU Project G4V: D1.3; www.g4v.eu.
certain defined conditions) during moments of peak demand from the grid. Here, too, LCAs
addressing V2G or other smart grid applications need to include in the inventory the addition-
al devices required for implementing these schemes, such as bidirectional charging points, ICT
channels, and metering systems on the vehicle that quantify the exchanged energy, as well
as other hardware that might be required in the network. In this context, it is obviously also
important to consider the effect of V2G on the battery lifetime.
As with electricity mixes, the inventory of the network infrastructure can strongly depend on
the decision context of the study and particularly on whether a mass penetration of electric
vehicles is considered within situation B.
In situation A, and assuming the penetration of vehicles is such that no big changes in the
network are required for their management, the inventory should include the infrastructure
that is typically required for operation of the network (e.g. transmission lines, transformers,
etc.). All the charging devices used by the vehicle should be part of the inventory, differentiat-
ing between the different types. If the study addresses particular services like smart charging
or V2G within a smart grid concept, then all the devices required for implementing those ser-
vices should be taken into account.
Conceptually, exactly the same recommendations hold also for situation B and the perspec-
tive of a mass distribution of electric vehicles, except, of course, for the scale on which these
apply. In addition to the points listed for situation A, one needs also to include the changes in
the network that might derive from its interaction with a large number of electric vehicles. In
this case, additional hardware may be required for the network to cope on a large scale with
the varying loads brought by the connected vehicles and by the additional demand caused by
high power charging stations.
Please take note, that the determination of the electricity source or mix for the use phase has
the highest influence on the final LCA result of EV. This is the result of an extensive analysis
of the most important LCA influence parameters that has been conducted within the eLCAr
project. The extensive results are presented in deliverable D3.2 - Methodological and legal
implications of revised guidelines.22 Therefore, the provided eLCAr guidance for the determi-
nation of the electricity source or mix should be followed by the practitioners. In special cases,
e.g. LCA of EV in combination with smart grid applications providing V2G services having also
a high impact on the used electricity source or mix and therefore on the final LCA results, more
complex approaches such as Lund (2010) or appropriate electricity generation models have
to be used to factor the variation of the EV load curve in. However, a detailed guidance for the
modeling of the electricity generation requires a detailed knowledge within the field of elec-
trical power engineering that is not the scope of the eLCAr guidelines and cannot be provided
briefly. For further information, please use the references given and respective literature.
22 The deliverable is available on the eLCAr-website: http://www.elcar-project.eu/uploads/media/D3.2_Guideline_

Implications.pdf
Provisions 7.1.2.1.2 and 7.1.3.1.3: Recommendations on electricity mixes and dis-

tribution networks
For situation A:
I. SHALL: Use an electricity generation technology or consumption mix for as-
sessing battery charging in the use phase which is consistent (geographically,
technologically and temporally) with the goal and scope of the study. Examples:
when available, use
The national average consumption mix for a study on the use of an electric
vehicle in a specific country, with no special constraints on charging loca-
tion and time.
The average consumption mix available at night in city or region X for a
study focusing on a vehicle only being charged during night time hours.
Electricity produced by a small scale photovoltaic system for a study address-
ing the use of an electric vehicle charged by home photovoltaic panels.
If this data is not available, use the most representative alternative available, and
document accordingly.
II. SHOULD: For enhancing the comparability of studies within the European Union
(and if appropriate within the goal and scope of the study), also include the Euro-
pean mix (EU-27) for the battery charging process (consumption mix, < 1kV/230 V).
III. SHALL: Include the infrastructure required to produce the desired electricity mix
as well as the transmission and distribution network needed for delivering it to
the user or charging stations.
IV. SHALL: Quantify and take into account the electricity losses occurring between
the production sites and the plug of the charging system.
V. SHALL: Include, next to the typically available on-board charger, additional
charging infrastructure (e.g. high power charging stations) if this is used within
the analysed scenario.
VI. SHALL: When considering particular services or schemes, like smart charging, ve-
hicle-to-grid, or smart grid applications, all additional devices required for their
implementation shall be inventoried.
For situation B
VII. SHALL: Use the same provisions given for situation A with the following excep-
tions for when a mass penetration of electric vehicles may cause large changes
in the electricity production infrastructure and in the transmission and distribu-
tion network:
Use the specific long-term marginal electricity generation technology or
mix (country, technology and time specific) for the charging process (see
five-step procedure described in 7.1.2.1.2 for how to find this technology
or mix).
Include in the inventory the changes that may occur in the network due to
the high penetration of electric vehicles.
XVII. SHOULD: If it is different (and if appropriate within the goal and scope of the
study), the long-term marginal technology electricity mix from EU-27 should
also be included for the vehicle charging process.
The following examples support the decision finding process for the electricity mix.
Situation A:
Case A1)
Scope of the study: A small number of EVs are to be produced and integrated into the
German market (< 10 000 vehicles within the next 2 years). The charging process will
not be coordinated. The vehicles will be charging at home, at 240 V.
Determination of the electricity mix: The average German consumer electricity mix
for 2012-2022 (or similar) at the low voltage level (<1kV), including the necessary grid
infrastructure, should be chosen because the impact on the system is negligible For
comparison, the average UCTE consumer electricity mix is also considered within a
scenario.
Case A2)
Scope of the study: A small number of EVs are to be produced and integrated into
the German market (< 10 000 vehicles within the next 2 years). The concept for the EV
integration is to combine the purchase of the EV with the purchase of a photovoltaic
installation for the vehicle owner's home (only applying for homeowners). The vehicles
will be charged at home at 240 V. The photovoltaic installations are to provide 80 % of
the energy for EV charging; 20 % of the energy will be provided by the electricity grid.
Determination of the electricity mix: For 20 % of the energy, the average German
consumer electricity mix at the low voltage level (<1kV) for 2012-2020, including the
necessary grid infrastructure, should be chosen. For comparison, the average UCTE
consumer electricity mix is also considered within a scenario.
The photovoltaic system will directly provide 80 % of the charging energy. As for other
electricity sources, the photovoltaic systems need to be inventoried accordingly.
Situation B:
Case B) (based on Weidema, 1999)
Scope of the study: A considerable number of EVs are to be produced and integrated
into the German market by 2030 (20 % of the vehicle population). The charging proc-
ess is not coordinated. The vehicles are mainly charging at 240 V.
Determination of the electricity mix: The marginal German consumer electricity mix
in 2030 at the low voltage level (<1kV), including the necessary grid infrastructure,
should be chosen because, being a situation B study with mass penetration of electric
vehicles, large changes to the electricity mix can be expected. For comparison, the
marginal UCTE consumer electricity mix is also considered within a scenario.
For the determination of the marginal technology, the 5-step procedure could be
used.
Step a: Time horizon: Due to the large number of vehicles and the uncoordinated charg-
ing processes, a considerable increase in the absolute installed electricity generation
capacities is expected by 2030. A long-term perspective is chosen.
Step b: Specific processes or market: The electricity in this scenario is provided by the
German electricity market.
Step c: Trend in market volume: The electricity market is increasing in national markets
as well in the EU market; therefore, the marginal technology is the most preferred tech-
nology that is unconstrained and has the lowest, long-term production costs.
Step d: Constraints on capacity increase for the involved technologies: The involved
technologies for large scale electricity production are nuclear, hydro, coal, oil, natural
gas, bio mass, waste, photovoltaics, and wind power. In Germany, nuclear power plants
will not be built (political constraints) and the capacity for hydro power is limited (natu-
ral constraints).Overall, fossil fuels (gas, coal, lignite) are not generally constrained, but
the investments are very uncertain for the electricity producers due to the high sub-
sidies for renewable energy sources, which lead to reduced electricity prices on the
market. Nevertheless, gas power plants are being installed due to their relatively low
price. Bio mass and waste as energy sources could expand, but are limited by the avail-
ability of land or waste. Wind power is still expanding and new areas (off-shore wind
parks) are being explored. Photovoltaic installations are also expanding at a constant
rate. However, the potential for photovoltaic installations is restricted due to available
installation areas. Thus, the unconstrained marginal technologies in 2030 are probably
gas and wind power plants. Photovoltaic installations could also be a marginal tech-
nology in 2030, depending on the decline in cost.
Step e: Preferences based on potential production costs: To determine the marginal
technology, the electricity production costs for possible technologies have to be ana-
lysed, e.g. using available data that takes the uncertainties into account. In Weidema
(1999) different technology production costs in the EU are presented. Depending on
the cost for off-shore wind power plants, the marginal technology would be gas power
plants. The determination of this cost is highly speculative and cannot be predicted
due to the high impact of political constraints and electricity market trends. (The de-
tailed analysis is presented in Weidema (1999).)
Based on this approach, the marginal technology could be assessed with different sce-
narios using gas power plants, wind energy, possibly a small share of photovoltaic sys-
tems and/or a scenario using a mix of these technologies.
7.1.2.1.4 Maintenance
During the use phase of a vehicle, materials or components might be damaged and require
replacement or maintenance. The materials or components exchanged due to maintenance
should be part of the LCA and an estimate of materials and components needed for the main-
tenance process should be made. Particularly, this shall not be neglected in the context of
the battery, which, as a component, can have a substantial influence on the final result of the
study. The expected lifetime of the battery (both, in terms of calendar years and km) shall be
compared with the one of the vehicle to see whether more than one battery is required over
the lifetime of the vehicle.
7.1.2.1.5 Road infrastructure
Road infrastructure requires building, maintenance and disposal, which, in turn, require re-
sources like vehicles, machinery, and materials like gravel and minerals. These resources should
be estimated and included in the analysis.
7.1.2.1.6 Non-exhaust emissions
During the use of a vehicle, various forms of non-exhaust emissions typically occur that can
have impacts on human health and the ecosystem. These are related to particles released from
the brake system (due to friction between the brake shoes, discs and discs pads), and the tyres
and asphalt (due to friction between the tyres and the road). Emissions typically contain vari-
ous heavy metals and the impacts depend on the specific materials used; this, too, should be
included in the LCA.
Below, the provisions summarizing the overall aspects of the use phase are given.
Provisions 7.1.2.1: Processes within the system boundary and data collection:
the use phase
I. SHALL: Identify all the main processes involved in the use phase of a vehicle.
These include, among other things:
The energy consumption due to vehicle use
The electricity network for delivering the electricity with which the battery
is charged
The specific electricity mix (and the corresponding infrastructure) used for
the charging of the battery
The road infrastructure
Non-exhaust emissions
The maintenance of the vehicle (e.g. substitution of the battery in case its
life expectancy is shorter than the vehicle's).

The same recommendations given in chapter 7.1.1.3. also hold for the use phase.

