Please read this disclaimer before proceeding:

This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of
RMK Group of Educational Institutions. If you have received this document
through email in error, please notify the system manager. This document
contains proprietary information and is intended only to the respective group /
learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender
immediately by e-mail if you have received this document by mistake and delete
this document from your system. If you are not the intended recipient you are
notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in reliance on
the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.
 R.M.K COLEGE OF
ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY

OMD 551
BASICS OF
BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Department : EEE

Batch/Year : 2018-2022 / III year

Created by :K.GUNALAN
Date :25/08/2020
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Unit 3 – Signal Conditioning Circuits 12

13
6.1 Lecture Plan
14
6.2 Activity based learning
15
6.3 Lecture Notes

 Need for bio-amplifier 16

 Differential Bio-amplifier 17

 Operational Amplifier 21

 Impedance matching circuit (Instrumentation 25

Amplifier)

 Isolation Amplifiers 27

 Power Line Interference 37

 Right leg driven ECG amplifier 39

 Band Pass Filtering 42

5
S.No Contents Page
Number
47
6.4 Assignments
48
6.5 Part A Q & A
53
6.6 Part B Questions
54
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses
55
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life
and to Industry
56
6.9 Content beyond the Syllabus
7 Assessment Schedule 57

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 58

9 Mini Project suggestions 59

6
1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

OBJECTIVES:

1. To study about the different bio potential and its propagation

2. To understand the different types of electrodes and its placement for various
recording

3. To study the design of bio amplifier for various physiological recording

4. To learn the different measurement techniques for non-physiological parameters.
5. To learn the different bio-chemical electrodes.
6. To learn different biochemical measurements.
2. Pre Requisites

1. EE8451 – LINEAR INEGRATED CIRCUITS

By learning this course the student will have deep insight in to Operational
Amplifiers, Instrumentation Amplifiers
3. SYLLABUS

OMD551 BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION LTPC

3 003

UNIT I BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES

9
Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes - surface, needle and
micro electrodes and their equivalent circuits. Recording problems - measurement with
two electrodes

UNIT II BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE

CONFIGURATIONS 9
Biosignals characteristics – frequency and amplitude ranges. ECG – Einthoven‟s
triangle, standard 12 lead system. EEG – 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and
average mode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar mode.

UNIT III SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS 9

Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance matching circuit, isolation
amplifiers, Power line interference, Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICALPARAMETERS 10

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure: indirect
methods -Auscultatory method, direct methods: electronic manometer, Systolic,
diastolic pressure, Blood flow and cardiac output measurement: Indicator dilution, and
dye dilution method, ultrasound blood flow measurement.

UNIT V BIO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT 8

Blood gas analyzers and Non-Invasive monitoring, colorimeter, Sodium Potassium
Analyzer, spectrophotometer, blood cell counter, auto analyzer (simplified schematic
description).
4. COURSE OUTCOMES

COURSE OUTCOMES:

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Highest
Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
To Learn the different bio potential and its
CO 302.1 K2
propagation.
To get Familiarize the different electrode
CO 302.2 K2
placement for various physiological recording
Students will be able design bio amplifier for
CO 302.3 K2
various physiological recording
Students will understand various technique non
CO 302.4 K2
electrical physiological measurements
To learn the about different bio-chemical
CO 302.5 K2
electrodes
Understand the different biochemical K2
CO 302.6
measurements
5. CO- PO/PSO Mapping

MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Course Leve
Outcomes
Outcom l of
K3,
es CO K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K5 K5 K3
K6
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3
C302.1 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.2 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.3 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 -
C302.4 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 -
C302.5 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.6 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 -

11
6 UNIT 3 – SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUTS

12
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT III – SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

1 PPT through
Need for bio-
1 CO3 K2 Online
amplifier
2 K2 PPT through
Differential Bio-
2 CO3 Online
amplifier
1 K2 PPT through
Operational
3 CO3 Online
Amplifier
1 K2 PPT through
Impedance
4 CO3 Online
matching circuit
1 PPT through
Isolation
5 CO3 K2 Online
Amplifiers
1 PPT through
Power Line
6 CO3 K2 Online
Interference
1 PPT through
Right leg driven
7 CO3 K2 Online
ECG amplifier
1 PPT through
Band Pass
8 CO3 K2 Online
Filtering

Total No. of Periods : 9

13
6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Pertaining Highest Activity

