Journalof Voice

Vol.2, No. 1, pp. 51-69

©1988RavenPress, Ltd., New York

The G. Paul Moore Lecture*

Vocal Mechanisms in Singing: Laryngological and

Phoniatric Aspects

Minoru Hirano
Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kurume University, Kurume, Japan

Summary: Singers can produce great varieties of vocai quality, pitch, and in-
tensity, despite the fact that they have only one pair of vocal folds as their
sound generators. Comprehensive study of the anatomy and physiology of the
vocal folds and the muscles that control them reveals that humans exhibit re-
markably complex control over the characteristics of their vocal folds. Alter-
ations in the length, stiffness, shape, and other characteristics combine with
changes in air flow, resonance, and other activities to permit such extraordi-
nary diversity. The voealis, cricothyroid, and lateral cricoarytenoid muscles
are of particular importance. Additional interdisciplinary studies are needed to
clarify further the mysteries of the human singing voice. Key Words: Voice
quality--Voice intensity--Voice pitch--Laryngeal electromyography--
Voice control mechanisms.

Singers produce great varieties of voice in pitch,
loudness, and tonal quality with the use of only one
sound generator; that is, a pair of vocal folds.
Any singer, however great, has never had more
than a pair of vocal folds. This is in surprising con-
trast to many musical instruments that require mul-
tiple sound generators in order to produce a variety
of tones.
When I started studying singing voice about 2 de-
cades ago as a hobby of an otolaryngologist-head
Presented on June 4, 1987 at the 16th Symposium: Care of the
Professional Voice, The Juilliard School, Lincoln Center, New
York, NY.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Minoru
Hirano, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Sur-
gery, Kurume University, 67 Asahi-machi, Kurume, Japan.
* Editors note: The G. Paul Moore lecture is presented an-
nuallyat the Symposium on Care of the Professional Voice. The
lecture is delivered by an individual who has distinguished him-
selfor herself by outstanding contributions to our understanding
of voice. It usually involves an overview of an area of voice or
voice research in which the distinguished lecturer has particular
interests.
and neck surgeon, I had a very naive question:
How can singers produce such great variety of
voice using only a pair of vocal folds? Two decades
later, I feel that we have found some answers to this
naive question.
There are at least six key points that explain the
remarkable versatility in voice production in human
singing. (1) The human vocal fold has a unique
structure that fits the task. (2) The vocal folds un-
dergo delicate adjustments executed by the laryn-
geal muscles, and therefore, they can function as
many different sound generators. (3) The vocal fold
adjustments are precisely and delicately controlled
by the central nervous system. (4) The respiratory
behavior is appropriately controlled. (5) The reso-
nance cavity shaping is adequately controlled. (6)
The interaction between the sound source and the
resonator is appropriately controlled.
Our research works have been focused chiefly on
the first two: structure of the vocal fold and mus-
cular adjustments of the vocal fold.
This paper is a comprehensively summarized