The same recommendations given in chapter 7.1.1.4. also hold for the use phase.
7.1.3 End-of-Life Phase
7.1.3.1 Identifying processes within the system boundary of the end-of-life phase
As in the production phase, all the relevant processes involved in the end-of-life phase of a ve-
hicle have to be identified. These processes differ from the production phase as the end-of-life
treatment is not a reverse of production and assembly. When the vehicle has reached its end-
of-life, European Union regulations require that a specific percentage of the weight is recycled.
Thus, in the end-of-life phase, the disassembly of the vehicle, the required treatment steps,
recycling processes, and waste disposal shall be considered. The recycling processes involve
reconditioning, material recycling, and energy recovery. The resulting products are reusable
parts, recycled materials, or recovered energy and can be summarised as so-called secondary
goods. In Figure 15, the main processes of the end-of-life phase are described.
e-Car Raw materials, energy carriers,

Emissions, waste
Car (EoL) auxiliaries, transport services
Pretreatment / III Residual Shredder and

dismounting car body separating
I II.a II.b
Heavy fraction Light fraction
Non-metal fraction
Hazardous liquids Parts and compo- Components (residual plastic,
and components nents for recycling for reuse fibres, etc.)
Fluids, airbag, battery, etc. Tyres, glass, plastic parts, etc. Spare parts Separating
processes Non-metal Waste
Battery E-Motor residue
Ferrous/ Non-ferrous
Processing
Further treatment, disassembly, sorting, etc. Waste
steel scrap metal scrap
ferrous metals non-ferrous metals Waste
(Al, Cu, Mg, etc.) Recyclables treatment
Parts / components Material fractions

Special parts Ferrous/ Non-ferrous
Spare parts Plastic scrap, glass, etc.
steel scrap metal scrap ...
for recycling
Recycling Reconditioning Material recycling Energy recovery

processes
Secondary Part/component, Material, Energy,

good reused recycled recovered
Figure 15: Main processes of the end-of-life phase
In the European Union, a mandatory process for an end-of-life vehicle is the removal of all flu-
ids and hazardous components (Figure 15, I). These substances and parts require special treat-
ment (e.g. discharging of airbags) and a particular recycling or disposal process. Depending on
further regional requirements and demands, additional parts or components for reuse or re-
cycling are dismounted (Figure 15, II.a and II.b). Some components could serve as spare parts,
others need selective collection for easier recycling (e.g. tyres, plastic parts). Product specific
recycling processes exist or are in development for some components or parts (e.g. batteries,
electric motors) in order to recapture scarce or valuable materials. The residual car body (Fig-
ure 15, III), which includes all components that do not require special treatment (e.g. wheels,
SBSS), is shredded. The shredded material is separated using additional sorting processes in
order to extract different material fractions, particularly the ferrous and non-ferrous metal frac-
tions. Only non-recyclable remains are treated as waste. Subsequently, each material fraction,
as well as special parts or components, are recycled in order to create secondary goods.
Component specific recycling processes and the shredding process are described further in
chapters 7.1.3.4 to 7.1.3.8. In case the recycling processes are not all completed at the same
facility, transportation has to be included as well. On-site transport must always be included.
The provisions for solving multifunctionality are presented in chapters 6.3.2 and 7.3.
Provisions 7.1.3.1: Identifying processes within the system boundary of the end-
of-life phase
I. SHALL: Identify all the main processes involved in the end-of-life phase of a vehi-
cle. Assign all components to the different treatment and recycling steps. Particu-
larly, a first analysis shall verify how the following processes are connected in the
end-of-life phase:
Disassembly of vehicle
Recycling of battery
Recycling of electric motor
Recycling of power electronics
Recycling of wheels and tyres
Shredding of residual car body
Raw material demand
Energy carrier demand
Auxiliaries demand
Use of transport services
Waste flows
Emissions
Variations from the above list shall be documented.
II. SHALL: For components belonging to the foreground system, identify all sub-
components and sub-processes that require specific recycling.
Battery: Recycling of the case material, battery management system, bat-
tery cells, critical materials (e.g. lithium).
Electric motor: Depending on type of motor (permanent magnet, induc-

tion, etc.), recycling of metals, recycling or reuse of magnets, recycling of
scarce materials (e.g. rare earth metals).
Electronics: e.g. power electronics, non-propulsion electrical systems: re-
cycling of cables, electronics, valuable materials.
Wheels and tyres: Recycling of the wheels, recycling of the tyres.
Shredding of residual car body: Shredding, separation, and treatment of
the heavy and light fractions, respectively recovered material fractions and
their intended material recycling processes.
III. SHOULD: Document the analysed system with a schematic diagram of the found
processes.

The same recommendations given in chapter 7.1.1.3. also hold for the end-of-life phase.

The same recommendations given in chapter 7.1.1.4 also hold for the end-of-life phase.
7.1.3.4 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of batteries

Traction batteries need special treatment at their end-of-life. They have to be handled with
care due to the ease of ignition. Furthermore, they cannot be recycled in one piece efficiently
in existing recycling processes appropriate for smaller Li-ion batteries from devices like cell
phones or laptops.
Final discharge and disassembly

The first step is the discharge of the dismounted battery. Subsequently, the battery is disassem-
bled to its individual components as shown in Figure 16. Generally, cordless electric screwdriv-
ers or screwdrivers using compressed air are used for this task. For safety reasons, an air extrac-
tion of the disassembly process might be necessary due to possibly broken cells. The resulting
components, other than the battery cells, go to established recycling processes. The case, frame
and cables of the battery and its modules can go directly to the corresponding material recov-
ery processes. The battery management system enters the electronics recycling path.
Cell recycling
For the further treatment of the closed battery cells different recycling paths are possible and
can be distinguished as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes. They differ in their
needs for further disassembly of the cells, for energy and input materials, as well as in their re-
covery rates of the diverse materials contained in the anode, the cathode, and the separator. An
adaptation of these technologies to the specific needs of battery recycling is currently in a state
of development and the first recycling plants are employing them on a small scale. Currently,
a first recycling plant is enabling metal recovery (Ni, Co, Cu) from used Li-ion, Li-polymer and
NiMH batteries by a pyrometallurgical process. Additionally, a first pilot plant for the recycling
of lithium from Li-ion batteries was established in 2011. It uses a hydrometallurgical process to
recover Li as well as Ni, Mn, and Co from cathode coatings. Other processes are in development
to recover LiMn-oxide, which can be reused in batteries. So far, these processes are lab or pilot
scale projects due to the present low availability of EoL car batteries.
Traction battery, dismantled
Final discharge,
disassembly, sorting
Case, frame, cables Battery cells Battery Management

System (BMS)
Pyrometallurgical Hydrometallurgical
Material recycling process process Electronics recycling
Material, recycled Material, recycled Material, recycled Material, recycled

(e.g. steel, plastic, (e.g. compounds of (e.g. compounds of (e.g. copper, nickel,
aluminium, etc. ) Co, Ni and Cu) Li, Co, Ni, Mn) gold, silver, etc.)
Figure 16: Example of options of a traction battery recycling
Provisions 7.1.3.4: Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of batteries
I. SHALL: If recovery of the discharged energy is included in the LCA, all related as-
sumptions should be clearly stated.
II. SHALL: Document assumptions regarding transport distances for the different
components. Real distances should be given in case of battery cells since a ubiq-
uitous network of recycling facilities is still missing in Europe and only single
recycling plants are operating (see above).
III. SHALL: Clearly document the chosen recycling process for every single compo-
nent and its specific recovery rates for the recovered materials or other second-
ary goods. Also specify the achievable quality of the secondary goods.
IV. SHALL: Give a detailed description of further disassembly steps beyond cell level,
if applicable, and include the related energy and material flows in the modelling
of end-of-life processes.
V. SHALL: Crediting for recovery of valuable materials and other secondary goods
has a strong influence on overall results. Therefore, make sure the assumed
amounts of materials contained in the single components coincide with the re-
lated assumptions for the production phase. This applies notably to case and
frame materials (e.g. steel, aluminium) due to the large mass of these compo-
nents, and to cell materials (e.g. Cu, Ni, Co) due to the high environmental im-
pact of their supply chains.
VI. SHALL When you apply system expansion, make sure you choose an appropriate
data set for the substituted primary product, giving special regard to product
quality. If the original material quality (of the primary material used during pro-
duction phase) is realised through the recycling process, use the same LCI data
set as for modelling the production phase.
VII. SHALL: Give special attention to the consistent application of allocation factors
in production data sets used for primary production and calculation of credits
in the end-of-life phase. This is particularly important in case of a paragenesis of
metals (e.g. Co, Ni). Allocation procedures and, consequently, factors may differ
extremely among databases.
7.1.3.5 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electric motors

Different types of electric motors can be used in electric vehicles. Electric motors with per-
manent magnets are of particular interest because they achieve higher power density than
non-permanent motors. However, they contain rare earth metals (dysprosium, neodymium,
etc.) that have special recycling needs. Therefore, they play an important role in the LCI. As an
example, the different recycling options (reuse, material recycling) for an electric motor with
permanent magnets are described in Figure 17. Typically the decisions depend on the condi-
tion of the magnet.
As mentioned in chapters 6.3.2 and 7.3, when using system expansion and substitution differ-
ent aspects have to be considered when defining the amount and type of market mix that can
be substituted. E.g. in case of reuse (Figure 17, Case 1) the expected lifetime and quality of the
remanufactured electric motor has to be considered as it can be shorter than the first life cycle.
Another case is the recycling of the magnetic material (Figure 17, Case 2a) in order to be used
in a new magnet. In this case the magnet is removed from the engine, pulverized and can be
mixed and/or reformed into a new magnet. Depending on the quality of the new magnet, a
value correction might be necessary. The different elements in permanent magnets (Figure 17,
Case 2b) can also be separated and used in new applications.
The same can also be applied to the other components.

E-Motor,
dismantled
Case 1 Case 2
Case 2
Disassembly, sorting, etc.
E-Motor Magnet Other parts

Case 2a Case 2b
Reconditioning Pre-treatment, Special treatment Material recycling

powdering, and special
post-treatment material recycling
E-Motor, Magnet Rare earth Other Other

reused material, metals, metals, secondary
recycled recycled recycled goods
Figure 17: Example of a decision tree for EoL options of an electric motor with a permanent magnet
Provisions 7.1.3.5: Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electric motors

I. SHALL: If the electric motor is not shredded along with the residual car body, the
remanufacturing or recycling processes of the electric motor must be included.
II. SHALL: Make sure the assumed amounts of materials contained in the single
components coincide with the related assumptions for the production phase.
This applies notably to case and frame materials (e.g. steel, aluminium) due to
the large mass of these components and to some magnetic materials (e.g. Dy,
Nd) due to the high environmental impact of their supply chains.
7.1.3.6 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electronics

Electronics like circuit boards are used, e.g. in the battery management system, the non-
propulsion electrical system, and in the power electronics. These components can contain
valuable materials with high environmental impacts from their primary production like gold,
copper, and silver. Whether some of these components are removed and shredded in a spe-
cial shredder or treated entirely differently should be checked. If this is the case, the recycling
should be modelled separately.
Provisions 7.1.3.6: Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of electronics
I. SHALL: If electronic components are removed from the vehicle before the re-
sidual car body is shredded, their recycling must be modelled separately.
II. SHALL: Make sure the assumed amounts of materials contained in the single
components coincide with the related assumptions for the production phase.
This applies notably to the metals (e.g. gold, copper, silver).
7.1.3.7 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of tyres and wheels

The tyres are easy to remove and consist of one large piece of rubber. Therefore, it must be ver-
ified if the tyres are removed before the residual car body is shredded. In general the wheels
are shredded along with the car body.
Provision 7.1.3.7: Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of tyres and wheels
I. SHALL: If the tyres are removed from the vehicle before the residual car body is
shredded, their recycling must be modelled separately.
7.1.3.8 Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of residual car body

After removing hazardous substances as well as valuable or single-material components, the
remaining residual car body is shredded. The shredder basically mills the objects with ham-
mers until they have a defined size. Then, a separation process divides the crushed material
into the light fraction and the heavy fraction. The heavy fraction consists of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals as well as other heavy materials. Due to the ferromagnetic properties of iron
and steel, the ferrous metals can be separated from the non-ferrous metals and other materi-
als with a magnetic separator. In further processes the non-ferrous metals (e.g. aluminium,
magnesium, copper) can be divided into the respective material fractions. Subsequently, the
material fractions are then recycled according to their particular recycling needs. The light
fraction mainly consists of plastics and fibres of small size as well as dust particles of different
materials. In order to increase the recycling rate from used vehicles, the existing processes are
being improved or new processes are in development to enable the recycling of the materials
in the light fraction. The remaining part of the fraction is discarded. ICEs from serial PHEVs can
be dismounted from the body and sent to a recycling facility to recover the materials.
Provisions 7.1.3.8: Overview: LCI recommendations for EoL of residual car body
I. SHALL: All processes of the shredding and separation steps necessary to obtain
the secondary goods must be considered and included in the modelling.
II. SHOULD: Particularly for lightweight materials, e.g. carbon-fibre reinforced
polymers, special attention must be paid to the recycling process and the cor-
responding recycling rates. Lightweight materials can often not be recovered
efficiently using a conventional shredding process.
7.2 Filling data gaps and future technologies
As mentioned above, it can happen that some data is not available. In the following, two main
situations are differentiated: data gaps concerning established production processes and data
gaps concerning future technologies or technologies in development.
7.2.1 Filling data gaps of established technologies