SI.No. Topic
CO(s) Cognitive Level

1 Bio Amplifiers CO3 K2 Quiz

Differential
2 CO3 K2 Crossword Puzzle
Amplifiers

14
Bio Amplifiers - Quiz

1. The filter used to reject the 50Hz noise picked up from power lines or machinery
is called?
a) band reject filter
b) band stop filter
c) notch filter
d) all reject filter
2. Devices that pass the signal from its source to the measurement device without a
physical or galvanic connection by using transformer, optical or capacitive coupling
technique are called?
a) filters
b) rectifiers
c) bridges
d) isolators
3. Which of the following technique is not employed in isolation devices?
a) resistance
b) optical
c) inductance
d) capacitance
4. Besides breaking ground loops, isolation blocks high voltage surges and rejects
high common mode voltages.
a) True
b) False
5. Strain gauges are resistance devices in a Wheat stone bridge configuration
_________
a) which does not require bridge completion circuitry and an excitation
source
b) which requires bridge completion circuitry and an excitation source
c) which neither requires bridge completion circuitry nor an excitation
source
d) which requires bridge completion circuitry but does not an excitation
source
6. Which of the following voltage regulator IC gives a variable positive voltage?
a) LM317
b) LM337
c) 7805
d) 7812
7. ________ IC is a variable negative voltage regulator.
a) 7912
b) 7905
c) LM337
d) LM317
8. Digital filters are sensitive to temperature as compared with analog filters.
a) True
b) False
9. Signal conditioning is not of much importance in the measuring and recording
system.
a) True
b) False
10. Which amplifier will reject any common mode signal that appears simultaneously
at both amplifier input terminal and amplifies only the voltage difference that
appears across its input terminals?
a) ac coupled amplifiers
b) differential amplifiers
c) carrier amplifiers
d) dc amplifiers
11. Which amplifier has a limited frequency response?
a) differential amplifier
b) dc amplifiers
c) ac coupled amplifiers
d) carrier amplifiers
12. ______________ are used with transducers which require an external source of
excitation.
a) carrier amplifiers
b) dc amplifiers
c) ac coupled amplifiers
d) differential amplifier
13. DC amplifiers are employed with _______ feedback type.
a) positive
b) negative
c) depends on the application
d) can be any positive or negative does‘t matter
14. DC amplifiers are mostly used for very low level applications because they offer
very less dc drift and high common mode rejection capabilities.
a) True
b) False
15. Chopper stabilized dc amplifiers are complex amplifiers having ________
amplifiers incorporated in the module.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4

Answers for Bio amplifiers - Quiz

1.c
2.d
3.a
4.a
5.b
6.a
7.c
8.b
9.b
10. b
11.b
12.a
13.b
14.b
15.c
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER-CROSSWORD PUZZLE

Virtual ground Noninverting Single ended Voltage

mode buffer
Slew Rate Base current Summation integration

Differentiation Linear Offset Common

operations mode
Voltage gain bandwidth Negative amplify
feedback
6.3 Lecture Notes

Unit – 3 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance

matching circuit, isolation amplifiers, Power line interference,
Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

19
SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

3.1 NEED FOR BIOAMPLIFIER:

Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low

frequency. Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of bio signals amplifiers
are designed. The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further analysis
and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers
are defined as Bio Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOLOGICAL AMPLIFIERS

The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The
range of value lies between 2 MC) and 10 MQ depending on the applications.
Higher impedance value reduces distortion of the signal.

When electrodes pick up bio potentials from the human body, the input
circuit should be protected. Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation
and protection circuits, to prevent the patients from electrical shocks.

Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range, the

voltage gain value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.

Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be

maintained.

A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.

A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater

than 80dB to reduce the interference from common mode signal.

The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.

3.2 Types of Bio Amplifiers

Different types of Bio Amplifiers are available. Among that, mainly used amplifiers
are:

Differential Amplifier

Operational Amplifier

Instrumentation Amplifier

Isolation Amplifier

Chopper Amplifier

3.2.1 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to amplify the difference

between the voltages applied at its inputs. It can be of two types :

Differential amplifiers built using transistors, either Bipoloar Junction

Transistors(BJTs) or Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

Differential amplifiers using Op-Amps.

3.2.1.1 Differential Amplifier using BJT

Fig.3.1. Differential Amplifier using BJT

The circuit made of two BJTs (QI and Q2) and two power supplies of opposite polarity.
Vcc and VEE which uses three resistors among which two are the collector resistors, RCI
and RC2 (one for each transistor) while one is the emitter resistor RE common to both
transistors.

In this case, if the VI at QI is sinusoidal, then as VI goes on increasing, the transistor

starts to conduct and this results in a heavy collector current IC1 increasing the voltage
drop across RCI, causing a decrease in Volume. Due to the same effect, even IE1 increases
which increases the common emitter current, IE resulting in an increase of voltage drop
across RE.

This means that the emitters of both transistors are driven towards positive which in turn
implies that the base of Q2 would start to become more and more negative. This results
in a decrease of collector current, IC2 which in turn decreases the voltage drop across the
collector resistor RE, resulting in an increase in the output voltage V02. This indicates that

the changes in the sinusoidal signal observed at the input of transistor QI is reflected as
such across the collector terminal of Q2 and appear with a phase difference of 1800 across
the collector terminal of Q1. The differential amplification can be driven by considering
the output in between the collector terminals of the transistors, Q1 and Q2.

On the other hand, if the signal applied to each input terminal is equal in amplitude and
is in the same phase (called the common-mode input signal), the change in current flow
through both transistors will be identical, the bridge will remain balanced, and the voltage
between the output terminals will remain zero. Thus, the circuit provides high gain for
differential mode signals and no output for all common mode signals.