51
52 M. H I R A N O
version of our investigations conducted over the
past 2 decades. Many of them have been reported
on separate occasions. These investigations have
been performed with great contributions by many
of my colleagues at the Department of Otolaryn-
gology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kurume Univer-
sity, my former colleagues at the Institute of Laryn-
gology and Voice Disorders in Los Angeles, and
those at the Phonetics Laboratory in UCLA.
STRUCTURE OF VOCAL FOLD
The vocal folds of human adults have a very
unique structure that fits singing. Other animals do
not have such a structure. Even in human children,
the vocal fold structure differs from that of matured
larynges.
Figure 1 is a coronal section of a human adult
vocal fold at the middle of the membranous por-
tion. The vocal fold is not uniform, but rather, it
has a layered structure. This is in contrast to the
strings of many musical instruments, which do not
have such layers.
FIG. 1. From Hirano (1).
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. I, 1988
The vocal fold is covered with a thin capsule
called epithelium. Underneath the epithelium, there
is the lamina propria, which can be divided into
three layers. The superficial layer is called Reinke's
space and is loose in fibrous components. It is pli-
able and extremely important for the singing voice.
If this layer of a singer becomes partly or entirely
stiff, he or she may lose the professional sound. It
is this layer that moves most markedly during vocal
fold vibration.
The intermediate layer consists chiefly of elastic
fibers that are something like soft rubber bands.
The deep layer consists primarily of collagenous
fibers that can be likened to cotton thread. These
two layers together are called the vocal ligament.
Underneath the lamina propria lies the vocalis
muscle, t h e main body of the vocal fold. This
muscle, when it contracts, can be regarded as
somewhat like a bundle of stiff rubber bands.
Thus, the vocal fold consists of multiple layers,
each having different mechanical properties. The
more superficial the layer is located, the more pli-
able it is.
The layered structure of the vocal fold is sche-
matically shown in Fig. 2. From a mechanical point
of view, the five histological layers can be reclassi-
fied into three sections: the cover consisting of the
epithelium and the superficial layer of the lamina
propria or Reinke's space, the transition consisting
of the intermediate and deep layers of the lamina
propria or the vocal ligament, and the body con-
sisting of the muscle. The l a y e r e d structure
Stratified squamous
epithelium MUCOSA
4-,.EPITHELIUM "1
~
.....~..; LAMINAPROPRIA/l cover
~ Superficiallayer J
~ ~ Intermediatelayer~
Z~':
~'~ Deeplayer J Trans!tion
'::"~ ~ ~ VOCALISMUSCLE ]BOdy
Ciliatecl columnar:~:::F'~\',: ~..
epithelium '<!i:~i~:.X
,. .°~,
FIG. 2. From Hirano (2).
 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N S I N G I N G
presents some variations along the length of the
vocal fold.
Figure 3 shows a horizontal section of a human
adult vocal fold. Note the unique structures at the
anterior and posterior ends of the membranous
vocal fold where it is connected to the cartilaginous
framework. At the anterior end, there is a mass,
0val in shape, called the anterior macula flava. It is
composed of a network of elastic fibers, fibro-
blasts, and stroma. It is elastic and can be regarded
as a ball cushioning the impact, or a cushion ball.
Anterior to the macula flava there is a mass of col-
lagenous fibers that is refen'ed to as the anterior
commissure tendon. The anterior c o m m i s s u r e
tendon may be likened to a compact pad. It is con-
nected to the thyroid cartilage. Thus, the stiffness
of the tissue increases gradually from the pliable
membranous vocal fold to the stiff thyroid carti-
lage.
At the posterior end of the membranous vocal
fold, there is also an oval-shaped mass that is called
the posterior macula flava, which is another elastic
cushion ball. Posterior to this cushion ball is the
vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. Between
these two structures, there is a small transitional
area that is stiffer than the macula flava but less
FIG. 3. From Hirano (1).
53
stiff than the cartilage. The tip of the vocal process
is composed of elastic cartilage, whereas the main
portion of the arytenoid cartilage consists of hyalin
cartilage. The elastic cartilage is less stiff than the
hyalin cartilage. Thus, again, there are gradual
changes in stiffness from the pliable membranous
vocal fold to the stiff arytenoid cartilage. These
gradual changes in structure may be important in
protecting the ends of the membranous vocal fold
from m e c h a n i c a l trauma that may possibly be
caused by vibration.
Why is the layered structure more beneficial to
singing than a uniform structure? There could be
many reasons from a mechanical, rheological, or
theoretical point of view. For certain, the different
layers undergo different adjustments from the la-
ryngeal muscles. This results in greater varieties in
adjustments of mechanical properties of the vi-
brator, that is, the vocal fold. The vocal fold can
become a thin string, a thick string, a long string, a
short string, a stiff string, a slackened string, and
SO o n .
MUSCULAR ADJUSTMENTS OF VOCAL FOLD
In understanding the muscular adjustments of the
vocal fold, it is helpful to review the basic function
of the five major intrinsic laryngeal muscles.
The basic function of each intrinsic laryngeal
muscle was investigated with excised canine la-
rynges. Although there are some differences in
structure between human and canine larynges, the
basic gross function of the major laryngeal muscle,
that is, the cricothyroid, thyroarytenoid or vocalis,
lateral cricoarytenoid, interarytenoid, and posterior
cricoarytenoid muscles, is qualitatively the same
for the two species.
Figure 4 (left) shows a view from above when the
right cricothyroid muscle is electrically stimulated
and consequently contracts. The anterior commis-
FIG. 4. Reproduced with permission from M. Hirano, Modern
Otorhinolaryngology, © 1979, Kanehara Shuppan, Tokyo.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988
54
sure is shifted anteriorly and to the contralateral
side, stretching the vocal folds, especially on the
stimulated side. The vocal fold is slightly adducted
to the paramedian position. Figure 4 (right) shows a
cast of the laryngeal cavity made of dental plastic.
It reveals a silhouette of the vocal folds. On the
stimulated side, the vocal fold is thinned.
Figure 5 shows a view from inside, before stimu-
lation and during stimulation. The vocal fold is
stretched, elongated, and thinned. The anterior
c o m m i s s u r e is l o w e r e d . Muscle c o n t r a c t i o n
brought about by direct electrical stimulation is not
physiological. In human singers, the muscular ac-
tivity is controlled in much more deticate ways.
However, this experimental model gives us a clear-
cut idea about the basic or substantial function of
the muscle in vocal fold adjustments.
As we have emphasized the importance of the
layered structure of the vocal fold, we are very
much interested in the effect of the cricothyroid ac-
FIG. 5. From Hirano (2).
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1,, 1988
M. H I R A N O
tivity on each layer of the vocal fold. Figure 6
shows a frontal section of the vocal fold, on the
stimulated side and on the contralateral side. To
obtain these histological specimens, during elec-
trical stimulation, the entire larynx was immersed
in alcohol at -30°C or -20°F, frozen, and fixed.
Histological specimens were obtained from the
fixed vocal folds.
The layer structure differs in dogs from that in
singers. First, there is no vocal ligament in dogs.
The elastic conus ends up in the superficial portion
of the lamina propria without forming any ligamen-
tous structure. However, in human vocal folds,
there is a ligament adjacent to the muscle. In dogs,
the lamina propria is dense with fibers at the outer
part, whereas it is very loose at the inner part.
From a mechanical point of view, the entire lamina
propria can be regarded as the cover.
On the stimulated side, the cross-sectional area
of the mucosa is smaller than on the control side,
indicating that the cover is thinned and stretched.
The entire vocal fold is thinned and stretched as
well.
Electrical stimulation of the thyroarytenoid
muscle (Fig. 7) causes adduction of the vocal fold,
and some bulging results, especially at the mem-
branous portion. In the silhouette presented in Fig.
7 (right), the vocal fold is thickened on the stimu-
lated side. Figure 8 shows views from inside. The
vocal fold is shortened and thickened, and it is low-
ered at the posterior portion. The vocal fold edge is
rounded, and the cross-sectional area of the mu-
FIG. 6.
 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N S I N G I N G
FIG. 7. Reproduced with permission from M. Hirano, Modern
Otorhinolaryngology, © 1979, Kanehara Shuppan, Tokyo.
cosa and that of the muscle are increased on the
stimulated side (Fig. 9). The mucosa, that is, the
cover, appears to be slackened, while the muscle,
or the body, is stiffened by its own contraction.
Thus, the cover and the body receive completely
different adjustments from the t h y r o a r y t e n o i d
muscle.
Stimulation of the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
causes a marked adduction of the vocal process,
adducting the membranous vocal fold and the ary-
FIG. 8. From Hirano (2).
55
FIG. 9. From Hirano (2).
tenoid cartilage (Fig. 10). The vocal fold is slightly
stretched and elongated. In the silhouette, the
vocal fold is thinned and lowered on the stimulated
side.
Figure 11 shows views from inside. The vocal
process is lowered, and the vocal fold is slightly
thinned. The elongation of the vocal fold cannot be
demonstrated in this view.
In Figure 12, the cross-sectional areas of the mu-
cosa and that of the muscle are reduced. Thus, both
cover and body appear to be passively stiffened.
Electrical stimulations of the posterior cricoary-
tenoid muscle result in a marked abduction of the
vocal fold (Fig. 13). The vocal fold is also elon-
gated.
In the silhouette, the vocal fold on the stimulated
side is elevated, lateralized, and slightly thinned.
Figure 14 demonstrates views from inside. The
vocal fold is elevated at the posterior portion and
elongated. Figure 15 shows histological specimens.
On the stimulated side, the edge of the vocal fold is
rounded, and the cross-sectional area of the cover
is reduced. When the arytenoid muscle is stimu-
FIG. 10. Reproduced with permission from M. Hirano, Modern
Otorhinolaryngology, @ 1979, Kanehara Shuppan, Tokyo.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988
56 M. H I R A N O

