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Introduction

1. Types of Instruments

 Direct Instruments
 Indirect Instruments

Direct Measurement

 The value of the physical parameter is determined by

comparing it directly with different standards. The
physical standards like mass, length and time are
measured by direct measurement.
 Meaning of the measurement and the purpose of the
processing operation are identical.

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Indirect Measurement

 The value of the physical parameter is more generally

determined by indirect comparison with the secondary
standards through calibration.
 The measurement is converting into an analogous signal
which subsequently process and fed to the end device at
present the result of measurement.
 Meaning of the measurement and the purpose of the
processing operation are not same but they are related to
each other.

2. Measuring Instruments

 Is a device for determining or ascertaining the value of

some particular quantity or condition.
 The value determined by the instrument is generally, but
not necessarily, quantitative.
 Measuring instrument may be required to indicate,
record, resister, signal or perform some operations on the
value it has determined.

2.1 Classification of Instruments

Classification based on function
1. Indicating Type
2. Recording type
3. Signalling type
4. Registering type
5. Transmitting type
6. Manipulating type

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 Classification based on Working

1. Automatic Instruments
This type of instruments do not require the manual
assistance for their functioning
E.g. the temperature measurement by mercury-in-
glass thermometer is automatic
2. Manual Instruments
This instruments requires manual assistance for their
functioning
e.g. the measurement of temperature by a resistance
thermometer incorporating; Wheatstone bridge in
its circuit is manual in operation as it needs an operator
for obtaining the null position.

Classification based on Source of power

1. Self-operated
Themselves generates the power required for
their operation
Self-generated instruments are the output is
supplied entirely by the input signal.
The instrument does not require any outside
power in performing its function
Example: mercury in glass thermometer

2. Power operated
Requires external power supply for their functioning
So instruments require same auxiliary source of power
such as compound air, electricity, hydraulic supply for
these operations and hence are called externally
powered instruments (or) passive instruments.
 Example:
 L.V.D.T (Linear Variable Differential Transducer)
 Strain gauge load cell
 Resistance thermometer
 Self contained remote indicator.

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Classification based on Mechanical

construction

1. Self –contained
Have all of its parts enclosed in one physical
assembly. e.g. Mercury thermometer
2. Some instruments have different elements
contained in different physical assemblies by
data transmission elements e.g. RTD

2.2 Parts of measuring Instruments

 Primary Element
 Receives energy from the measured medium and utilizes it to produce a
condition representing value of the measured variable.
 Secondary Element
 Converts the condition produced by primary element into the condition
useful for the functioning of instrument
 Manipulation Element
 Performs certain operations on the condition produced by the secondary
element
 Functioning element
 Part used for indicating / recording / signalling / registering / transmitting
measured quantity
 Data Transmission Element
 To Transmit the condition od primary element to the secondary element
When is far away

2.3 Performance characteristics of an

Instrument
 A. Static Characteristics
 These characteristics of an instrument are considered
when it is used for measuring quantity or condition not
varying with time.

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Accuracy

 This is the closeness with which the measuring instrument

can measure the ‘true value’ of the measurand under
stated conditions of use, i.e. its ability to ‘tell the truth’.
 Ability to respond to a true value of a measured variable
under reference condition.
 The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the
difference of its readings and the one given by the
ultimate or primary standard.

In terms of the measured variable itself

 Accuracy for temperature indicator is ±1 0C.

Means the instrument can indicate the temperature of 50

0C accurately between 49 0C and 51 0C,

In terms of the span of the instrument

 Suppose ‘a’ is the highest point of the calibration and

‘b’ is the lowest point od calibration
 Span of the instrument = a – b
 For thermometer calibrated between 20 0C and 100 0C.
Span = 100 – 20 = 80 0C
 Accuracy is ± 0.5 % of span
 Means ± 0.5 % of 80 0C i.e. ± 0.4 0C.
 Temperature of 50 0C accurately between (50 – 0.4) 0C
and (50+0.4) 0C
 i.e between 49.6 0C and 50.4 0C

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In terms of percentage of upper range

value
 For Thermometer having 100 0C as the upper range.
 Accuracy of ± 0.5% of upper range means accuracy of
±0.5 0C.
 Thermometer can indicate temperature of 50 0C

accurately between 49.5 0C and 51.5 0C

In terms of percentage of scale length

 Manometer having maximum of 25 cm level difference,

between its arms
 Accuracy of ± 0.5% means accuracy of 0.5% of 25 cm
 i.e ± 0.125 cm
 Differential pressure reading of 20 cm accurately within
(20 – 0.125) cm and (20 + 0.125) cm i.e. 19.875 cm and
20.125 cm

In terms of actual output reading

 For a thermometer indicating 50 0C temperature,

accuracy of ±1% means its accuracy is ±1% of 50 0C at
this reading.
 Thermometer can indicate temperature of 50 0C

accurately between 49.5 0C and 50.5 0C.