The ability of the amplifier to reject these common voltages on its two input leads is
known as common-mode rejection and is specified as the ratio of common-mode input to
differential input to elicit the same response. It is abbreviated as CMRR (Common-mode
rejection ratio).

CMRR is an important specification referred to the differential amplifier and is normally

expressed as decibels. CMRR of the preamplifiers should be as high as possible so that
only the wanted signals find a way through the amplifier and all unwanted signals get
rejected in the preamplifier stage.
3.2.1.2 Differential Amplifier using Op-Amp

The design of a good differential amplifier essentially implies the use of

closely matched components which has been best achieved in the integrated
circuit form. High gain integrated dc amplifiers, with differential input
connections and a provision for external feedback have been given the name
operational amplifiers because of their ability to perform mathematical
operations.

These amplifiers are applied for the construction of ac or dc amplifiers, active

filters, phase inverters, multi vibrators and comparators, etc. by suitable
feedback arrangement, and therefore find a large number of applications in
the medical field.

Fig.3.2 Differential Amplifier using Op-Amp

Input V1=0, the circuit act as a inverting amplifier. So the output of inverting
amplifier

If the input V2 =0 ,the circuit act as a Non inverting amplifier. The voltage at the
non-inverting terminal

The non- inverting amplifier output is

The total output voltage differential amplifier

The common mode rejection for most op-amps is typically between 60 dB and 90
dB. This may not be sufficient to reject common mode noise generally encountered
in biomedical measurements. Also, the input impedance is not very high to handle
signals from high impedance sources. One method to increase the input impedance
of the op-amp is to use field effect transistors (FET) in the input differential stage. A
more common approach is to use an instrumentation amplifier in the preamplifier
stage.
3.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An Op-amp is a high gain differential amplifier. The best way to approach the
design of a circuit that uses Op-amp is first to assume that the Op-amp is
ideal.

Fig.3.3 Operational Amplifier

The voltage at the inverting input terminal VI and Non inverting input
terminal V2.
The voltage difference at the input side Vd=V2-V1
Op-amp output voltage Vo= A(V2-V1).

IDEAL OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-amp also has
two voltage supply terminals. Two input terminals form the differential input.
The terminal, marked with negative (-) sign is called as the inverting terminal and
the terminal marked with positive (+) sign is called as the non-inverting terminal of
the operational amplifier.
If input signal is applied at the inverting terminal (-) than the amplified output
signal is 180o out of phase concerning the applied input signal.
If input signal is applied to the non-inverting terminal (+) then the output signal
obtained will be in phase, i.e. it will have no phase shift concerning the input signal.
While on the one hand, operational amplifiers offer very high gain, it makes the
amplifier unstable & hard to control. Some of this gain can be lost by connecting a
resistor across the amplifier from the output terminal back to the inverting input
terminal to control the final gain of the amplifier. This is commonly known as
negative feedback and produces a more stable opamp.
Negative feedback is the process of feeding a part of the output signal back to the
input. But to make the feedback negative, it is fed to the negative or "inverting
input" terminal of the opamp using a resistor. This effect produces a closed loop
circuit resulting in Closed-loop Gain. A closed-loop inverting amplifier uses negative
feedback to accurately control the overall gain of the amplifier, but causes a
reduction in the amplifiers gain

INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Fig.3.4.Inverting Op-Amp
 In an inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier inverting input
receives feedback from the output of the amplifier. Assuming the op-amp is
ideal and applying the concept of virtual short at the input terminals of op-
amp, the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to non-inverting terminal.
The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is connected to ground.
As the gain of the op amp itself is very high and the output from the
amplifier is a matter of only a few volts, this means that the difference
between the two input terminals is exceedingly small and can be ignored. As
the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is held at ground
potential this means that the inverting input must be virtually at earth
potential.
The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is,

This indicates that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is decided by
the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor with the minus sign
indicating the phase-reversal. Further, it is to be noted that the input
impedance of the inverting amplifier is nothing but Rin.

NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFERS

The non-inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with

respect to the input. The feedback is applied at the inverting input. However,
the input is now applied at the noninverting input. The output is a non-
Inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version of input.

Fig.3.5 Non-inverting Operational Amplifiers

Here, in the above circuit, we connect an external resistance R1 and feedback
resistance Rf at inverting input. By applying Kirchhoff Current Law,

The input voltage is applied to the non inverting terminal is vi. If the op amp in the
circuit is ideal op amp, then

Therefore, equation (i) can be rewritten as,

The closed loop gain of the circuit is,

From the expression of voltage gain of an non inverting op amp, the gain will be
unity when Rf = 0 or R1 → ∞.
Impedance matching circuit
3.2.3 Instrumentation Amplifier:

In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input impedance are
attained with an instrumentation amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier setup forms
the instrumentation amplifier circuit.

The output from the transducer is given as input to the instrumentation

amplifier. Before the signal goes to the next stage, a special amplifier is
required with high CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading effects.
This type of amplifier is called Instrumentation Amplifier.