In an established production process, for example the production of a lithium-ion battery of
current technology, it may not be possible to obtain primary data from the producer for a spe-
cific sub-process, e.g. the fabrication of one of the electrodes. Below, various options that can
be pursued are presented.
7.2.1.1 Deriving the data through theoretical modelling

One option is to derive the missing data through theoretical modelling based on information
taken from producers, the literature, and experts. Overall, the idea is to get sufficient techni-
cal insight to be able to make assumptions about the missing sub-process, which then allows
developing a technological model describing it. Using this technological model, an inventory
of the required inputs and outputs can be computed. If sufficient information is found through
the literature or experts’ advice, the data derived through such models can achieve a high level
of quality. Here, two approaches can be helpful:
7.2.1.1.1 Bottom-up modelling
In bottom-up modelling, the starting point is technological knowledge about the production
steps at the heart of the process under analysis: the material input flows, the types of ma-
chines that can be used to process the specific materials into the wanted forms or more com-
plex compounds, chemical reactions that may be needed, etc. Using physical and/or chemical
knowledge about these processes, estimates can be derived for energy requirements, and for
amounts of emissions, wastes, and scrap. The estimates derived for the initial steps in the pro-
cess chain are then used as inputs for the later steps. Thus, using theoretical models based on
the physical and chemical characteristics of the involved manufacturing stages, integrated
with information from the literature and experts, the system can be modelled from the bottom
(initial steps of the production chain) up to the final completion of the analysed process, deriv-
ing the required material and energy resources as well as corresponding outputs.
7.2.1.1.2 Top-down modelling
Top-down modelling takes the opposite approach as the one presented above. Starting from
known macro parameters describing the overall system one tries to use this information to-
gether with technological knowledge of the system under analysis to gradually unravel the
macro information into data describing the sub-processes of the production system.
A common example is the information one can get from the sustainability reports of compa-
nies. These reports sometimes give detailed information such as total energy demand (from
various sources) of the factories, etc., that can be attributed to the products of the factory or
company. This can be relatively straight forward if the company or factory only produces the
component one is interested in. If, however, the company produces a wide palette of differ-
ent products, allocation has to be done. Allocation in these cases is often based on the retail
price of the component of interest and the total output of these companies. Of course, this
estimate can be completely wrong since market prices are influenced by many factors other
than energy and resource consumption, and, therefore, the cost structure of various products
from the same company can strongly differ. Consequently great care has to be taken if such an
approach is used to generate LCI data on materials or resources required for a product.
In practice, a combination of bottom-up modelling and top-down approaches can be used,

depending on the available information on the process for which the data is required.
7.2.1.2 Using datasets from similar processes

Another option is to identify data sets or parts of data sets coming from similar processes
compared to the one for which data is missing and to use this data as a substitution. Typical
situations in this context are:
The use of a data set derived for another specific product with similar characteristics (e.g.
the use of a specific data set of a particular glass type for a windscreen to describe the
production of a glass used for another purpose)
The use of a data set describing the average production of a type of product (e.g. the use
of a data set describing the average production of glass for modelling the production of
a specific glass type in a windscreen)
Sources for these data sets typically are LCI databases.
When using this solution, an important issue is to choose the data sets on the basis of conserv-
ative or reasonable worst-case assumptions in order to avoid underestimating the relevance
of the investigated process. If the subsequent stages of the LCI reveal that the influence of the
approximated process under the worst case assumption is minor, then the approximation is
acceptable. On the other hand, if the worst case assumption reveals that the approximated
process has a major influence on the overall result, then another solution, one involving a
higher quality source for the missing data, needs to be implemented (for example, by identify-
ing means and resources for obtaining primary data from the producer or operator).
Which of the above solutions (theoretical modelling vs. use of data sets from similar processes)
is best suited depends on the specific case and the availability of information and data sets. A
key point in order to guarantee sufficient comparability with other studies is to precisely docu-
ment the reasons and main details of the final data selection.
Finally, there might be situations in which it is not possible to produce a satisfactory theoreti-
cal model or to find alternative data sets for filling data gaps. Through the use of worst-case
assumptions, it is then necessary to decide whether the remaining data gap is acceptable or
whether the insufficient data ultimately prevents the practitioner from reaching the required
level of precision for answering the questions within the goal of the study.
7.2.2 Modelling future technologies

Future technologies are a special case of processes in which the LCI requires a substantial de-
gree of modelling. The derivation of LCI data for these types of processes is made particularly
difficult by two fundamental aspects:
1) Being technologies that are in development or, depending on the type of study, whose re-
alisation might still be under scientific investigation, there may be very little data, apart from
patents and/or scientific publications, available to the practitioner.
2) Even if measurements or data from first prototypes are available, the question arises as to how
results obtained with this data can be compared to the results of current and established large
scale technologies, since the production efforts, infrastructure, and material flows of a prototype
or pilot plant are very different from the ones of an established large scale production line. The
direct comparison of results from such different production scales would certainly lead to dis-
torted conclusions. Hence, not only do future technologies require substantial modelling in terms
of deriving the required data for the processes under analysis, but further processing might also
be needed if this data is to be used for comparisons with current and established technologies.
Focusing on the first issue, as mentioned above, the key problem is the lack of information. A
top-down approach as described in 7.2.1.1.2 cannot be applied since the product is still in de-
velopment and data is needed for future processes. Thus, for this class of problems, a bottom-
up approach is the only feasible solution if specific data is needed. If data quality requirements
are low, one can also use approximations, e.g. according to chapter 7.2.1.2.
With respect to the second challenge of future technologies, the main problem lies in the fact
that established technologies are characterised by production processes that typically have
undergone several stages of optimization through learning processes and the effects of econ-
omy of scale and mass production. Consequently, if the aim of the study is to estimate which
impacts might be caused by a future technology compared to an established one, modelling
the production process for a future technology has to include learning and scaling effects
in an appropriate manner. This could be done by applying appropriate scaling relationships,
in order to transform a data set describing a prototype production into one which includes
potential effects of learning curves and economy of scale. The description of these modelling
techniques is outside the scope of this document and it is left to the practitioner to choose the
most appropriate ones for the specific situations that have to be addressed.
Provisions 7.2: Filling data gaps and future technologies:

I. MAY: Develop theoretical models based on the literature and/or experts’ advice
for deriving missing LCI data.
II. SHALL: Precisely document the developed theoretical models by explaining and
detailing the sources, assumptions, experts’ advice, etc.
III. MAY20: Fill missing data through alternative data sets if data quality requirements
are low and if these effectively increase the overall quality of the final inventory.
IV. MAY20: Proceed with the analysis despite remaining data gaps if worst-case as-
sumptions have shown these gaps to be acceptable.
V. SHALL20: Explicitly document remaining data gaps.
VI. SHALL: Precisely document the developed theoretical models for future technol-
ogies by explaining and detailing the sources, assumptions, experts’ advice, etc.
VII. SHALL: Avoid the comparison of future and established technologies without
ascertaining that the corresponding data is sufficiently consistent in terms of
learning curve effects and effects due to economy of scale.
23
7.3 Solving multifunctionality
Once all the data has been collected, it is necessary to identify and solve possible cases of
multifunctionality. The main concepts regarding multifunctionality are described in chapter
6.3.2 ‘Multifunctionality’. Hence, for each case of multifunctionality, the practitioner needs to
identify which step of the hierarchy has to be used.
As already mentioned in chapter 6.3.2, for electric vehicles and their components, a common
and key case of multifunctionality is recycling, reuse, and energy recovery. Since subdivision
or virtual subdivision is not feasible in these cases of multifunctionality, the recyclability sub-
stitution approach (see ILCD Handbook, chapter 14.5.3) has to be applied for both situations
A and B.
Recyclability substitution approach

The recyclability substitution approach is in accordance with system expansion and substitu-
tion and it is applied to end-of-life products as well as to waste, e.g. metal scrap in the pro-
duction phase. The approach is used in order to assess the potential benefit of an end-of-life
product or waste that leaves the product system. It is necessary to expand the system bound-
ary and to include the recycling process as well as the substituted process. The substituted
process depends on the properties of the secondary good and the market demand.
23 Based on chapters 7.4.2.11.2 ‘Obtaining better unit process data’, 7.4.2.11.3 ‘Dealing with remaining
unit process data gaps/missing data’ and 7.4.2.11.4 ‘Documentation’ from ILCD (2010)
In the case of sufficient demand, the secondary good can be used in a subsequent product
system and can replace the corresponding primary production. The system boundary of the
analysed product system is expanded and the recycling process and the substituted primary
production process are included. Thereby, the inventory of the substituted primary produc-
tion is credited according to the rate at which the end-of-life product or waste is recyclable.
This rate accounts for all material losses that occur until the secondary good is produced. In
case of a change of the inherent technological properties of the secondary good (e.g. down-
cycling or reduced life time), the conditions for the substitution shall be investigated and a
value correction included, if necessary. Additionally, the time and place where the secondary
good is produced must be considered.
In case there is no demand for the secondary good, and it would normally not be used but
disposed of, no credit is given, but waste depositing is modelled. In case the amount of sec-
ondary good generated by recycling is smaller than the amount that is used in the product’s
production a credit for avoided waste depositing is given (see ILCD, chapter 14.5.2, Figure 34,
third and fourth graphic). For more information on the superseded process, please go to ILCD
Handbook chapter 14.5.3.4.
A typical example of multifunctionality in an LCA of an electric vehicle or one of its compo-

nents is the recycling of metal scrap regardless of whether it occurs during the production or
the end-of-life phase. The metal (e.g. steel or aluminium) is used, for example, to produce the
car body. Such metals are modelled as a mix of primary and secondary metal. The production
route of the primary metal is based on the extraction and processing of metal ore (e.g. iron ore
or bauxite) while the secondary metal is generated from the recycling of scrap.
During the manufacturing of the car body, metal scrap can arise from machining and is collect-
ed for recycling. In the end-of-life phase, the car body is shredded and separated into material
fractions and the resulting metal scrap is also collected for recycling. A common recycling
process for metal scrap is smelting. The inventory for this recycling process has to be included
as well as all previous treatment steps, collection, and transport. Due to the initial input of the
metal mix, and in order to avoid double counting of recycling, the scrap flow is first divided
into an internal flow and the net flow of the scrap. The internal flow refers to the initial scrap
demand for production of the secondary metal input and can be represented as a closed-loop.
The recycling of the net amount of scrap is considered separately, but within the same system
boundary. The produced secondary metal can substitute for primary metal on the market.
The net amount of secondary metal that is produced and, accordingly, the avoided primary
production, depends on the recycling rate and a correction for certain quality requirements
as necessary.
In summary, the inventory of the recycling process is added and the inventory of avoided
primary production is subtracted. The difference is in accordance to the benefit of the net
amount of scrap and is credited to the entire analysed product system (Figure 18). It is possible
to consider separate recycling processes for the production scrap and the end-of-life scrap.
Thus, the appropriate credits for the corresponding net amounts of new and old scrap can be
distinguished. Additionally, this concept allows addressing, e.g. recycling technology changes
or the distinct accounting of today’s and future emissions.
Metal ore
V
Prim. metal
Sec. metal
Metal-mix
P Product
U Product
EoL W
R
Scrap Scrap
Internal scrap demand Generated
Scrap
(closed loop) scrap
Net amount
of scrap
R Net amount R
of sec. metal
Sec. metal + + Sec. metal
Prim. metal - - Prim. metal
V V
Metal ore Metal ore
Figure 18: System expansion and substitution using the example of scrap metal.
(V=primary (virgin) metal production process, R = recycling process, P = production phase,
U = use phase, EoL = end-of-life treatment, W = waste disposal)
Provisions 7.3: Solving multifunctionality