FIG. 13. Reproduced with permission from M. Hirano, Modern

Otorhinolaryngology, © 1979, Kanehara Shuppan, Tokyo.

lated, the arytenoid cartilage is adducted, closing

the posterior part of the larynx (Fig. 16). The mem-
branous vocal fold is slightly adducted. Changes in
the inner structure of the vocal fold are minimal.
Table 1 summarizes the basic functions of the five
major laryngeal muscles.
The vocalis or thyroarytenoid, lateral cricoary-
tenoid, and interarytenoid muscles adduct the vocal
fold. The way of adduction, however, differs among

FIG. 11. From Hirano (2).

FIG. 12. From Hirano (2). FIG. 14. From Hirano (2).

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N S I N G I N G 57

Control Arytenoid stimulated

FIG• 16. Reproduced with permission from M. Hirano, Modern
Otorhinolaryngology, © 1979, K a n e h a r a Shuppan, Tokyo.

most infinite number of different vibrators, assuring

FIG. 15. F r o m Hirano (2).
the three adductors. The posterior cricoarytenoid
abducts the vocal fold. The level of the vocal fold is
lowered by the lateral cricoarytenoid and elevated
by the posterior cricoarytenoid.The vocal fold is
elongated by the cricothyroid and posterior cri-
coarytenoid, whereas it is shortened by the vocalis.
The vocal fold is thinned by the cricothyroid and
thickened by the vocalis. The edge of the vocal fold
is sharpened by the cricothyroid, whereas it is
rounded by the vocalis. The body of the vibrator is
passively stiffened by the cricothyroid and actively
stiffened by the vocalis, that is, the body itself. The
cover of the vibrator is stiffened by the crico-
thyroid, whereas it is slackened by the vocalis.
In addition to these primary functions, each
muscle has some other effects on the vocal fold.
Therefore, there are almost infinite numbers of
combinations of the activities of the five major la-
ryngeal muscles. The vocal fold can act as an al-
the capability of singers to produce a great variety
of voice by using only one pair of vocal folds.
Furthermore, there are other small muscles in the
larynx, including the ventricular, thyroepiglottic,
and aryepiglottic muscles, and there are extrinsic
laryngeal muscles, including the suprahyoid, infra-
hyoid, pharyngeal, and tongue muscles, all of
which have some direct or indirect influence on the
vocal folds. Now let us see how the muscles work
during singing, keeping the structure of the vocal
fold and the basic f u n c t i o n s of the laryngeal
muscles in mind.
Electromyography (EMG) is the only technique
that directly demonstrates muscular activities.
When muscles are activated, they produce elec-
trical signals called action potentials• These poten-
tials are very smalll about 1/10ooto 1/10,00oof the elec-
tric potential of a small battery for automatic
cameras. Very thin wire electrodes are used to pick
up the small electric potentials from muscles. Two
thin, insulted wires are placed in a hypodermic
needle. The wires are bent at the tip, forming a
small hook.
The electrodes are inserted into the muscle to be