Fig.3.6 Instrumentation Amplifier

In the circuit diagram, opamp‘s labelled Al and A2 are the input buffers. Anyway
the gains of these buffer stages are not unity because of the presence of R' and
Rg. Op amp labelled A3 is wired as a standard differential amplifier. R3 connected
from the output of A3 to its non inverting input is the feedback resistor. R2 is the
input resistor. Op-amp A3 working as a differential amplifier. The voltage gain of
the instrumentation amplifier can be expressed by using the equation below:

In order to vary the gain, Rg is replaced with a potentiometer. Instrumentation

amplifiers are generally used in situations where high sensitivity, accuracy and
stability are required.
3.2.4 ISOLATION AMPLIFIERS
For safety, it is important to protect the user from the hazards of electrical shock.
Electrical shock can always present a safety risk with electrical circuits and it is important
to consider the problem seriously.

Isolation amplifiers can be used to break ground loops, eliminate source ground
connections, and provide isolation protection to patient and electronic equipment. In a
bio potential amplifier, the main purpose of the isolation amplifier is the protection of the
patient by eliminating the hazard of electric shock resulting from the interaction among
patient, amplifier, and other electric devices in the patient's environment, specifically
defibrillators and electrosurgical equipment. It also adds to the prevention of line
frequency interferences.

Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation circuits. An isolation amplifier

increases the input impedance of a patient monitoring system. It also helps to isolate the
patient from the device. Using the isolation amplifier prevents accidental internal cardiac
shock. It provides up to 1012 Ω insulation between the patient and the power line in the
hospital.

Fig.3.7 Isolation Amplifier

 The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes. The signals received goes to the
amplifier block, where signals amplification occurs. After amplification, the signal
enters the modulation block. Either it goes to the isolation barrier, optical cable or
transformer can be used.

If in case of optical cable, modulator output travels to LED. The LED converts
electrical signals into light energy. If the transformer acts an isolation barrier,
modulator output connects the primary winding of the transformer. Energy from
primary transfers to the secondary winding based on the mutual induction principle.
At the next stage, secondary output enters the demodulation block. Finally, the
amplified demodulated signal is obtained.

Three methods are used in the design of isolation amplifiers:

Transformer isolation

Optical isolation

Capacitive isolation

3.2.4.1 Transformer Isolation Type

It uses either a frequency-modulated or a pulse width modulated carrier signal with
small signal bandwidths up to 30 kHz to carry the signal.

It uses an internal dc—to-dc converter comprising of a 20 kHz oscillator,

transformer, rectifier and filter to supply isolated power.

Fig.3.8 Transformer Isolation Type

3.2.4.2 Optical Isolation Type

Isolation could also be achieved by optical means in which the patient is

electrically connected with neither the hospital line nor the ground line. A
separate battery operated circuit supplies power to the patient circuit and
the signal of interest is converted into light by a light source (LED).

This light falls on a phototransistor on the output side, which converts the
light signal again into an electrical signal , having its original frequency,
amplitude and linearity. No modulator/ demodulator is needed because the
signal is transmitted optically all the way.

Fig.3.9 Optical Isolation Type

3.2.4.3 Capacitive Isolation type

The capacitive method uses digital encoding of the input voltage and
frequency modulation to send the signal across a differential capacitive
barrier.

Separate power supply is needed on both sides of the barrier. Signals with
bandwidths up to 70 kHz can be conveniently handled in this arrangement.
 Fig.3.10 Capacitive Isolation Type

It uses digital encoding of the input voltage and frequency modulation.

The input voltage is converted to proportional charge on the switched capacitor.
It has modulator and demodulator circuits.
The signals are sent across a differential capacitive barrier.
Separate supplies given on both sides.
Advantages of capacitive isolation type:

Ripple noises are removed.

It avoids device noise, radiated noise and conducted noise.

High immunity to magnetic noise.

High gain stability and linearity

Merits of three types of Isolation Amplifier

Opto-coupled amplifier uses a minimum number of components and is cost

effective, followed by the transformer coupled amplifier. The capacitor coupled
amplifier is the most expensive.

Opto-isolated amplifiers offer the lowest isolation voltage (800 V continuous)

between input and output; transformer coupled 1200 V and capacitance coupled
2200 V.

Isolation resistance levels are of the order of 10 10, 10 12 and 10 12 ohms for
transformer coupled, opto-coupled and capacitance coupled amplifiers respectively.

Gain stability and linearity are best for capacitance coupled versions—O.005%, and
transformer and opto-coupled amplifier 0.02%.
3.2.5 CHOPPER AMPLIFIER
When recording bio potentials noise and drift are the two problems encountered.

Noise is due to the recording device and by the patient when they move.

Drift is a shift in baseline created due to various thermal effects.

A DC amplifier has a shift or sudden peak in the output when the input is zero.
Therefore, a chopper amplifier solves the problems of drift in DC amplifiers.

The name Chop means to sample the data. The amplifier circuit samples the
analog signal. So it is known as chopper amplifier.

Fig.3.11. Block Diagram of Chopper Amplifier

 The first block chopper accepts the DC input signal and converts them to an
AC signal. The AC amplifier block amplifies the chopped AC signal.