I. SHALL: Use subdivision as the first choice for solving multifunctionality problems.
II. SHALL: Use system expansion and substitution if subdivision is not possible.
III. SHALL: To solve cases of multifunctionality in recycling, reuse or energy recovery,
the recyclability substitution approach shall be used for situations A and B (Annex
14.5 of the general ILCD Handbook). The following issues shall be addressed:
All processes necessary to produce the secondary good must be consid-
ered in the inventory.
The recycling rate for all materials shall be considered in order to account
for all losses.
Inherent changes of technological properties must be considered and, if
necessary, accounted for via value correction.
The time and place of creation of the secondary good, as well as the market
demand, must be considered when selecting the superseded process.
IV. SHALL: Use allocation if neither subdivision nor system expansion can be applied
or if allocation is required according to goal and scope of the study. Provisions
7.9.3 and Annex 14.4 of the general ILCD Handbook shall be used in this case.
7.4 Modelling the entire system
When all cases of multifunctionality have been solved and all inputs and outputs for every
component and sub-component in the production chain can be unambiguously associated
within the corresponding data sets, the overall system can be linked together.
Typically, the data for the foreground system has been gathered in the form of unit process
data sets, each describing a sub-process of the production chain and cleaned of possible mul-
tifunctionality problems. Data for the background system usually is taken from a database
where it is either stored as unit process data or as LCI results, but in any case related to a certain
reference flow. The key point at this stage is to correctly scale the various LCI data sets so their
various inputs and outputs consistently match and, ultimately, return the desired reference
flow of the life cycle that is under analysis.
If parameterised data sets are used (i.e. data sets in which part or all of the exchange values
scale through some characteristic parameter of the output product or service) then these pa-
rameters must, too, be set so as to be consistent with the rest of the chain.
Finally, while linking all the processes together, it is of fundamental importance to verify that
no double counting has occurred in the modelling of the system, meaning that the same (or
part of a) resource, emission, piece of manufacturing equipment, waste flow, etc., has not been
included in more than one of the data sets. Often, this can occur when a process is subdivided
into several sub-processes. The modelling stage is a convenient moment for verifying that
such an error has not occurred.
Provisions 7.4: Modelling the entire system

I. SHALL: Scale the separated inventories correctly to each other and so they return
the desired reference flow of the overall system when they are linked together
(ILCD, 2010).
II. SHALL: Set parameter values to the required values in all used parameterised
process data sets (if present) (ILCD, 2010).
III. SHALL: Verify that no double counting has occurred with any of the system en-
tries (e.g. input materials, manufacturing/ processing equipment, emissions,
waste flows).
7.5 Calculating LCI results
After all the inventories have been correctly linked, the overall LCI results can be evaluated,
meaning that the elementary flows exchanged with the ecosphere at the system boundary can
be quantified by aggregating all the contributions in the system. Further, the share of elemen-
tary flows caused by each specific process within the chain can be identified, thus aggregating
contributions not only over the entire system, but also over particular modules, sub-processes
or life cycles. This is essential for the understanding of the system and the identification of the
main causes of environmental impacts. Hence, be it through an extended system of linked
data sets or through the use of LCA software, the calculation of the LCI results shall reflect the
modular approach described previously in this handbook. If the system has been modelled
completely, the resulting aggregated inventory exclusively contains elementary flows in addi-
tion to the product system defined by the functional unit. One exception is radioactive waste,
which can stay in the inventory since no agreed LCI modelling framework for its long-term
management is available yet (ILCD, 2010).
Finally, in comparative LCA studies of electric vehicles, it may occur that the environmental
impacts of the electric vehicle are compared to the ones of other technologies. Considering
that the internal combustion engine car is the dominant vehicle technology today, it can be
expected that one of the most frequent comparisons will be between electric vehicles and
some form of ICE vehicle (e.g. diesel, petrol, gas). While it is out of the scope of this hand-
book to give guidance on the modelling of these technologies, it is expected that the same
principles presented here for electric vehicles (e.g. transparency, modularity, system boundary
definition, multifunctionality issues) will be used for other types of vehicles and these shall be
used consistently with the methods used for the electric vehicle.
Provisions 7.5: Calculating LCI results

I. SHALL: Compute the LCI results by aggregating the contributions from all the
processes within the system boundaries. Apart from aggregating across the
entire system, aggregations across key modules, sub-processes, life cycles, etc.,
should also be taken into account for facilitating the identification of critical
points in the system.
II. SHOULD: Radioactive waste can be kept in the inventory for direct use in inter-
pretation since no agreed LCI modelling framework for its long-term manage-
ment is available yet (ILCD, 2010).
III. SHALL: In comparative LCAs with other vehicle technologies, LCI results shall be
derived using the same modelling principles adopted for the electric vehicle.
8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ILCD 2010)
Life Cycle Impact Assessment is the phase in an LCA where the inputs and outputs of elemen-
tary flows that have been collected and reported in the inventory are translated into impact
indicator results related to human health, natural environment, and resource depletion. It is
important to note that LCA and the impact assessment is analysing the potential environmen-
tal impacts that are caused by interventions that cross the border between technosphere and
ecosphere and act on the natural environment and humans, often only after fate and exposure
steps. The results of LCIA should be seen as environmentally relevant impact potential indica-
tors, rather than predictions of actual environmental effects. LCA and LCIA are equally distinct
from risk based, substance specific instruments.
See also the related notes in the guidance document “Framework and requirements for Life
Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators”. Using the LCIA methods as identified
in the scope phase of the LCI/LCA study, now the LCIA results are to be calculated.
Overview
LCIA is composed of mandatory and optional steps:
Based on classification and characterization of the individual elementary flows, which
is usually based on work from LCIA experts that provide complete sets of LCIA methods
for use by LCA practitioners (see separate guidance document “Framework and require-
ments for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators”), the LCIA results
are calculated by multiplying the individual elementary flows of the LCI results with the
characterisation factors.
In a subsequent, optional step, the LCIA results can be multiplied with normalisation fac-
tors that represent the overall inventory of a reference (e.g. a whole country or an average
citizen), obtaining dimensionless, normalised LCIA results.
In a second optional step these normalised LCIA results can be multiplied by a set of
weighting factors, that indicate the different relevance that the different impact cat-
egories (midpoint level related weighting) or areas-of-protection (endpoint level relat-
ed weighting) may have, obtaining normalised and weighted LCIA results that can be
summed up to a single-value overall impact indicator. Note that a weighting set always
involves value choices.
Normalisation and weighting necessary?

The decision of inclusion/exclusion of normalisation and weighting shall have been made and
documented in the initial scope definition. One has to be aware that, as explained in chapter
6.5, the choice of the reference system for normalization can significantly influence the LCIA re-
sults and is often not straight forward. Note that normalisation and weighting may be required
as interim step for defining the quantitative cut-off rules (see chapter 6.6.3 in the general ILCD
Handbook) and for checking the achieved completeness of the inventory (see chapter 9.3.2);
this depends on the chosen approach for implementing the cut-off rules. If used exclusively
for this purpose, the respective normalised and weighted figures are not staying in the data
set or report.
For provisions on normalisation and weighting please check the ILCD Handbook, chapters 8.3
and 8.4. Please also see chapter 8.2 for frequent errors when calculating the LCIA.
Provisions 8: Life Cycle Impact Assessment

I. SHALL: Classification of elementary flows: All elementary flows of the inventory
shall be assigned to those one or more impact categories to which they con-
tribute (“classification”) and that were selected for the impact assessment in the
scope definition of the study.
II. SHALL: Characterisation of elementary flows: To each classified elementary flow
one quantitative characterisation factor shall be assigned for each category to
which the flow relevantly contributes (“characterisation”). That factor expresses
how much that flow contributes to the impact category indicator (at midpoint
level) or category endpoint indicator (at endpoint level). For midpoint level in-
dicators this relative factor typically relates to a reference flow (e.g. it may be ex-
pressed in “kg CO2-equivalents” per kg elementary flow in case of Global Warm-
ing Potential). For endpoint level indicators it typically relates to a specific dam-
age that relates to the broader area of protection. Examples are e.g. species loss
measured e.g. as potentially displaced fraction of species for an affected area and
duration (pdf*m2*a), or damage to Human health measured e.g. in Disability Ad-
justed Life Years (DALYs). (For terms and details refer to the separate document
“Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models
and indicators”).
III. SHALL: Calculate LCIA results per impact category: For each impact category
separately, calculate the LCIA indicator results by multiplying the amount of each
contributing (i.e. classified) elementary flow of the inventory with its characteri-
sation factor. The results may be summed up per impact category, but summing
up shall not be done across impact categories. Note that this is done with either
the midpoint level (impact potential) or the endpoint level (damage) factors, as
had to be decided in scope chapter 6.7.7.
IV. SHALL - Separately calculate LCIA results of long-term emissions: LCIA results of
long-term emissions (i.e. beyond 100 years from the time of the study) shall be
calculated separately from the LCIA results that relate to interventions that occur
within 100 years from the time of study. [ISO!]
Note: Given the different extent of uncertainty, these two sets of results will later
be presented separately while discussed jointly.
V. SHALL: Separately calculate non-generic LCIA results, if included: In the case ad-
ditional or modified, non-generic (e.g. geographically or otherwise differenti-
ated) characterisation factors or LCIA methods are used, the results applying the
original, generic LCIA methods shall be calculated (and later be presented and
discussed)
VI. SHOULD: Keep results of non-LCA impacts separate: For LCIA results of impacts
that are outside the LCA frame but that were considered relevant for the ana-
lysed or compared system(s) and have been included quantitatively, the inven-
tory, impact assessment, etc. Shall be kept separately for clear interpretation.
[ISO+]
9 Life Cycle Interpretation
Life Cycle interpretation consists of three to four activities:

Identification of significant issues
Evaluation of the sensitivity of significant issues
Formulation of conclusions and recommendations
Additional considerations if the study involves comparisons
In the first step, the main contributors to the LCIA results, i.e. the most relevant stages, proc-
esses and elementary flows, are to be identified through a contribution analysis. Then, how
sensitive the results are to changes in assumptions and uncertainties shall be evaluated, es-
pecially for the main contributors. That not every aspect of uncertainty can be quantified and
that the results of an uncertainty analysis do not cover the total uncertainty must be carefully
considered. This step builds the basis for drawing conclusions and formulating recommenda-
tions. For this, identified limitations must also be considered appropriately. In the case of com-
parative studies, one has to be especially careful not to over-interpret insignificant differences
and not to draw general conclusions from specific case studies. In this context, it also has to
be carefully considered that full functional equivalence is often not given, which limits the
conclusions that can be drawn. A typical example is the limitation in range per charge, which
makes BEVs not fully comparable to conventional vehicles.
Since the general procedure for life cycle interpretation is independent of the subject of an
LCA, this phase cannot be enhanced for the area of electric vehicles and their components.
Therefore, the explanations, recommendations and provisions made in chapter 9 of the ILCD
Handbook fully apply in the context of electric vehicles also. For specific guidance, please refer
to the Handbook (ILDC, 2010). For your convenience, we very briefly summarise the key as-
pects and reproduce the provisions from the handbook at the end of this chapter.
Interpretation is needed for two reasons: First, it serves to improve the Life Cycle Inventory
model to meet the needs derived from the study goal. Second, it serves to derive robust conclu-
sions and - often - recommendations once the final results are available. Interpretation relates
to the goal definition and considers all phases of an LCA collectively in the light of achieved
accuracy, completeness, and precision of the applied data and assumptions (for detailed guid-
ance on data quality quantification please refer to the general ILCD Handbook, ‘Annex A: 12.3
Data quality indicators’). The interpretation proceeds through the identification of significant
issues, the evaluation of their sensitivity or influence on the overall results, and ends in the for-
mulation of conclusions and recommendations (if the study aims for this, which is usually the
case). The ILCD Handbook gives provisions for these three steps of interpretation.
Provisions 9.2: Identification of significant issues
This provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process,
partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only to
improve the data quality during the iterative loops of developing the LCI data or the
system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI study report.)
I. SHALL - Identify significant issues: These can be among the following:

I.a Inventory items: Main contributing “key” life cycle stages, processes, product,
waste and elementary flows, parameters. This part is also known as weak point
analysis or gravity analysis. Use contribution analysis techniques.
I.b Impact categories: Main contributing “key” impact categories (only identifiable if
weighting was applied). Use contribution analysis techniques.
I.c Modelling choices and method assumptions: Relevant modelling choices, such
as applied allocation criteria / substitution approaches in the inventory analysis,
assumptions made when collecting and modelling inventory data for key proc-
esses and flows, selecting secondary data, systematic choices on technological,
geographical, and time-related representativeness, methodological consistency,
extrapolations, etc. Use scenario analysis techniques.
I.d Commissioner and interested parties: The influence of the commissioner and
interested parties on decisions in goal and scope definition, modelling choices,
weighting sets and the like. Discuss influences on final results and recommenda-
tions. [ISO!]
Note: For analysing the significant issues of unit processes and partly terminated systems,
complete the system model as appropriate (e.g. cradle-to-gate) with a background sys-
tem before the contribution analysis is done (see chapters 7.8). Focus the contribution
analysis to the unit process / partly terminated system itself (i.e. the significant flows,
assumptions, parameters, processes etc. within the original system boundary).
Note: the "informative" annex B of ISO 14044:2006 provides a range of examples of life
cycle interpretation, including but not only on the identification of significant issues.
Provisions 9.3.2: Completeness check
I. SHALL - Evaluate LCI model completeness (cut-off): The cut-off rules as defined
in the scope phase (see chapter 6.6.3) shall be systematically applied to ensure that
the final data set inventory/ies meets the pre-defined or goal-derived data quality
requirements (see chapter 6.9.2). Evaluate the completeness of the inventory data
in relation to the initially defined cut-off criteria in terms of:
I.a Process coverage: Coverage of all relevant processes in the system
I.b Elementary flow coverage: Coverage of all relevant elementary flows in the in-
ventories for the processes of the system (and in particular the key processes iden-
tified under Significant issues – see chapter 9.2), that have characterisation factors
for the relevant impact categories (according to the goal of the LCI/LCA study)
I.c Operationalize cut-off approximation: The cut-off criteria / approach and per-
centage as defined in the scope phase shall be used (see 6.6.3). This may be op-
erationalized using stepwise the following cut-off rules for flow properties, pre-
checking property by property the achieved completeness across all flow types
and balancing the aggregated numbers in the inputs against those of the outputs:
[ISO+]
I.c.i For product flows: “mass” (of individual key chemical elements), “energy content”,
“market value” (or “production/provision cost”, especially for purchased services).
I.c.ii For waste flows: “mass” (of individual key chemical elements), “energy content”,
“treatment cost”.
I.c.iii For elementary flows: “mass” (of individual key chemical elements and only for the
environmentally relevant flows, i.e. excluding not or less relevant flows such as e.g.
incineration air consumed and waste steam leaving the process as emission to air),
“energy content”.
I.d Cut-off for comparative assertions: The cut-off shall always be met also by mass
and energy, in addition to environmental impact.
I.e Additional relevance criteria for elementary and waste flows: Also those emis-
sions and wastes should be include in the data collection that have a low mass
and energy content but a known relevance for the respective type of processes or
industry (using e.g. legal limits and expert judgement). [ISO+]
I.f Approximating the 100 % value: The 100 % reference of completeness may be
approximated by using "best approximation" values for all initially missing infor-
mation and data, using among others information from similar processes and ex-
pert judgement. This missing information and data can be especially: [ISO+]
I.f.i kind and quantity of initially missing flows,
I.f.ii element composition and energy content of all flows that relevantly contribute to
the total mass of the flows,
I.f.iii cost of all goods and services that relevantly contribute to the total production cost
and production value
I.f.iv environmental impact of yet missing background data sets for consumed goods
and services.
I.g Estimating precision of 100 % value approximation: The precision of the 100 %
approximation may be judged from analysing the share of the different quality lev-
els of the data that make up the inventory: a higher share of low quality data also
makes the 100 % approximation less precise. [ISO+]
I.h Completeness of impact: As last step, and using the quantitative cut-off value de-
cided upon in chapter 6.6.3, approximate the achieved degree of completeness /
cut-off. [ISO+]
I.i Leaving out negligible flows: It is an option to leave out negligible flows that
jointly make up less than 10 % of the share of impact that is cut off (e.g. if the com-
pleteness is 95 %, 5 % are cut-off. 10 % of these 5 % are 0.5 % that are considered
negligible.) It is recommended however to not leave them out. [ISO+]
Note that the LCIA methods and (potentially) normalisation and weighting for use in
defining the cut-off was decided in the scope phase, see chapter 6.7.7.
Note that for unit processes and partly terminated systems the completeness is to be
judged in relation to the unit process and partly terminated system itself. I.e. any lack of
completeness of other processes that were added exclusively to complete the system
model for the completeness check shall be disregarded when quantifying the achieved
completeness.
II. SHOULD - Improve completeness, if needed: In the case of insufficient complete-

ness, the inventory analysis (and sometimes the impact assessment) phases should
be revisited to increase the degree of completeness. It is recommended to focus
on the key life cycle stages, processes and flows identified as significant issues. This
improvement of the LCI data is however to be started by potentially fine-tuning or
revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration (see chapters 2.2.4 and 4, and
related Figure 4 and Figure 5).
III. SHALL - Report final completeness; potentially revise scope or goal: If the
aimed at completeness has been achieved, or if it cannot be increased further, the
finally achieved degree of completeness shall to be reported (as % degree of com-
pleteness / cut-off ). For LCA studies, it shall be considered when later formulating
the limitations in the conclusions and recommendations. If the aimed at or neces-
sary completeness cannot be achieved, it shall be decided whether the scope or
even the goal needs to be revised or re-defined.
Provisions 9.3.3: Sensitivity check (of accuracy and precision)
I. SHALL - Check sensitivity of results: Check to what extent the accuracy and preci-
sion of the overall results meets the requirements posed by the intended applica-
tions. Aim at improving it to the required level, as follows:
I.a Sensitivity of significant issues: Identify the most sensitive among the significant
issues identified earlier (chapter 9.2) and analyse the sensitivity of these for the
overall results, along with their stochastic and systematic uncertainty estimates.
The outcome is determining for the accuracy and precision of the overall results
and the strength of the conclusions, which can be drawn from the LCI/LCA study
and must be reported together with these. Be aware that calculated uncertainty
figures may not include the often determining systematic uncertainties caused by
model assumptions, data gaps, and lack of accuracy.
I.a.i Sensitivity of LCI items: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA
results, if applied) to key flows, process parameter settings, flow properties, and
other data items such as recyclability, life-time of goods, duration of services steps,
and the like. Assess how sensitive inventory items influence the data representa-
tiveness, and precision. [ISO!]
I.a.ii Sensitivity of LCIA factors: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted
LCIA results, if applied) considering the often widely differing uncertainty of the
results due to uncertainties in the impact assessment (e.g. Human toxicity, Eco-
toxicity etc. with high uncertainties and Global warming, Acidification, etc. with
lower uncertainty). [ISO!]
I.a.iii Sensitivity of modelling choices and assumptions: Evaluate the sensitivity of the
LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) to different modelling choices and
method assumptions ("method issues"), e.g. quantitative and qualitative aspects of
the functional unit, superseded processes, allocation criteria, etc. [ISO!]
I.b Improve robustness of sensitive issues data, parameters, impact factors, assump-
tions, etc. as possible: In the case of lack of quality for some of the significant issues,
revisit the inventory analysis and/or the impact assessment phases to improve the
concerned data (for data issues), impact factors (for LCIA issues), or try to qualify
and discuss the sensitive assumption or choice (for method issues). As for data
completeness, also the improvement of the LCI data precision is however to be
started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete
iteration (see chapters 2.2.4 and 4).
I.c Report final achievements; potentially revise scope or goal: If the certainty of key
issues meets the needs, or if it cannot be reduced to obtain the accuracy and pre-
cision that is required by the application of the LCI/LCA study, it shall be decided
whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or re-defined. This shall be
reported and for LCA studies later be considered when formulating the limitations
in the conclusions and recommendations from the LCA (chapter 9.4).
Provisions 9.3.4: Consistency check
These provisions applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process
data sets as deliverable only to improve the data quality during the iterative loops of
developing the LCI data or the system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI
study report.)
For partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets they serve in addi-
tion to ensure method consistency across the processes of the model.
For LCA studies, they serve in addition to ensure method consistency across the models
of the compared systems.
I. SHALL - Data quality sufficiently consistent?: Check whether any differences in data
quality per se (i.e. accuracy, completeness, and precision) and in the selected data
sources for the different processes in the system(s) are consistent with the goal and
scope of the study. This is especially relevant for comparative studies.
II. SHALL - Method choices consistent?: Check whether all methodological choices
(e.g. LCI modelling principles, allocation criteria or system expansion / substitu-
tion approach, system boundary, etc.) are consistent with the goal and scope of
the study including the intended applications and target audience. This shall be
judged by checking whether the method provisions have been met that are given
in relation to the applicable Situation A, B, or C1 / C2. [ISO!]
Note that method consistency applies on both unit process level (i.e. consistent ap-
proach to develop unit process from raw data) and system level (i.e. consistently model-
ling the system). This aspect is especially relevant when combining data from different
sources.
III. SHALL - Consistent impact assessment?: Check whether the steps of impact assess-
ment (including normalisation and weighting, if included) have been consistently
applied and in line with goal and scope.
IV. SHALL - Evaluate relevance of inconsistencies: Evaluate the relevance / significance
of any identified inconsistencies (as above) for the results and document them,
including when reporting the achieved method consistency and appropriateness.
For LCA studies additionally consider these findings when drawing conclusions or
recommendations from the results.
Provisions 9.4: Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations
Note the limitations for Situation C1 and C2 studies in their use for direct decision support.
These provisions apply only to comparative and non-comparative LCA studies.
I. SHALL - Analyse the results from a system's perspective: Separately analyse and
jointly discuss the results obtained in the main system(s) model(s) and - if per-
formed - with the corresponding reasonably worst and best case assumption sce-
narios and possibly further assumption scenarios. Integrate the results of any po-
tentially performed uncertainty calculations into the analysis. [ISO!]
I.a) Items that require special or separate analysis:
I.a.i Non-generic LCIA: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results obtained with
the default LCIA methods and those obtained including any potential additional or
modified / non-generic (e.g. spatially or otherwise differentiated) LCIA methods.
I.a.ii Long-term emissions: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results for inter-
ventions within the first 100 years from the time of the study and those beyond
that time limit.
I.a.iii Carbon storage and delayed emissions: Only if such is included in line with an ex-
plicit goal requirement: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results including
and excluding carbon storage and delayed emissions / reuse/recycling/reuse cred-
its.
I.b Draw conclusions, if foreseen: Take into account the findings of the earlier elements
of the interpretation phase. Draw conclusions in accordance with the goal defined
for the LCA study and with the definitions of the scope, in particular those related
to data quality requirements, and with the predefined assumptions and known
limitations in the methodology and its application in the LCA. Consider all assump-
tions and related limitations that were noted down in the course of the study.
I.c Address impacts outside the LCA scope, if any: Name any potential or actual effects
on the three areas of protection that are based on other mechanisms than those
covered by LCA (e.g. accidents, direct application of products to humans, etc.) and
that are considered relevant by the interested parties. Clarify that these are outside
the scope of LCA.
Note that within the ILCD Handbook, not quantified effects outside the scope of LCA
cannot be explicitly or implicitly assessed regarding their relevance in comparison to
the LCA results.
I.d Conclusions for comparisons: Differences in data quality and methodological