T A B L E 1. Functions o f the five major laryngeal muscles in vocal fold adjustment

CT VOC LCA IA PCA

Position Paramed Adduct c Adduct c Adduct c Abduct c

Level Lower Lower Lower~ 0" Elevate c
Length Elongate c Shorten ~ Elongate (Shorten) b Elongate ¢
Thickness Thin ~ Thicken c Thin (Thicken) b Thin
Edge Sharpen c Round c Sharpen 0a Round
Muscle (body) Stiffen ~ Stiffen c Stiffen (Slacken) b Stiffen
Mucosa (cover and transition) Stiffen c Slacken c Stiffen (Slacken) b Stiffen

Reproduced with permission from Clinical examination of the voice © 1981, Springer-Verlag, N e w York.
a0, no effect, b Slight effect, c Marked effect.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

58 M. H I R A N O

studied with the needle, then the needle is re-

moved. The wire electrodes remain in the muscle
because of the hook.
We have investigated five singers and four un-
trained subjects. There is no doubt that varying
singing techniques are associated with different
muscular control, and slight differences in muscular
activity can cause subtle variations of voice quality.
There are individual differences among singers.
However, we shall focus on functions of laryngeal
muscles that are common to the subjects we have
FIG. 17.
investigated.
First, we will discuss the role of the laryngeal
muscles in vocal register control. ~Two types of (IA), investigated in only one subject, is slightly
studies were performed: comparison of muscular greater for the heavier register. The activity of the
activity among different registers at the same pitch cricotfiyroid (CT) does not show any consistent re-
and studies of muscular activity pattern in response lationship to changes in vocal register.
to register shift during singing. Table 2 is a sum- Figure 17 shows EMG of the CT, LCA, and VOC
mary of the first part of the vocal register studies. when a bass singer phonated at the pitch Ca in three
As is apparent from this table, the heavier the reg-
ister, the greater the vocalis (VOC) activity in all
four subjects investigated. The only exception is
observed at pitch G3 of subject W.V., in whom the
vocalis activity is approximately the same for the
head and chest registers. The lateral cricoarytenoid
(LCA) activity is greater for the chest than for the
head register.
The lateral cricoarytenoid muscle tends also to
be more active for the heavier register, but not as
consistently as the vocalis. In addition, the differ-
ence in LCA activity is not as marked as that in
VOC activity. The activity of the interarytenoid

T A B L E 2. Degree o f m u s c u l a r activity as s h o w n in
rank order

Funda-
mental
Subject pitch Register CT LCA VOC IA

J.R. G4 Head 2 3 3
(soprano) Mid 3 2 2
Chest l 1 1
M.M. C4 Falsetto 2 3 3
(tenor) Head 2 2 2
Chest 2 1 1
T.M. C4 Falsetto 3 3 3
(tenor) Mid 1 1.5 2
Chest 2 1.5 1
W.V. G3 Falsetto 3 3 3
(bass) Head 1.5 2 1.5
Chest 1.5 1 1.5
C4 Falsetto 2.5 2.5 '3
Head 1 1 2
Chest 2.5 2.5 1

From Hirano (2). FIG. 18.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. i, 1988

 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N SINGING 59

T A B L E 3. Changes in muscular activity in response to

register shift during singing
Fo

Subject CT LCA VOC IA

L. C. (soprano) (+) or - + or - +
J. R. (soprano) (+) or - +
M. M. (tenor) (+) or - + or - +
T. M. (tenor) (+) or - + or - +
W. V. (bass) (+) or - + or - + +

From H i r a n o (2).
+, Change f o u n d ; ( ) , n o t f r e q u e n t ; - , change not found. - " " • d~