Next, in the demodulator rectifier block, an amplified chopped AC signal is

converted to amplified DC signal.

The Chopper converts DC or low-frequency signal to high-frequency signal.

An AC amplifier amplifies the modulated high-frequency signal. The amplified

signal is demodulated and filtered to obtain the low frequency or DC signal.

TYPES OF CHOPPER AMPLIFIER

Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

Non-Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

Differential Chopper Amplifier

3.2.5.1 MECHANICAL CHOPPER AMPLIFIER

Fig. 3.12 Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

 Chopper S1 acts as electromagnetically operated switch or relay.

‗A‘ is the AC amplifier that has an input terminal and a ground terminal. ‗Q‘
acts as reference term.

Chopper acts a switch, so it connects the amplifier input terminal

alternatively to reference term Q.

Consider a condition in which chopper S1 is closed. At this position, the

amplifier input terminal connects to Q1. The entire circuit is short-circuited,
so input voltage is zero.

Now , consider the reverse operation when chopper S1 is open. The AC

amplifier starts receiving the signal from P terminal. Finally, the amplifier
input has an alternating voltage that varies between zero and input voltage.
At this stage, conversion of DC signal to square wave pulse occurs with
amplification. Diode ‗D‘ rectifies the chopped signal.

After rectification, the rectified signal is filtered and amplified. At the output
terminal M and N, the amplified DC output signal occurs. Chopping or
sampling rate determines the chopper response time.

3.2.5.2 NON-MECHANICAL CHOPPER AMPLIFIER

Non-mechanical chopper uses photodiodes or photoconductors for
modulation (convert DC signals to AC signals) and demodulation (convert AC
signals to DC signals).

An oscillator has two neon bulbs, which operates on half cycles of oscillation.

PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4 are photodiodes. Neon lamp 1 flashes light on PC1
and PC2. Neon lamp 2 flashes light on PC3 and PC4.

When light falls on PC1, its resistance value reduces making the capacitor to
charge. Light falls on PC3 making the input to flow through it when there is
no light on PC1. Therefore, the light incidence on PC1 and PC3 takes place
alternatively to generate a square wave pulse across the output capacitor.
The generated square wave pulse is the input for the AC amplifier. The
amplifier output is an amplified square wave pulse. The other two
photodiodes PC2 and PC4 are in the output circuit. It recovers DC signal and
makes the capacitor fully charged to the peak value of output voltage.

At the final stage, a low pass filter removes the unwanted noise and ripples.
The output is an amplified DC signal.

Fig.3.13 Non-mechanical Chopper Amplifier

3.2.5.3 DIFFERENTIAL CHOPPER AMPLIFIER

Fig.3.14 Differential Chopper Amplifier

A type of chopper used for EEG measurement is a differential chopper.

It has a transformer. A chopper vibrator connects the input of the

transformer.

The center tap of the transformer acts as one of the terminals for the input
connector.

The chopper switch acts as another terminal. AC coupled amplifier provides

the gain.

The output from this amplifier goes to filter and demodulator block. Finally,
an amplified DC output signal is obtained
3.3 ECG ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

Fig.3.11. ECG Isolation Amplifier Circuit

 During ECG measurement, signals generated from all leads are sent to the low pass filter.
This filter is named as Electro surgery filters because it decreases the interference
between electro surgery and radio frequency.

Next block is the high voltage and overvoltage protection that can withstand large voltage
during defibrillation. Then , it goes to Lead Selector Switch block, which selects the
required configuration.

Lead selection output goes to the DC amplifier. The primary winding of the transformer is
connected to the oscillator and secondary to rectifier and filter.

ECG signal is modulated with the Synchronous modulator. The second transformer
delivers the output from the synchronous modulator to the synchronous demodulator.
The output from the demodulator is fed as input to the power amplifier.

3.4 POWER LINE INTERFERENCE

Power line interference is easily recognizable since the interfering voltage in the
ECG would have a frequency of 50 Hertz. This interference may be due to the stray
effect of the alternating current on the patient or because of alternating current
fields due to loops in the patient cable.

Other causes of interference are loose contacts on the patient cable as well as dirty
electrodes. When the machine or the patient is not properly grounded, power line
interference may even completely obscure the ECG waveform.

Fig.3.12. ECG wave due to power line inference

 The most common cause of 50 Hz interference is the disconnected electrode
resulting in a very strong disturbing signal. It is often strong enough to
damage the stylus of an unprotected direct writing recorder, and therefore
needs quick action.

Electromagnetic interference from the power lines also results in poor quality
tracings. Electrical equipment such as air-conditioners, elevators and X-ray
units draw heavy power-line current, which induce 50 Hz signals in the input
circuits of ECG machines. Due to unbalanced linkages, common mode
rejection circuits almost prove ineffective against them.

A practical solution to minimize this problem is physical separation between

the interference causing sources and the patient. Levkov et al (1984)
developed a method of digital 50 Hz interference elimination by computing
the interference amplitudes and subtracting these data from the original
signal, thereby greatly reducing the requirements of amplifiers, shielding,
earthing, electrode quality and application procedures.