choices between compared systems shall be consistent with the goal and scope of
the study, especially (see also chapter 6.10):
I.d.i The functional unit of the compared alternatives shall be sufficiently similar to al-
low for comparisons, especially in view of stakeholders and potential users.
I.d.ii The setting of system boundaries shall be consistently applied to all systems.
I.d.iii The inventory data should be of comparable quality (i.e. accuracy, completeness,
precision, methodological consistency) for all compared alternatives.
I.d.iv The steps of impact assessment shall be consistently applied for all systems.
I.d.v The significance of any above identified inconsistencies to the results of the com-
parison shall be evaluated and considered when drawing conclusions and giving
recommendations from the results.
II. SHALL - Recommend strictly based on conclusions and limitations:
II.a Base any recommendations made in the LCA study exclusively on these conclu-
sions and respecting the limitations. Derive recommendations unambiguously and
in a stepwise logical and reasonable consequence of the conclusions. Do so in ac-
cordance with the defined goal of the LCA study and specially the intended appli-
cations and target audience.
II.b Recommendations shall be made in a conservative way, only based on significant
findings. Any relevant limitations found during the study are to be stated explicitly
and clearly in the key message of the LCA study including in the executive sum-
mary. [ISO!]
II.c Special care must be taken to avoid misinterpretations also by a non-technical au-
dience, to avoid interpretation beyond the scope of the LCA study and beyond
what is supported by its outcome.
II.d Equality of compared alternatives shall not be stated, unless it has been shown to
be significant: the lack of significant differences alone shall not be misinterpreted
as equality of the analysed options. It shall only be stated that with the given data
restrictions and/or uncertainties or other causes no significant differences could be
identified. [ISO!]
III. SHALL - Comparisons of systems with dominant subjective preference: The results
and recommendations of comparative studies on not objectively comparable al-
ternatives (e.g. personal services, fashion items, jewellery) shall be presented with
the explicit statement that comparability is not assumed per se, but lies with the
individual preference and judgement. [ISO!]
IV. SHALL - Conclusions on basket-of-product type of studies: For studies that analyse
several processes or systems in a non-competitive manner, i.e. processes / systems
that perform clearly different functions (e.g. basket-of-products, identifying prior-
ity products) it shall be clearly reported that no comparability exists in terms of
preferability among the processes / systems.
Note: Annex 15.3 gives an illustrative example on avoiding misleading goal and scope
definition and results interpretation for comparative studies.
10 Reporting
As discussed in chapter 6.9 ‘Planning reporting” some key aspects of the reporting need to
be addressed during scope definition for the study. In this chapter, additional information on
contents and report formats is given. Since the method of reporting the results of an LCA is
a general matter of thoroughly describing the underlying work, independent of the specific
topic, most of the information here is either taken directly from the general ILCD Handbook,
or references to the general ILCD Handbook are given for the practitioner to access directly.
When almost an entire sub-chapter is taken from the general ILCD Handbook, this is specified
in the respective title (see, for example, the next sub-chapter, 10.1).
10.1 Introduction and overview (10.1 in ILCD 2010)

The results and conclusions of the LCI/LCA study shall be completely and accurately reported
without bias to the intended audience. The results, data, methods, assumptions and limita-
tions shall be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend
the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the LCA. The report shall also allow the results and
interpretation to be used in a manner consistent with the goals of the study.
The needs of different audiences should be recognized and addressed when presenting or
disseminating the study. Target audiences can be internal, (defined) external, or public, and
technical or non-technical. These audiences can include companies, trade associations, gov-
ernment agencies, environmental groups, scientific/technical communities, and other non-
government organizations, as well as the general public / consumers. Communication in the
public domain is especially critical because the risks of misinterpretation are heightened when
LCA-derived information is provided to audiences not familiar with the complexity of the
methodology and related limitations that may apply.
Good reporting of LCI and LCA studies provides the relevant project details, the process fol-
lowed, approaches and methods applied, and results produced. This is essential to ensure re-
producibility of the results and to provide the required information to reviewers to judge the
quality of the results and appropriateness of conclusions and recommendations (if included).
The complete reporting should also contain the data used and should ensure transparency
and consistency of all the methodologies and data employed. It should constitute the primary
input to the scientific/technical audience and be a base from which summary reports to other
target audiences could be prepared. These latter summaries need to be tailored to the recipi-
ent requirements, labelled as summaries only, and include appropriate reference to the prima-
ry report and related review reports in order to ensure that they are not taken out of context.
Confidentiality interests around sensitive or proprietary information and data are to be met,
while confidential access to at least the reviewers is to be granted to support the review of the
data set and/or report. Separate, complementary confidential reports can serve this purpose.
10.2 Reporting principles (10.2 in ILCD 2010)

Reports and data sets
The form and levels of reporting depends primarily on three factors:
the type of deliverable(s) of the study,
the purpose and intended applications of the study and report, and
the intended target audience (especially technical or non-technical and internal or third-
party/public).
Reporting LCIA results

Wherever LCIA results are published in a report or data set, for transparency reasons this is to
be accompanied by the LCI results. In the case of normalised or weighted LCIA results, the re-
sults of previous steps (classification and characterisation) are equally to be reported. For the
same reason, characterisation results at endpoint (damage) level are to be supplemented by
midpoint level impact category results, as well as the LCI results.
Confidentiality
In the case data or information (e.g. on technologies, catalysts, ingredients) cannot be report-
ed for confidentiality or proprietary reasons, this information can be documented in a separate
confidential report that does not need to be made available externally, except for foreseen
critical reviewers under confidentiality. The kind of information documented in this confiden-
tial report shall be named in the detailed report, if any.
Reporting of revised goal and /or scope items

In some cases, the goal and the scope of the LCI/LCA study may need to be revised due to
unforeseen limitations, constraints or as a result of additional information. The final documen-
tation of the LCI/LCA study has to reflect this, including the consequence for completeness,
precision, application fields, etc.
Provisions 10.2: Reporting principles (10.2 in ILCD 2010)

I. SHALL - Report complete and unbiased: Results and conclusions of the LCI or
LCA study shall be completely and accurately reported without bias to the in-
tended audience.
II. SHALL - Use SI units: Per default the Système international d'unités (SI) units (Base
units and derived units) shall be used for reporting. In cases where non SI units
which are mentioned in the SI are commonly used, these can be used alterna-
tively (e.g. hours (h), minutes (min), litre (l), tonne (t), dezibel (dB).
III. SHALL - Reproducibility and target audience to guide reporting: Results, data,
methods, assumptions and limitations shall be transparent and presented in suf-
ficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs
inherent in the study and LCA in general. Reporting of technical details shall be
guided along the aim to ensure an as good as possible reproducibility of the
results and of any conclusions and recommendations (if included). Consider the
technical and LCA methodology understanding of the target audience.
IV. SHALL - Reporting LCIA results: Depending on the intended applications, the
LCIA results may also be reported in the study report or data set. If done, this
shall meet the following requirements:[ISO!]
IV.a) The intended way of reporting LCIA results was identified in the scope definition
in accordance with the intended application of the LCI/LCA study and any pre-
scription given in the goal definition.
IV.b) For transparency reasons, the LCIA results shall be published jointly with the LCI
results. In the case of normalised or weighted LCIA results the previous steps
(classification and characterisation) shall equally be reported.
IV.c) Impact assessment results at endpoint (damage) level shall be supplemented by
midpoint level impact category results (unless the endpoint LCIA method does
not have a midpoint interim step) and also by the LCI results.
Note that if the study is intended to support a comparative assertion to be disclosed

to the public, no form of numerical, value-based weighting of the indicator results is
permitted.
10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements and reporting elements
Three, classical levels of reporting, with different and increasing requirements, are defined in
the general ILCD Handbook: the report for internal use, the third party report, and the report
on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public.
The report for internal use is not intended for disclosure to any external party outside the
company or institution that has commissioned or (co)financed the study or performed the
LCA work. Examples could be studies for identification of internal improvement potentials and
focus points for product development.
No formal provisions are made for internal reports. In order to provide appropriate and robust
decision support, closely following report requirements for thirdparty reports is recommend-
ed (ILCD, 2010).
The third party report is intended to document and communicate the results of the LCA to a
third party (i.e. an interested party other than the commissioner or the LCA practitioner per-
forming the study). Regardless of other considerations, a third-party report must be prepared
as a reference document and a documentation of the study.
The inclusion of confidential information is not required, but does need to be available for
reviewers under confidentiality agreements, and would be documented separately or as part
of the report for internal use. Third-party reports should have an executive summary for non-
technical audiences.
Details on how to address the realisation of the third-party report (and/or the confidential report
as described in more detail above, if such is prepared) is described in sub-chapter 10.3 ‘Three
levels of reporting requirements’ of the general ILCD Handbook and will not be repeated here.
In order to avoid unnecessary interruptions in the flow of the report, annexes can be used, par-
ticularly for information of a more technical and tabular nature. It should include (ILCD, 2010):
Questionnaire and/or data collection templates and raw data
List of all assumptions24 (It is recommended that these include those assumptions that
have been shown to be irrelevant).
Full LCI results
The report on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public involves a comparison

of products and the results are intended to be disclosed to the public. This may or may not
involve concluding the superiority of one product (or equality of the analysed products), i.e. it
can be a comparative assertion disclosed to the public or a non-assertive comparative study
that shall be treated the same as a comparative assertion.
This form of report mostly builds on the third party report, with additional requirements that
need to be considered. ‘Note that it shall include an executive summary for non-technical audi-
ences. The details on how to address the realization of the reports on comparative, published
studies (and/or the confidential report as described above and if such is prepared)’ are de-
scribed in sub-chapter 10.3 ‘Three levels of reporting requirements’, and the provisions therein
and will not be repeated here.
The general ILCD Handbook recognizes four main elements as parts of LCA reports. These are
(ILCD, 2010):
the Executive Summary
the Technical Summary
the Main Part
the Annex
Additionally, a fifth part, the Confidential Report, can be compiled if necessary.
24 Note that the important ones are to be repeated and considered quantitatively in the sensitivity
analysis and quantitatively and qualitatively in the interpretation. The relevant assumptions are also
to be documented in the context where they belong, e.g. for processes together with the processes
they concern at the relevant place (LCI chapter or scope definition)
Again, the reader is referred to chapter 10.3 ‘Three levels of reporting requirements’ of the
general ILCD Handbook for the details of what should be described in the various report parts.
Particularly, the essential topics that need to be covered in the main part are listed in the con-
text of the goal of the study, scope of the study, life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assess-
ment and interpretation. Below, only the provisions described in chapter 10.3 of the general
ILCD are reported.
25
Provisions 10.3: Three levels of reporting requirements and reporting elements (ILCD 2010)
I. SHALL - The following form and level of reporting shall be done:
I.a) The required level of reporting was identified in chapter 6 [ISO+]
I.b) Use ILCD report template and data set format22: The ILCD report template and
the ILCD data set format should be used for reporting LCI/LCA studies and data
sets, respectively. [ISO+]
I.c) Enclose / reference report to data sets: It is recommended to accompany
data sets with a LCI/LCA study report.
I.d) Enclose / reference LCI data sets in report: It is recommended to enclose the
modelled LCI data sets to the LCA study report (e.g. as printout and/or via hy-
perlinks) as far as confidentiality concerns and ownership rights permit this.
The full LCI results shall be included in this report.
I.e) Use / combine correct level(s) of reporting: These specific levels go back to
the three main levels of reporting that have a different set of requirements un-
der ISO 14044:2006 that shall be used: “Reports for internal use”, “Third-party
report”, “Report on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public”. In detail:
I.f ) MAY - Reports for internal use (recommendation only): [ISO+]
I.f.i) Document results and conclusions of the LCA in a complete, accurate and unbi-
ased way.
I.f.ii) Especially regarding inventory data, it is recommended to document the data
on the level that it enters the calculations before its unit or property conversion,
scaling, etc. (i.e. as “raw data”) to provide appropriate information for reviewers
and users. This information may be provided together with calculations such as
conversions, scaling factors applied, averaging, extrapolations, etc.
I.f.iii) Consider to address some of the requirements to third-party reports or public
reports also in internal reports as this will strengthen the robustness and hence
reliability of the results.
I.g) SHALL - Third-party reports (10.3.2): The third-party report is a reference doc-
ument for any third party to whom the communication is made. The report
can be based on confidential information, while this information itself does not
need to be included in the third-party report. It is recommended to meet con-
fidentiality interests by making sensitive and proprietary data and information
available only to the critical reviewers under confidentiality as a separate confi-
dential report. [ISO+]
25 To the best of the authors’ knowledge, these templates were not yet available on the ILCD website at the time
of writing.
I.h) In addition to the requirements on reports for internal use, the following com-
ponents and aspects shall be included in the third-party report26: [ISO!]
II. SHALL - Executive summary (for non-technical audience) [ISO+]
III. SHALL - Technical summary (for technical audience / LCA experts) [ISO+]
IV. SHALL - Main report, with the following aspects:

Note that the following items and the [ISO+] and [ISO!] marks do relate to the
general structuring and items to be included only; the exact items to be re-
ported are identified in the other Provisions of this document.
IV.a) General aspects:
IV.a.i) date of report;
IV.a.ii) statement that the study has been conducted according to the requirements of ISO
14044:2006 and the ILCD Handbook. [ISO!]
IV.b) Goal of the study:
IV.b.i) intended application(s);
IV.b.ii) method, assumptions or impact coverage related limitations; [ISO!]
IV.b.iii) reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context;
IV.b.iv) the target audiences;
IV.b.v) statement as to whether the study intends to support comparative assertions in-
tended to be disclosed to the public
IV.b.vi) commissioner of the study and other influential actors, including LCA practitioner
(internal or external). [ISO+]
IV.c) Scope of the study:
IV.c.i) function, including
IV.c.i.1) statement of performance characteristics, and
IV.c.i.2) any omission of additional functions in comparisons;
IV.c.ii) functional unit(s), including
IV.c.ii.1) consistency with goal and scope,
IV.c.ii.2) definition,
IV.c.ii.3) result of performance measurement;
IV.c.iii) reference flow(s)
IV.c.iv) LCI modelling framework applied, i.e. according to Situation A or B[ISO!]
IV.c.iv.1) uniform application of the procedures
IV.c.v) system boundary, including
IV.c.v.1) types of inputs and outputs of the system as elementary flows should be provided,
IV.c.v.2) decision criteria on system boundary definition, and on individual or systematic
inclusions and exclusions [ISO!]
IV.c.v.3) omissions of life cycle stages, activity types, processes, or flows,
IV.c.v.4) quantification of energy and material inputs and outputs, and
26 The parts in italics are directly taken from ISO 14044, chapter 5.2, but removing ISO-internal chapter-references.
A few aspects have been moved to other places, but all are covered.
IV.c.v.5) assumptions about electricity production;

IV.c.vi) cut-off criteria for initial inclusion of inputs and output, including
IV.c.vi.1) description of cut-off criteria and assumptions,
IV.c.vi.2) effect of selection on results,
IV.c.vi.3) inclusion of mass, energy and environmental cut-off criteria.
IV.c.vii) data quality requirements should be included (in addition to the finally achieved
quality)
IV.c.viii) LCIA scope settings, including
IV.c.viii.1) impact categories and category indicators considered, including a rationale for
their selection and a reference to their source;
IV.c.viii.2) descriptions of or reference to all characterization models, characterization fac-
tors and methods used, including all assumptions and limitations;
IV.c.viii.3) any differentiations, additions or modifications of original, default LCIA meth-
od with justifications [ISO!]
IV.c.viii.4) descriptions of or reference to all value-choices used in relation to impact catego-
ries, characterization models, characterization factors, normalization, grouping,
weighting and, elsewhere in the LCIA, a justification for their use and their influence
on the results, conclusions and recommendations;
IV.c.viii.5) a statement that the LCIA results are relative expressions and do not predict im-
pacts on category endpoints, the exceeding of thresholds, safety margins or risks.
and, when included as a part of the LCA, also
IV.c.viii.6) a description and justification of the definition and description of any new im-
pact categories, category indicators or characterization models used for the LCIA,
IV.c.viii.7) a statement and justification of any grouping of the impact categories,
IV.c.viii.8) any further procedures that transform the indicator results and a justification of
the selected references, weighting factors, etc.,
IV.c.ix) included comparison between (product) systems
IV.c.x) modifications of the initial scope together with their justification should be provided
IV.d) Life cycle inventory analysis:
IV.d.i) data collection procedures;
IV.d.ii) qualitative and quantitative description of unit processes, at least of the fore-
ground system; [ISO!]
IV.d.iii) references of all publicly accessible data sources (sources for all data used and
individual identification for the key processes / systems); [ISO!]
IV.d.iv) calculation procedures (preferably including the steps from raw data to fore-
ground system unit process(es)); [ISO!]
IV.d.v) validation of data, including
IV.d.v.1) data quality assessment, and
IV.d.v.2) treatment of missing data;
IV.d.vi) sensitivity analysis for refining the system boundary;
IV.d.vii) specific substitution or allocation procedures for key multifunctional processes
(and products in case the study directly compares multifunctional products),
including [ISO!]
IV.d.vii.1) justification of the specific procedures

IV.e) Life cycle impact assessment results calculation, where applicable:
IV.e.i) the LCIA procedures, calculations and results of the study;
IV.e.ii) limitations of the LCIA results relative to the defined goal and scope of the LCA;
IV.e.iii) the relationship of LCIA results to the defined goal and scope;
IV.e.iv) the relationship of the LCIA results to the LCI results;
IV.e.v) any analysis of the indicator results, for example sensitivity and uncertainty analy-
sis or the use of environmental data, including any implication for the results, and
IV.e.vi) data and indicator results reached prior to any normalization, grouping or weight-
ing shall be made available together with the normalized, grouped or weighted
results.
IV.f) Life cycle interpretation:
IV.f.i) the results;
IV.f.ii) assumptions and limitations associated with the interpretation of results, both
methodology and data related;
IV.f.iii) data quality assessment;
IV.f.iv) full transparency in terms of value-choices, rationales and expert judgements.
IV.g) Critical review, where applicable:
IV.g.i) name and affiliation of reviewers;
IV.g.ii) critical review reports;
IV.g.iii) responses to recommendations.
V. SHALL - Annex: The annex serves to document elements that would inappro-
priately interrupt the reading flow of the main part of the report, and are also of
a more detailed or tabular technical nature and for reference. It should include:
[ISO!]
V.a) Questionnaire/ data collection template and raw data,
V.b) list of all assumptions (It should include those assumptions that have been
shown to be irrelevant),
V.c) full LCI results.
VI. MAY - Confidential report: If prepared, the confidential report shall contain
all those data and information that is confidential or proprietary and cannot
be made externally available. It shall however be made available to the critical
reviewers under confidentiality.
VII. SHALL - Report for comparative studies: Reporting on assertive and non-
assertive comparative studies intended to be disclosed to the public, the fol-
lowing additional reporting7 shall be done in addition to the requirements to
reports for internal use and third party reports (10.3.3):
VII.a) analysis of material and energy flows to justify their inclusion or exclusion;
VII.b) assessment of the precision, completeness and representativeness of data used;
VII.c) description of the equivalence of the systems being compared in accordance with
ISO-chapter 4.2.3.7 and related provisions in this document; [ISO!]
VII.d) description of the critical review process;