different registers: falsetto, head, and chest. The
VOC activity is the strongest for the chest and
weakest for the falsetto. The CT and LCA activities
are the strongest for the head in this case.
Figure 18 compares the muscular activity at G 4 in
a tenor. Again, the VOC activity is greatest for the
chest and smallest for falsetto. The LCA is slightly
more active for the head and chest than for the fal-
setto. The CT activity does not differ very much
among the three registers.
Table 3 summarizes the second part of the vocal
register studies. As shown, the vocalis muscle
always presents a marked change in activity in re-
sponse to register shifts. Register shifts from heavy
to light are accompanied by a decrease in vocalis
activity, whereas shifts to heavier register are asso-
ciated with an increase in vocalis activity. The di-
rection of the changes in the lateral cricoarytenoid,
cricothyroid, and interarytenoid activity are the
same as in the case of the vocalis. However, in the
lateral cricoarytenoid, changes in activity accompa-
;~
F I G . 20.
nied by register shifts are observed less consis-
tently, and changes in cricothyroid activity are even
less consistent. The interarytenoid muscle, investi-
gated in one subject, also shows changes in activi-
ties associated with register shifts.
Figure 19 is a two-octave scale descending from
Db5 to Db3 sung by a bass singer, starting with fal-
setto, then changing suddenly into chest voice at
the arrow. The vocalis activity increases markedly
at the register change. An increase in activity is
also observed in CT and LCA.
Figure 20 is a three-octave scale descending from
F5 to F2 sung by a tenor, starting with falsetto, then
gradually changing into head and then chest voice.
The m u s c u l a r activity, including the vocalis,
changes gradually and very smoothly. A good reg-
ister transition is usually not clearly noted by the
audience. Such a transition can be achieved by a
gradual muscular adjustment, as shown here.
The vocal register is basically regulated by the
ratio of the vocalis and cricothyroid activities (Fig.
21). When the ratio is changed very gradually, the
register change is not clearly noted. If the ratio
,re~m-~
changes abruptly as shown in Fig. 21 (right), the

BASIC REGISTERAGENT

CT/ Falsetto

Head

A
'r . . . . .
-rt~
.r~ F - O . -
r~
ii
• mr • it"
/ VOC Mid

Chest
l/v°
F I G . 19. F I G . 21.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

60
register shift is clearly heard. When this is asso-
ciated with a discontinuity of vocal fold vibrations,
a " b r e a k " results.
The vocal register is also controlled by many
other factors, including activities of other muscles
and supraglottic and subglottic resonance. These
factors are also very important in singing tech-
niques, but the basic register agent appears to be
the interaction of the vocalis and the cricothyroid
muscle.
Now let us consider fundamental frequency con-
trol in singing. There is no doubt that the cricothy-
roid muscle is the principal agent controlling funda-
mental f r e q u e n c y . What actually h a p p e n s in
singers' larynges, however, is fairly complicated.
The mechanism of fundamental frequency control
is different between the heavy or modal register
and the light or falsetto register:
First, we will discuss fundamental frequency (F0)
control in modal register. The relationship between
muscular activities and F0 was investigated in five
singers and four untrained male subjects. Table 4
summarizes the results. In the modal register, the
activities of CT, LCA, and VOC are always posi-
tively related to F0. In other words, the activity in-
creases with rising F0 and decreases with falling
F0. IA presents greater activity at the higher F0.
However, there are no gradual changes in IA ac-
tivity closely related to F0. The posterior cricoary-
tenoid (PCA) was investigated in two subjects. In
one professional singer, PCA is inactive throughout
phonation. In the other subject, who is an untrained
man, PCA is usually inactive during phonation,
with the exception of high tones in modal register.
T A B L E 4. Relation o f muscular activity to fundamental
frequency in the modal register
Subject CT LCA VOC
Professional L.C.
singers (soprano) + +
J.R.
(soprano) + +
M.M.
(tenor) + +
T.M.
(tenor) + +
W.V.
(bass) + +
Untrained J.O. + +
D.B. + +
J.A. + +
H.H. + +
+ , P o s i t i v e l y related; 0, not related.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988
M. H I R A N O
~.. at.
~ ~
--~-+ ~ , . . . . . .i tlil~
_
FIG. 22.
At high tones, PCA is slightly activated. This ac-
tivity of PCA is presumably required in order to
brace the arytenoid cartilage against the strong an-
terior pull of the CT. Case examples help clarify
these findings as seen in Figs. 22-26.
Figure 22 is a two-octave scale, descending from
F 4 to F2, sung in modal register by a tenor. The ac-
tivity of the cricothyroid, lateral cricoarytenoid,
and vocalis muscles decreases gradually with de-
scending fundamental frequency.
Figure 23 is a phrase, do mi sol mi do, in the key
of F, sung by a bass singer in chest register. CT,
LCA, and VOC shows activities proportional to
F0.
Figure 24 shows the activity of IA together with
that of LCA when a bass singer sang a two-octave
scale descending in chest register. LCA presents
activities proportional to F0, as has been seen in
the previous slides. IA shows a marked activity at
high notes. The activity decreases slightly as the
pitch goes down, but it remains at almost an iden-
tical level for lower notes. IA does not contribute
greatly to F0 control.
Figure 25 shows activity of PCA together with
IA PCA
+
+
+ 0
+ + or 0
+ + or 0
+ + or0 + or0
FIG. 23.
 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N S I N G I N G
FIG. 24.
that of CT and VOC when an untrained man sang
ascending and descending scales in the modal reg-
ister. CT and VOC activity increases as the pitch
goes up and decreases as the pitch comes down.
PCA is generally inactive during phon~/tion. How-
ever, it presents some activity at high pitches,
where CT is markedly activated.
Figure 26 shows PCA activity together with CT
and VOC activity when a tenor sang ascending and
descending scales. In contrast to Fig. 25, there is
no PCA activity throughout. Further studies are
needed on the participation of PCA in the vocal
mechanism in singing.
The data presented so far clearly demonstrate
that the activity of CT, LCA, and VOC is positively
related to F0. CT stretches and tenses the vocal
fold, increasing F0 directly; but what are the other
two muscles doing? LCA stretches and tenses the
vocal fold to some extent. Therefore, LCA presum-
ably has some direct influence on F0. VOC
shortens the vocal fold and loosens the mucosa.
This should decrease F0. However, when VOC
contracts isometrically, in other words, without
changing the vocal fold length, F0 may go up. This
is possible if CT contracts simultaneously. There-
fore, VOC can increase F0 under certain condi-
tions.
However, it seems that LCA and VOC have
some additional functions other than the direct ef-
FIG. 25. From Hirano (2).
61
fects on F0. When CT contracts, the vocal fold
edge is located along the line between the anterior
commissure and the posterior cricoarytenoid liga-
ment, or in the paramedian position, as shown in
Fig. 27. In other words, CT can abduct the vocal
fold and open the glottis when the vocal fold is lo-
cated on the midline. The simultaneous increase in
LCA and VOC activity during F0 increase should
be necessary to prevent vocal fold abduction pas-
sively caused by the increased cricothyroid ac-
tivity.
Furthermore, as mentioned above, VOC is antag-
onistic to CT in register control (Fig. 21). If VOC
does not increase its activity when CT activity in-
creases to raise F0, the balance between the two
muscles will shift to a lighter register. In order to
keep the same register, simultaneous increase in
VOC activity is necessary.
In the falsetto or light register, the mechanism of
F0 control is slightly different from that in the
modal register. F0 regulation in falsetto was inves-
tigated in five singers. Table 5 summarizes the re-
sults. In contrast to the case in modal register, the
activity of CT, LCA, and VOC is not always posi-
tively related to F0 in falsetto. However, in a given
singing sample, it is rare that none of these three
muscles show activities positively related to F0. It
is worth noting that CT, which plays the m0s.t im-
portant role in F0 control in t h e m o d a l register,
does not always contribute in falsetto. The IA ac-
tivity is greater at the higher F0, but it is not closely
related to F0.
Figure 28 shows a sample in which the CT, LCA,
and VOC activities are positively related to F0 as in
the case of modal register. This is a two-octave
scale descending, sung in falsetto by a tenor.
Figure 29 is an octave scale up and down sung by
a bass singer in falsetto. The CT activity is not
clearly related to F0, but the LCA and VOC do ap-
pear to be related to F0.
Figure 30 shows an IA activity during singing of a
two-octave scale descending in falsetto. The IA is
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988
62 M. HIRANO