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Overall Accuracy
 Instruments composed of Primary, Secondary,
Manipulation etc.
 Overall accuracy is expressed by overall accuracy is
expressed by combining individual accuracies of
different elements.
 For pressure swing thermometer
 Accuracy of bulb-capillary system is ±0.5 %
 Accuracy of bourdon gauge as ±1%
 Overall accuracy can be expressed
 Least accuracy is within ±(0.5+1) i.e. within ±1.5
 Root square accuracy is within ± 0.52 + 12 = ± 1.25

Static Error

 Is the difference between the actual value indicated by

the instrument and the true value of the quantity or
condition to be measured.
 Static error = Instrument reading – True value
 If Thermometer indicate temperature of 50 0C as 49.5 0C,
then
static error = 49.5 – 50 = -0.5 0C

 No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy

but it is important to find out what accuracy is and how
different errors have entered into the measurement.
 A steady of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce
them. Errors may arise from different sources and are
usually classified as under
1. Mistakes or Gross errors
2. Systematic (or) instrumental errors
3. Random (or) environmental errors

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1. Mistakes or gross errors:

 This cause of errors mainly covers human mistakes in
reading instruments and recording and calculating
measurement result.
 This errors cant be treated mathematically.
 The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the
experimental.
Ex: The temperature is 31.5 0C, but it will write as 21.5 0C
its an error
These can be avoided by:
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording
the data.
2. Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for
quantity under measurement

2. systematic errors:
These types of errors are divided into three categories.
a. Instrumental errors
b. Environmental errors
c. Observational errors
a. Instrumentation errors:
These errors occur due to following reasons.
 Due to mechanical structure of the instrument
 Due to inherent short comings of the instrument
 Due to misuse of instruments
 Due to loading effects of instruments.
e.g. Errors due to friction and irregular spring tension

b)Environmental errors:
 These errors are caused due to changes in the
environmental conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, that may affect the instrument
characteristics, such as the affects of changes in
temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or if
magnetic field or electrostatic field.
 These undesirable errors can be reduced by the
following ways.
I. Arrangement must be made to keep the conditions
approximately constant.
II. Employing hermetically sealing to certain components
in the instrument, which eliminate the effects of the
humidity dust, etc.
III. Magnetic or electrostatic shields must be provided.

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3. Random errors:
 The cause of such errors is unknown (or) not
determinable in the ordinary process making
measurements.
 Such errors are normally small and follow the law of
chance.
 Random errors they may be treated mathematically
according to the law of probability.

1. Certain human errors

 These errors occur due to inconsistency in estimating successive
readings from the instrument by an experimenter.
 To reduce these errors it is necessary to exercise extreme care with
mature and considered judgment in recording the observations.
2. Error caused due to the disturbance to the equipment
 Precision errors in the instrument may arise from the outside
disturbances to the measuring system.
 These disturbances may be variations or mechanical vibrations.
Poorly controlled processes also lead to random errors.
3. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions
 These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled, disturbances
which influence the instrument output.
 Line voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the instrument supports, etc.,
are common examples of this type.

Precision
 Precision is the degree of exactness for which an
instrument is designed or intended to perform.
 It is expressed in terms of conformity of the instrument
which is nothing but maximum deviation of an
instrument’s actual calibration curve as compared to its
specific characteristic curve.

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Repeatability

 When instrument is subjected to certain fixed, known

input, and if instrument readings are noted
consecutively by approaching the measurement from
same direction under same operating conditions, then
the closeness of all these reading for same input
represents repeatability of the instrument.

Reproducibility

 Reproducibility of an instrument is the degree of

closeness with which given value of quantity or
condition can be repeatedly measured while
approaching the measurement from both side under
the same operating conditions.
 It is expressed in terms of units for a given period of time.

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Drift
 The gradual shift in the indication or record of the instrument
over an extended period of time, during which the true
value of the variable does not change is referred to as drift.
 Different kind of drift are
 The entire instrument calibration may gradually shift by the
same amount.
 This is called as zero drift that can be easily corrected by
shifting the pointer position.
 In case of span drift calibrations from lowest value to the
highest value get shifted by the proportional amount.
Hence, higher calibrations get shifted more than the lower
calibrations.
 In some instruments, certain portion of the calibration only
gets shifted while the remaining portion of the scale remains
unaffected.

Classification of Drift

Sensitivity
 Sensitivity of the instrument denotes the smallest change
in the value of a measured variable to which instrument
responds.
 In other words sensitivity denotes the maximum change
in an input signal (measured variable) that will not
initiate a response on the output (indication).
 Accuracy of the thermometer is 1 0C means the
thermometer output (response) would change only if
temperature around it changes by 1 0C.
 Any change in temperature less than 1 0C are not
indicated by this thermometer.

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Dead zone

 Dead zone of the instrument denotes the

largest range of the value of the quantity to
be measured, to which instrument does not
respond.
 Dead zone usually occurs due to friction and
hysteresis effect in instrument.

Hysteresis

 When instrument is subjected to increasing input then

this output increasing along the curve OBA as shown
in fig.
 But when input decreases from I to O, the output
decreases along the curve AB’O.
 This behaviour of output is called as Hysteresis error.
 This error is due to absorption of energy by elements
like springs, diaphragm etc.
 Due to permanent deformation I highly stress
material.

B. Dynamic Characteristics

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Speed of response

 It is the rapidity or fastness with which an instrument

responds to any changes in the input (measured
quantity).
 It can be observed that instrument rarely respond
instantaneously to changes in the measured variable.
 But there is some time lag between change in input and
initiation of change in output of the instrument.
 Also, the speed at which output is smaller than the
speed at which input is changing.

Dead time lag

 Dead time is the period for which instrument does
not respond to changes in the measured variable
(input).
 Thus, it is time delay or retardation type measuring
lag.
 An instrument having appreciable dead time is
generally not satisfactory for measuring a variable
that rapidly changes with time.
 Dead time is caused by a finite dead zone in the
instrument.

Fidelity

 Fidelity of the instrument is the degree of closeness with

which it responds (i.e. indicates or records) to changes in
the measured variable.
 Fidelity represents how close is the instrument reading to
the actual value of measuring quantity

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Dynamic error

 Dynamic Error = true value of quantity changing with

time – Instrument reading

3. Describing an Instrument

 Any measuring instrument can be completely described

with the help of following
 Operating principle
 Construction of sensing and indicating element
 Working of the instrument, working substances used and
measurement ranges
 Calibration procedure
 Performance Characteristics
 Advantages, Limitations, Applications, etc.

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