Electrical power systems also induce extremely rapid pulses or spikes on the
trace, as a result of switching action. Use of a transient suppressor in the
mains lead of the machines helps to solve this problem.

Shielding techniques to eliminate the interferences in ECG waveform.

Electro static shielding:- Place a ground conducting plane between the

source of the electric field and the measurement system.

Magnetic shield: Use high permeability materials.

Use twisted cables to reduce magnetic flux and loop area.

Electro static shielding:

Electrostatic shielding used to remove electric field interference on an
electrocardiograph.

Isolation capacitor used to isolate patient from power line.

 Fig.3.13. Electro static shielding
Fig.3.13. Electro static shielding

3.5 RIGHT LEG DRIVEN ECG AMPLIFIER

A Driven Right Leg Circuit or DRL circuit is an electric circuit that is often
added to biological signal amplifiers to reduce Common-mode interference.
Biological signal amplifiers such as ECG (Electrocardiogram) EEG
(Electroencephalogram) or EMG circuits measure very small electrical signals
emitted by the body, often as small as several micro-volts.

Unfortunately, the patient's body can also act as an antenna which picks up
electromagnetic interference, especially 50/60 Hz noise from electrical power
lines. This interference can obscure the biological signals, making them very
hard to measure.

Right Leg Driver circuitry is used to eliminate interference noise by actively

cancelling the interference.
Objective:
Reduce interference in amplifier

Improve patient safety

Approach:
Patient right leg tied to output of an auxiliary amp rather than ground.

Common mode voltage on body sensed by averaging resistors, Ra's & RF

fed back to right leg.

Provides negative feedback to reduce common mode voltage.

If high voltage appears between patient and ground, auxiliary Op-amp

effectively ungrounds the patient to stop current flow.

Fig.3.14. Right Leg driven ECG amplifier

Determine the common-mode voltage Vcm on the patient in the driven right-
leg circuit of when a displacement current id flows to the patient from the
power lines.

Choose appropriate values for the resistances in the circuit so that the
common-mode voltage is minimal and there is only a high-resistance path to
ground when the auxiliary operational amplifier saturates.

Equivalent circuit to determine common mode gain,

Vcm as small as possible choose large Rf and small Ra.

3.6 BAND PASS FILTER
In general, the ECG signal is nature weak and only around 1mV amplitude.
Therefore filter and amplifier circuits were designed into 3 stages with a total
gain of 1000 to bring the signal to around IV. Circuit designed included of
instrumentation amplifier, band pass filter and notch filter. The frequency
bandwidth of ECG is between 0.05Hz until 100Hz. Band pass filter is
designed by cascading High pass filter with low pass filter.

Low pass Filter Using op-amp:

The Low pass filter is useful for attenuating high frequency noises and allows
the low frequency signals.

Fig.3.16.Low pass Filter

where, fh – higher cut off frequency
High Pass Filter
High pass filter allows the higher frequencies which are above lower cut off
frequency. Such a circuit is useful for amplifying a small AC voltage that rides
on top of a large DC voltage, because Ci block dc.

Fig.3.17.Hgh Pass Filter

where, fl – lower cut off frequency of HPF

BAND PASS FILTER

Cascading of High pass filter followed by Low pass filter results in a band
pass filter. Band pass filter which amplifies frequencies over a desired range
and attenuates higher and lower frequencies. But this configuration having
two op-amp. The band pass filter is designed by one op amp is given in the
figure.

Fig.3.18.Band Pass Filter

Band pass Filter is the cascading of HPF and LPF. So, the Frequency response of
BPF is:

Fig.3.19. Frequency response of Band Pass Filter

6.4 ASSIGNMENTS

Describe how MOSFET biosensors & BIOMEMS are used in Biomedical

Applications.
Separation of high and low frequency components using MATLAB.
6.5 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART A CO’S Bloom

s Level

1. What are the requirements of amplifiers CO3 K2

used in biomedical recorders?

 A bio-amplifier should have a small output

impedance.
 A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and
noise.
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of
amplifier should be greater than 80dB to reduce
the interference from common mode signal.

2. What is meant by Bio-amplifiers? CO3 K2

Biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and
low frequency. Therefore, to increase the amplitude
level of bio signals amplifiers are designed. The
outputs from these amplifiers are used for further
analysis and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any
bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers are defined as
Bio Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.

3. What is preamplifier? State its functional CO3 k1

requirements.
A preamplifier is an electronic amplifier that converts a
weak electrical signal into an output signal strong
enough to be noise-tolerant and strong enough for
further processing, or for sending to a power amplifier
and a loudspeaker. Without this, the final signal would
be noisy or distorted.
4. Define CMRR. CO3 K2

The differential gain Ad magnifies the difference

between the two input voltages. But the common
mode gain Ac magnifies the common mode DC
voltage between the two inputs. The ratio of two
gains is said to be as a common mode rejection
ratio.
CMRR = 20log|Ac/Ad| dB

52
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level

5. Write the purpose of isolation amplifiers. CO3 K1

Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation

circuits. An isolation amplifier increases the input
impedance of a patient monitoring system. It also helps to
isolate the patient from the device. Using the isolation
amplifier prevents accidental internal cardiac shock. It
provides up to 1012 Ω insulation between the patient and
the power line in the hospital.