PCA ,

I , ~ h 1 H I HI]~I I I H I I.I I I H I I [I I I~ 1 3 ~ . , 1 1 1 4 III kl j

~ "T~ ~'fl'l" t.ITl-FI I F[ TI t H I I HIT ............ J~

[1,ItHIt!IIIII! ~!t'l]!l!l ] ~ - ~ !! [ ~ Fi i'r:]i[ ~ T 4 ~ i ~ $ ~ i ~
A~ A4
ASCENDING

A4 A2
DESCENDING ']" I,
FIG. 26. FIG. 28.

A." a n t e r i o r
commissure

sterior
• cricoarytenoid
ligament FIG. 29. R e p r o d u c e d with permission from M. Hirano, Folia
L L Phoniat, 1970;22:1-20 © 1970 Karger, Basel.

FIG. 27. F r o m Hirano (5).

T A B L E 5. Relation o f muscular activity to fundamental

frequency in the falsetto register
Subject CT LCA VOC IA

L. C. (soprano) + or 0 + + or 0
J. R. (soprano) + or 0 +
M. M. (tenor) + or 0 + or 0 + or 0
T. M. (tenor) + + 0
W. V. (bass) + or 0 + + + or 0

+ , Positively related; 0, not related. FIG. 30.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. '1, 1988