VII.e) an evaluation of the completeness of the LCIA;
VII.f) a statement as to whether international acceptance exists for the selected category
indicators and a justification for their use;
VII.g) an explanation for the scientific and technical validity and environmental relevance
of the category indicators used in the study;
VII.h) the results of the uncertainty and sensitivity analyses;
VII.i) evaluation of the significance of the differences found.
VIII) Grouping: If grouping is included in the LCA, add the following:
VIII.a) the procedures and results used for grouping;
VIII.b) a statement that conclusions and recommendations derived from grouping are
based on value-choices;
VIII.c) a justification of the criteria used for normalization and grouping (these can be per-
sonal, organizational or national value-choices);
VIII.d) the statement that “ISO 14044 does not specify any specific methodology or sup-
port the underlying value choices used to group the impact categories”;
VIII.e) the statement that “The value-choices and judgements within the grouping pro-
cedures are the sole responsibilities of the commissioner of the study (e.g. govern-
ment, community, organization, etc.)”.
Overall, in addressing the above listed points, the practitioner should keep in mind that, as a
general rule, all the points in the previous chapters of this guidance document that urge the
practitioner to document, report, describe, justify, etc., on issues such as modelling choices,
assumptions, parameter values, data sources, etc., should be part of the final report, as these
are key for the understanding and critical evaluation of the study. Finally, care should also be
taken in the choice of how the LCIA results are reported. The use of an appropriate degree of
modularity in the representation of the LCIA results, in graphs as well as tables, can help read-
ers to understand the critical elements of the system under analysis. One possibility is to split
the results according to the contributions coming from the production, use, and EoL phases.
Also, highlighting the contributions of some key sub-processes (particular devices, services,
materials, etc.) can clarify where the main impacts in the system originate. Ultimately, the ap-
propriate degree of modularity is the one which allows the reader to best address the ques-
tions raised by the goal and scope of the study.
11 Critical Review (ILCD 2010)
The scope and type of critical review desired should have been defined in the scope phase of
an LCA, and the decision on the type of critical review should have been recorded (see chapter
6.8). As in the previous chapter, the recommendations for critical review are of a general nature
that is topic independent. The guidelines below are therefore taken directly from the general
ILCD Handbook.
The critical review is one of the key features in LCA. Its process shall assure, among others:
whether the methods used to carry out the LCA are consistent with this guidance docu-
ment and thereby also with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006,
the methods used to carry out the LCA study are scientifically and technically valid,
the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study,
the interpretations reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study, and
the study report is transparent and consistent.
The detailed review requirements regarding what to review and how, and how to report the
outcome of the review are given in the separate document “Review scope, methods, and
documentation”27.
More details on the minimum required level/type of review for each specific type of delivera-
bles of the LCI/LCA study can be found in the separate document “Review schemes for Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA)”. Eligibility of reviewers is addressed in the separate document “Re-
viewer qualification”28. These documents are available on the “life cycle thinking and assess-
ment” website: http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications.
For LCA studies directed towards public audiences, an interactive review process at various
stages of the LCA can improve the study’s credibility.
27 This document was under preparation when the present document was finalised. Until it has been
published under the ILCD Handbook, the relevant ISO 14040 and 14044 requirements shall be met
as a minimum.
28 In the general ILCD Handbook, the title ‘Reviewer qualification’ is given. To date, the only such
document available, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, is ‘Reviewer qualification for Life Cycle
Inventory (LCI) data sets’.
Provisions 11: Critical Review (ILCD 2010)
I. SHALL - See chapter 6.8 for key decisions made on the critical review: The
scope and type of critical review desired should have been defined in the scope
phase of an LCA (see chapter 6.8). The following provisions repeat these key pro-
visions that otherwise have to be applied at this point:[ISO!]
I.a) Identify minimum critical review type: Identify along the separate document
“Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)” whether a critical review shall
be performed and which review type shall be applied as a minimum. This de-
pends on the kind of deliverable of the study, its foreseen decision-context, the
kind of intended audience (internal / external / public and technical / non-tech-
nical), and whether a comparison is part of the study.
I.b) Select eligible reviewers: If a critical review is to be done, eligible reviewer(s)
shall be selected. Eligibility of reviewers is addressed in the separate document
"Reviewer qualification".
II. SHALL - Review scope, methods, and documentation: The selected reviewer(s)
shall perform the review and report its outcome along the provisions of the sep-
arate document "Review scope, methods, and documentation". [ISO!]
12 References
Althaus 2010 H.-J. Althaus, Marcel Gauch, “Vergleichende Ökobilanz individueller Mobi-
lität: Elektromobilität versus konventionelle Mobilität mit Bio- und fossilen
Treibstoffen”, Empa Report, 2010
ArGV3 2011 „Wegleitung zur Verordnung 3 zum Arbeitsgesetz“, Swiss State Secretariat for
Economic Affair, 2011
Bütler 2013 T. Bütler, H. Winkler, „Energy consumption of battery electric vehicles“, Report
available from http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/131727, 2013
Campanari 2009 S. Campanari, G. Manzolini, F. Garcia de la Iglesia, “Energy analysis of elec-
tric vehicles using batteries or fuel cells through well-to-wheel driving cycle
simulations”, Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 186, pp.464-477, 2009
Duleep 2012 G. Duleep, H. van Essen, B. Kampman, M. Grünig, “Assessment of electric vehi-
cle and battery technology”, Report by CE Delft and Ecologic; commissioned
by the European Commission within the study: Impacts of electric vehicles
– deliverable 2, 2011.
Ekvall 2004 T. Ekvall, B. Weidema, “System Boundaries and Input Data in Consequential
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis”, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment,
Vol. 9, pp. 161-171, 2004
eLCAr 2012 Authors: H.-J. Althaus, A. Del Duce, T. Dettmer, P. Egede, E. Szczechowicz, S.
Winter, “Workshop 1 Documentation”, Editors: M. Klein, M. Stock, 2012
European Commission 2006
“European Technology Platform – SmartGrids Vision and Strategy for Europe’s
Electricity Networks of the Future”, Report by the Directorate-General for Re-
search, Sustainable Energy Systems, of the European Commission, 2006.
FCHY 2011a A. Lozanovski, O. Schuller, M. Faltenbacher: “Guidance document for perform-
ing LCA on Hydrogen production systems”, 2011, available from: http://www.
fc-hyguide.eu/documents/10156/d0869ab9-4efe-4bea-9e7a-1fb823f4fcfa
FCHY 2011b P. Masoni, A. Zamagni: “Guidance document for performing LCA on fuel cells”,
2011, available from http://www.fc-hyguide.eu/documents/10156/21d22f59-
9a01-4b90-a526-537b169081a2
Geringer 2012 B. Geringer, W.K. Tober. “Batterieelektrische Fahrzeuge in der Praxis – Kosten,
Reichweite, Umwelt, Komfort”, Report by the Österreichischer Verein für
Kraftfahrzeugtechnik (ÖVK) and the Österricher Automobil-, Motorrad-, und
Touring Club (ÖAMTC), 2012
Grünig 2011 M. Grünig et al., “An overview of electric vehicles on the market and in develop-
ment”, Report by CE Delft and Ecologic; commissioned by the European Com-
mission within the study: Impacts of electric vehicles – deliverable 1, 2011.
Habermacher 2011
F. Habermacher, “Modeling material inventories and environmental impacts
of electric passenger cars”, Master Thesis, Department of Environmental Sci-
ences, ETH Zurich, 2011.
Hawkins 2012 T.R. Hawkins, O.M. Gausen, A.H. Strømman: “Environmentals impacts of hy-
brid and electric vehicles – a review”, International Journal of Life Cycle As-
sessment, Vol. 17, pp. 997-1014, 2012
ILCD 2010 European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environmental
Sustainability, “International Reference Life Data System (ILCD) Handbook –
General guide for Life Cycle Assessment – Detailed guidance”, First edition
March 2010.
ISO 14040:2006 International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 14040 Environmental
management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and framework”, 2006
ISO 14044:2006 International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 14044 Environmental
management – Life Cycle Assessment – Requirements and guidelines”, 2006
Jung 2011 M. Jung, A. Kemle, T. Strauss, M. Wawzyniak, “Innenraumheizung von Hybrid- und
Elektrofahrzeugen”, Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift (ATZ), pp.396-401, 2011
Khayyam 2011 H. Khayyam, A.Z. Kouzani, E.J. Hu, S. Nahavandi, “Coordinated energy man-
agement of vehicle air conditioning system”, Applied Thermal Engineering,
Vol.31, pp.750-764, 2011
Lund 2010 H. Lund, B. V. Mathiesen, P. Christensen, J. H. Schmidt, “ Energy system analy-
sis of marginal electricity supply in consequential LCA”, International Journal
of Life Cycle Assessment, Vol. 15, pp. 260-271, 2010
Majeau-Bettez 2011
G. Majeau-Bettez, T.R. Hawkins, A.H. Strømman, “Life Cycle Environmental As-
sessment of Lihtium-Ion and Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hy-
brid and Battery Electric Vehicles”, Environmental Science and Technology,
Vol. 45, pp.4548-4554, 2011
Mattsson 2001 N. Mattsson, T. Unger, T. Ekvall, “Marginal Effects in a Dynamic System – The
case of the nordic power system”, presented to the International Workshop
on Electricity Data for Life Cycle Inventories, Cincinnati, USA, 2001.10.23-25
Mock 2012 P. Mock, J. German, A. Bandivadekar, I. Riemersma, “Discrepancies between
type approval and “real-world” fuel-consumption and CO2 values”, Interna-
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Schweimer 2000 G.W. Schweimer, M. Levin, “Life Cycle Inventory for the Golf A4”, Research,
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Soltic 2011 P. Soltic, C. Bach, “CO2 reduction and cost efficiency potential of natural gas
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4, pp. 48-56, 1999
13 Annex
Below, for each cell marked with a 1 in the interdependency matrix given in chapter 4 (i.e. indi-
cating that an interaction occurs), a comment on the type of interaction is given in the legend.
For example, the comment on the influence of the e-motor on the vehicle weight can be found
as item number 11.
Components Vehicle

Power Electronics
Non-p. El. System

Traction-Battery
Vehicle Weight
Aerodynamics
Body (Frame)
Transmission
Insulation
(in use phase)

E-motor
Charger
SBSS
influence(s)…
Vehicle Weight 1 3 8 11 16 18 20 0 22 25 30
Vehicle
Energy Demand 2 4 9 12 17 19 0 21 23 26 27
Charger 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Traction-Battery 0 10 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31
E-motor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33
Components
Transmission 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 34
SBSS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 35
Body (Frame) 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 0
Aerodynamics 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Insulation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-p. El. System 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 0 0
Table 9: Interdependency Matrix. Numbers explained in the legend.
Legend:
1 The weight of the charger may slightly influence the overall vehicle weight.
2 The efficiency of the charger might strongly influence the overall energy demand.
3 The weight of the traction battery may strongly influence the overall vehicle weight.
4 The charge-discharge-efficiency of the battery moderately influences overall energy de-
mand. Stand-by losses (e.g. of high temperature batteries) can strongly increase energy
demand in use phase.
5 The charger must fit to the traction battery.
6 The voltage and the power of the traction battery may have an influence on the neces-
sary size and performance of the power electronics.
7 The volume and the form of the battery may influence the body (frame) form.
8 The weight of the power electronics may slightly influence the overall vehicle weight.
9 The energy demand of the power electronics may moderately influence the overall en-
ergy demand during use phase.
10 The design of the power electronics can influence the life expectancy of the battery.
11 The weight of the e-motor may moderately influence the overall vehicle weight.
12 Efficiency and dimensioning of the e-motor may strongly influence the overall energy
demand during use phase.
13 The power of the electric motor can influence the charging power during recuperative
braking and thus the life expectancy of the battery.
14 The speed of the e-motor may have an influence on the requirements of the power elec-
tronics.
15 The speed of the e-motor may have an influence on the requirements of the transmis-
sion.
16 The weight of the transmission may slightly influence the overall vehicle weight.
17 Efficiency and gearshift strategy of the transmission may strongly influence the overall
energy demand during use phase.
18 The weight of the SBSS may slightly influence the overall vehicle weight.
19 The energy demand of the SBSS may moderately influence the overall energy demand
during use phase.
20 The weight of the body (frame) may strongly influence the overall vehicle weight.
21 The drag may strongly influence the overall energy demand during use phase.
22 The weight of the insulation may slightly influence the overall vehicle weight.
23 The performance of the insulation may moderately influence the overall energy demand
during use phase.
24 The performance of the insulation may have an influence on the need for heating and
A/C.
25 The weight of the non-propulsion electrical system may slightly influence the overall ve-
hicle weight.
26 The energy demand of the non-propulsion electrical system may moderately influence
the overall energy demand during use phase.
27 The overall vehicle weight may strongly influence the overall energy demand during use
phase.
28 The vehicle weight influences the dimension of the SBSS.
29 The vehicle weight may have an influence on the necessary strength of the body
(frame).
30 The overall energy demand during use phase may have an influence on the overall vehi-
cle weight via the corresponding mass of e.g. battery and e-motor.
31 The overall energy demand during use phase may have an influence on the necessary
energy capacity and power of the battery.
32 The overall energy demand during use phase may have an influence on the necessary
power of the power electronics.
33 Higher energy demand leads to higher power demand from motor (to ensure same driv-
ing performance).
34 Higher energy demand leads to demand of higher strength of transmission (to ensure
same driving performance).
35 Higher energy demand leads to demand of higher strength of SBSS (to ensure same driv-
ing performance).

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Guidelines

for the LCA

Authors: Andrea Del Duce (Empa), Patricia Egede (TUBS),

Deliverable: D2.1 Guidebook for LCA studies

Project acronym: eLCAr

Call (part) identifier: FP7-2011-GC-ELECTROCHEMICAL-STORAGE

Key words: eLCAr, European Green Cars Initiative, LCA,

The research leading to these results has received funding

List of figures III

3 Brief introduction to LCA (ILCD) 8

6.3 Life Cycle Inventory modelling framework 39

7 Life cycle inventory analysis 61

8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ILCD 2010) 121

9 Life Cycle Interpretation 124

1.2 ILCD framework and compliance statement

1 ELCAr Website: http://www.elcar-project.eu/uploads/media/D3.1_Analysis_of_exemplary_use_cases_update.pdf

Allocation 'Partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product

3 Brief introduction to LCA (ILCD)

Life Cycle Assessment is a structured, comprehensive and internationally standardised meth-

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK

Figure 1: Framework of LCA

3.1 Goal definition

3.2 Scope definition

3.3 Inventory analysis

3.4 Impact assessment

The interpretation proceeds through three stages:

3.6 Iterative approach

Overall data quality

2nd Iteration Evaluation

Time and effort

Figure 2: Iterative approach in LCA.

4.2 BEVs and serial PHEVs

Wheels and tyres

Figure 3: Main building block of BEVs and serial PHEVs.

4.2.1 The interdependency matrix

Overall Energy Demand

Non-p. El. System

(in use phase)

4.2.1.2 Component-component interrelations

4.2.1.3 How to use the interdependency matrix

Overall Energy Demand

Non-p. El. System

(in use phase)

4.2.2 Common parameter platform (CPP): Transport parameters,

4.2.2.1 Transport and general vehicle parameters

3 Output of 1st eLCAr workshop (eLCAr 2012)

Data status 2012 Micro/City Compact Mid-size

4.2.2.2 Vehicle modules

4 For a list of drag coefficients see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_coefficient and

Data status 2012 Micro/City Compact Mid-size

The power electronics

The electric motor

Table 5: Weight distribution of the electric drivetrain.

5.1 Intended application

5.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations

5 See scope definition in ISO framework.

environmental aspects. Hence, limitations (be they on methodology, assumptions, or evalu-

5.3 Reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context

7 First eLCAr workshop.

8 Taken from the general ILCD Handbook

5.4 Target audience

5.5 Comparisons to be disclosed to the public

 Vehicle with battery A:

Output and type of wastes and their treatment services