6. Mention the different methods of isolation CO3 K2

amplifier.
 Transformer Isolation Amplifier
 Optical Isolation Amplifier
 Capacitive Isolation Amplifier

7. Summarize the advantages of transformer CO3 K1

type isolation amplifier.
Used to reduce power surges.
Electrical equipment can run smoothly without the
risk of power surges because the DC signals from
a power source are isolated. This means that equipment
can function at a high level even if there is
a power malfunction.
8. Why isolated preamplifier is used for CO3 K2
bioelectric signal acquisition.
Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and
protection circuits, to prevent the patients from electrical
shocks. Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in
millivolts or microvolt range, the voltage gain value of
the amplifier should be higher than 100dB
9. What are the characteristics of a DC CO3 K1
amplifier?
This is a simple circuit and can be designed a minimum
number of basic electronic components.
It is inexpensive
This amplifier can be used to amplify low-frequency
signals

53
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level

10. Draw the circuit of inverting amplifier. CO3 K2

11. Draw the Impedance matching circuit. CO3 K1

12. Why Power line interference study is CO3 K2

needed for analysis of bio signals?
 Power line interference is easily recognizable since
the interfering voltage in the ECG would have a
frequency of 50 Hertz. This interference may be
due to the stray effect of the alternating current on
the patient or because of alternating current fields
due to loops in the patient cable.
 Other causes of interference are loose contacts on
the patient cable as well as dirty electrodes.

54
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s
Level
13. What is meant by band pass filtering? CO3 K2

 Band pass filter is designed by cascading High pass

filter with low pass filter.
 Band pass filter which amplifies frequencies over a
desired range and attenuates higher and lower
frequencies.
14. Sketch the differential amplifier circuit. CO3 K2

15. What is meant by differential amplifier? CO3 K1

 Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to

amplify the difference between the voltages applied
at its inputs.
 It is an analog circuit with two inputs, V1 and V2;
and one output Vout, in which the output is ideally
proportional to the difference between the two
voltages.
Vout = A(V1-V2) ; Where, A - Gain of the Amplifier

55
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s
Level
16. Write the purpose of impedance CO3 K2
matching circuit.

 In biomedical applications, high gain and the high

input impedance are attained with an
instrumentation amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier
setup forms the instrumentation amplifier circuit.
 Impedance matching is the practice of designing
the input impedance of an electrical load or the
output impedance of its corresponding signal
source to maximize the power transfer or
minimize signal reflection from the load

17. Distinguish between common mode signal and CO3 K2

differential mode signal in differential amplifier

 The common-mode signal is the average of the

two input signals and the difference mode is the
difference between the two input signals.
 In an ideal differential amp, the common-
mode element is cancelled out, since
the differential (+ and -) inputs should subtract out
the identical components.

18. Point out the purpose of Band pass filter in bio CO3 K1
amplifier circuits.

 The main function of a Band pass filter is to limit

the bandwidth of
the output signal to the band allocated for the
transmission.
19. What is chopper Amplifier? CO3 K2

 When recording bio potentials noise and drift are

the two problems encountered.
 Noise is due to the recording device and by
the patient when they move.
 Drift is a shift in baseline created due to
various thermal effects.
 Chopper amplifier solves the problems of drift in
DC amplifiers.

56
 6.6 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Bloo

ms
Level
1. Discuss the working of Differential amplifier CO3 K2
2. Discuss the working of isolation amplifier with
diagram CO3 K2

3. (i) What is the medical use of chopper amplifier?

Draw the diagram of mechanical chopper amplifier
and explain its working. CO3 K2
(ii) Explain the working of a Non mechanical Chopper
amplifier
4. List and discuss the important characteristics of
bioamplifiier CO3 K2

5. What is an isolation amplifier? What is its

CO3 K2
significance? Illustrate any one method.
6. Explain the needs of isolation and chopper amplifiers
CO3 K2
with circuit schematic.
7. Explain with neat sketch about the Right leg driven
CO3 K2
ECG amplifier
8. Describe in detail with neat diagram, Band pass
CO3 K2
filtering circuits of biological amplifiers
9. Explain in detail the different types of Isolation
CO3 K2
amplifiers
10. Elaborate in detail about power line interference
reduction techniques CO3 K2

11. Sketch a neat circuit diagram of a medical preamplifier

and deduce an expression for its net gain CO3 K2

57
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL,
Swayam, Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

ONLINE COURSE NPTEL:

https://swayam.gov.in/explorer?searchText=biomedical
Bio-medical nano technology
Prof. P. Gopinath | IIT Madras
This course introduce to the applications of nanotechnology,
that are gaining overwhelming response in almost all the
fields. Especially in healthcare sector, tremendous
developments have been achieved. Thus, the main objective
of this course is to impart knowledge on biomedical
applications of nanotechnology.