 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N S I N G I N G 63

very active at high notes, but its activity is not very register. There were great inter- and intrasubject
closely related to F0. The LCA activity is de- variations in the EMG data in this latter case. The
creased parallel to F0. Both LCA and IA increase expiratory effort appeared to vary more substan-
activity toward the end of phonation. This type of tially and in less systematic ways than in the case of
adductor activity is occasionally observed near the gradual intensity changes. Therefore, only the re-
end of any long phonation. sults of the first study will be presented here.
One of the most important facts in F0 regulation The mechanism of intensity control is somewhat
is that the CT always participates in fundamental different between the modal and falsetto registers.
frequency control in modal register, whereas in fal- Let us start with the modal register.
setto, it does not always participate. Further Table 6 shows the results of the regulation of in-
studies are needed to clarify the F0 agent and func- tensity in the modal register. The muscle that ex-
tions of various muscles in those cases. hibits the greatest variation in activity with changes
Now let us consider vocal intensity control. It is in intensity is VOC. Especially in singers, the ac-
well known that the vocal intensity is positively re- tivity of VOC changes markedly in proportion to
lated to subglottic pressure. The subglottic pres- the vocal intensity, irrespective of the F0 level. In
sure, in turn, is determined by the air flow and untrained subjects, a similar kind of change is ob-
glottic resistance. The air flow is regulated chiefly served for low F0. However, the degree of change
by the pulmonary pressure, in other words, the re- in activity is not so great as in the case of singers.
spiratory muscles. The glottic resistance is con- For high F0, VOC does not contribute to intensity
trolled primarily by the laryngeal muscles. There- regulation in untrained subjects. These findings
fore, the vocal intensity involves both pulmonary suggest that a good command of VOC control is
and laryngeal controls. one of the most important factors in the proficiency
Two types of studies were conducted. First, mus- of voice technique.
cular activity was investigated when the vocal in- LCA and IA activity increases with the vocal in-
tensity was changed gradually, as in crescendo, de- tensity, but less consistently than VOC.
crescendo, and swelltone at the same F0 level. CT activity is often inversely related to the vocal
Second, in some subjects, comparisons were at- intensity. Why does this happen? The expiratory air
tempted among separate tones produced at dif- pressure and activity of the adductor muscle
ferent intensities, but at same F0 and in the same changes that accompany vocal intensity increases

TABLE 6. Relation o f muscular activity to intensity o f voice in the modal register

Fundamental
Subject pitch CT LCA VOC IA PCA

Professional s i n g e r L.C. (soprano) D4 - 0 +

G4 - - - + +
D5 - _ _ + +
J. R . ( s o p r a n o ) C4 - or 0 + or 0
G4 - + or 0
C 5 - _
M. M. (tenor) C4 - + +
G 4 - - ~ + + +
T. M . ( t e n o r ) F3 - - +
F4 - _ +
A 4 - _ +
W. V. ( b a s s ) C3 0 + + -
G3 0 + + +
Ca - - or 0 + 0

Untrained J.O. C3 + +
G3 + or 0 +
C4 0 +
H.H. low 0 + 0
high - 0 -

From H i r a n o (2).
+ , P o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d ; 0, n o t r e l a t e d ; -, negatively related; - - +, negatively related at a lesser intensity and positively related at a
greater i n t e n s i t y .

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

64 M. H I R A N O

can also cause a rise in F0. As such, CT activity

! '
may have to be proportionally reduced to maintain
a constant F0 level.
PCA was investigated in only one untrained sub-
ject. It is activated only at high F0 and shows ac-
tivity level changes similar to CT.
Figure 31 shows a swelltone at the pitch C3 in the
chest register sung by a bass singer. The LCA and i .
VOC activities increase with increasing intensity FIG. 32.
and decrease with decreasing intensity. The CT is
not very active throughout because of the low
pitch. tensity should have been almost exclusively con-
Figure 32 is a swelltone at the pitch G 3 in the trolled by respiratory effort.
chest register. Again, the LCA a n d V O C activities Figure 35 shows changes in air flow rate for cre-
are proportional to the vocal intensity. The CT does scendo in modal or heavy voice and in falsetto or
not markedly change the activity. Vibrato is asso- light voice sung by a tenor. The air flow increases
ciated with the rhythmic changes in the CT and with crescendo in both. However, the air flow is
LCA activities seen in this example. very closely related in the falsetto. The relationship
Figure 33 is a swelltone at the pitch C4 in the is less close in heavy voice.
modal register sung by the same bass singer. In this So far, we have discussed the control mecha-
case, he started with head voice, changing into nisms of vocal register, F0, and intensity sepa-
chest with crescendo, and came back to head with rately. However, they are not independent, but in-
decrescendo. The VOC activity increases with cre- terdependent, in singers.
scendo. The CT and LCA activities decrease, espe- For example, when a singer wants to raise the
cially for chest voice. pitch, he or she increases CT activity. This makes
Again, vibrato can be seen. This time, it is ac- the effect of VOC small, as there is an antagonism
companied by rhythmic activities of all the three between CT and VOC. As a result, the register
muscles. tends to become light. Based on the same principle,
Intensity control in falsetto or light register is dif- when the pitch is lowered, the register tends to be-
ferent from that in modal register. Table 7 summa- come heavy (Fig. 36). Trained singers are capable
rizes the results for intensity regulation in falsetto. of modifying this tendency in varying ways. Some-
In falsetto, none of the laryngeal muscles shows times they change the register with the pitch,
any evidence of a significant contribution to inten- whereas at other times they do not change the reg-
sity control. This indicates that vocal intensity is ister while the pitch is changed.
regulated almost exclusively by the respiratory Vocal register and intensity are also interdepen-
system. As in the modal register, CT activity varies dent. If a singer contracts the adductor muscles,
inversely with the vocal intensity, probably to especially VOC, forcefully in order to increase the
maintain F0 at a constant level, as discussed above.
Figure 34 is a swelltone at the pitch G 4 in falsetto
c rlcottlyroid
sung by a bass singer. CT, LCA, and VOC show an
inverse relationship to the vocal intensity. The in- ill _ tl~
°i'
lateral cricoarytenoid
Illl --T.-~ .... -il _2 "J;., ; !~I I[11/Ill 2~ ............................... [

vocalis
.... [[ [rl j - ......... 2"-- _- ........... ~" JIJLIJ ............ "-: 2:':'::

AUDIO audio

FIG. 31. FIG. 33. From Hirano (5).