ONLINE COURSE COURSERA:

https://www.coursera.org/learn/bioengineering
Introduction to Biomedical engineering
Dr Kirill Aristovich

The course is covers the practical basics that a Modern

Biomedical Engineer required to know: electronics, control
theory, microcontrollers (Arduino), and high-level
programming (MATLAB).The course is also providing a
platform from which the students can improve their skills
further by simply adding more complicated systems and
experimenting with more advanced control paradigms.

58
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to
Industry

How to build a bio-amplifier

DESCRIPTION
The bio-amplifier is a two stage amplifier. The first stage is an
instrumentation amplifier and the second stage is a standard non-inverting OP-amp.
Between the first and second stage is a high pass filter which removes any DC
generated by the electrodes. For that reason the gain of the instrumentation
amplifier is kept low not to be driven into saturation. The high pass filter usually has
a cutoff frequency in the region of 1 - 0.1Hz depending on the signals measured.

VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FiNjw1vAFd8

Design LPF Using Multisim

DESCRIPTION

The reactance of a capacitor varies inversely with frequency, while the

value of the resistor remains constant as the frequency changes. At low frequencies
the capacitive reactance, ( XC ) of the capacitor will be very large compared to the
resistive value of the resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, VC across the
capacitor will be much larger than the voltage drop, VR developed across the resistor.
At high frequencies the reverse is true with VC being small and VR being large due to
the change in the capacitive reactance value.
VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG0UNtV2rUs

A Low-Power Low-Noise Neural recording Bio amplifier

DESCRIPTION
The amplifier is able to operate under a 1V supply by alleviating the
tradeoff between the noise and the voltage headroom. The amplifier is based on a
gm-cell, such that its effective trans conductance is not a function of the bias
current. This bio amplifier rejects DC offset voltage using active low frequency
suppression instead of AC coupling capacitors to achieve reduced-size and higher
input impedance. The bio amplifier is designed for neural recording of action
potentials and simulated in a 130 nm CMOS process. The amplifier has a Bandwidth
(BW) from 110 Hz to 9.7 kHz.

VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0PMqQlwURA

59
6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus

CARRIER AMPLIFIERS

 A direct-current amplifier in which the dc input signal is filtered by a low-pass

filter, then used to modulate a carrier so it can be amplified conventionally as
an alternating-current signal; the amplified dc output is obtained by
rectifying and filtering the rectified carrier signal.

BIOTRANSDUCER

A bio transducer is the recognition-transduction component of

a biosensor system.

 It consists of two intimately coupled parts; a bio-recognition layer and

a physiochemical transducer, which acting together converts a biochemical
signal to an electronic or optical signal.

 The bio-recognition layer typically contains an enzyme or another binding

protein such as antibody.

 It gives the biosensor selectivity and specificity. The physicochemical

transducer is typically in intimate and controlled contact with the recognition
layer. As a result of the presence and biochemical action of the analyze
(target of interest), a physio-chemical change is produced within the bio
recognition layer that is measured by the physicochemical transducer
producing a signal that is proportionate to the concentration of the
analyte. The physicochemical transducer may be electrochemical, optical,
electronic, gravimetric, pyroelectric or piezoelectric.

VIDEO LINK: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotransducer

60
 7. Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam

61
8. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Leslie Cromwell, ―Biomedical Instrumentation and measurement‖, Prentice

hall of India, New Delhi, 2007.
2. John G. Webster, ―Medical Instrumentation Application and Design‖, John
Wiley and sons, New York, 2004. (Units I, II & V)

REFERENCES:
1. Myer Kutz, ―Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering and Design‖,
McGraw Hill Publisher, 2003.
2. Khandpur R.S, ―Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation‖, Tata
McGraw- Hill, New Delhi, 2003.(Units II & IV)
3. Joseph J. Carr and John M. Brown, ―Introduction to Biomedical Equipment
Technology‖, Pearson Education, 2004.

62
9. Mini Project suggestions

BMI MINI PROJECTS LIST

S.No Name of The Project

1. Electronic Library Management System Using Finger Print Sensor

2. Patient Medical Information System Using Finger Print

3. High Protection Security System With Biometric And Video Transmission

4. Design A Bio amplifier With High CMRR

5 High Protection ATM System With Finger Print Identification Technology

With Image Record And GSM
6. Ebadge using RFID with Biometrics

7. Digital pulmonary function test using Micro controller (DPFT)

8. Monitoring system for premature babies

9. Automatic Medicine Announcement System

10. Multi-parameter physiologic monitoring

11. Bio Feed Back System

12. Human Gait Analyzer and Recognition

13. 4-Channel Temperature Scanning for Cardiac Surgery

14. Micro controller-based human brain hypothermia system

15. Programmable apnea monitoring system

16. A versatile drop foot stimulator for research applications

63
 Thank you

Disclaimer:

This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group of
Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error, please notify the
system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is intended only to the
respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
disseminate, distribute or copy through e-mail. Please notify the sender immediately by e-mail if you
have received this document by mistake and delete this document from your system. If you are not
the intended recipient you are notified that disclosing, copying, distributing or taking any action in
reliance on the contents of this information is strictly prohibited.