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, Nd, 1, 1988

 VOCAL MECHANISMS IN SINGING 65

T A B L E 7. Relation o f muscular activity to intensity o f voice in the falsetto register

Fundamental
Subject pitch CT LCA VOC IA

Professional singer L . C . (soprano) E 6 - 0 0

J. R. (soprano) C6 - or 0 +
M. M. (tenor) G4 - 0 + or 0
C5 - 0 0
T. M. (tenor) F4 - - 0
W. V. (bass) C4 - - 0
G4 . . . .
Untrained J.O. A4 0

From Hirano (2).

+, Positively related; 0, not related; - , negatively related.

Interrelation between pitch and r e g i s t e r

h e a. y . .[~I sr~j x i ght

great effect of small

T vocalis I
weak cricothyroid--forceful
'

1 ~ high

FIG. 34. FIG. 36. From Hirano(5).

air flow rate in c.c. during crescendo

F4 20
heavy ~/ '~.

Interrelation between intensity and register

I ight Im ~ s ' r ~ ] ,, heavz

F4
light t
weak adductor
muscles
. . . .
T
forceful

..... I

~c '

FIG. 35. From Hirano (5). FIG. 37. From Hirano(5).

Journal of Voice, VoL 2, No. 1, 1988

66 M. H I R A N O

vocal intensity, the register tends to become heavy. TABLE 8.

Likewise, a decrease in intensity tends to be asso- Register F0 Intensity

ciated with lightening of the vocal register (Fig. 37).
Again, trained singers can modify this tendency in
varying ways. They can shift or they can sustain
the register when they change the vocal intensity.
Figure 38 shows an example of the general ten-
dency. A tenor sang a swelltone at the pitch G 4. All
I requested him to do was to start with very soft
voice, then make a crescendo, followed by a decre-
scendo. I did not specify the vocal register. He
started with falsetto, changed into head then chest
voice as he made the crescendo. Dui-ing the decre-
scendo, the vocal register came back to falsetto.
Changes in VOC activity match the intensity
change and the concomitant register change.
Table 8 summarizes the contribution of the laryn-
geal muscles to the regulation of vocal register, F0,
and intensity. CT contributes greatly to the register
and F0. VOC contributes to the register and inten-
sity to a great extent and to F0 to some extent.
LCA contributes to the register, F0, and intensity
to some extent. IA contributes to the register, F0,
and intensity, but to a lesser extent. The primary
function of IA seems to be vocal fold adduction,
whereas the other adductors, that is, VOC and
LCA, have important functions other than adduc-
tion of the vocal fold. PCA is the abductor of the
vocal fold and does not contribute greatly to voice
control in singing. The respiratory muscles contrib-
ute greatly to the vocal intensity regulation.
The results of the EMG studies in Jiving subjects
Alll111rl
F I G . 38.
CT + + Light + -
Heavy + +
VOC + + Light _+ -
Heavy + + +
LCA + Light _+ -
Heavy + -+
IA + Light _+ -
Heavy + -+
PCA - Light - -
Heavy _+
Respiratory
muscles - - + +
+ + , M a r k e d c o n t r i b u t i o n ; + , s o m e c o n t r i b u t i o n ; _+, occa-
s i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n ; - , little o r n o c o n t r i b u t i o n .
match very well the results of the experiments con-
ducted with excised canine larynges.
Now we shall consider vocal onset. Muscular ac-
tivities of three singers were investigated for four
types of vocal onsets: soft, hard, breathy, and
imaginary H onset. The imaginary H onset, to the
best of my knowledge, was first employed in voice
training by the late William Vennard in order to
correct undesirable vocal onsets, including hard
onset and breathy onset. This can be achieved by
trying to say " h a " without audible " h " sound.
The subjects produced the v o w e l / a / a t their ha-
bitual F0 and intensity following signals given with
a baton. The timing of the prephonatory inspiration
and the voice onset was controlled in this way.
Each onset was repeated 10 times.
Table 9 shows duration of the prephonatory mus-
cular activity in each singer. No systematic differ-
ences in the duration of the prephonatory activity
are found among different onset types or among the
muscles.
Table 10 compares the amplitude of muscular ac-
tivities before and during phonation; as well as
among different voice onset types. The adductor
muscles, i.e., LCA and VOC, present unique ac-
tivity patterns for the hard onset. Their prephona-
tory activity is greater than the activity during
phonation for the hard onset. Their prephonatory
activity is also greater for the hard onset than for
the other onset types.
Figure 39 shows a soft onset. The activity of CT,
LCA, and VOC increases gradually and reaches the
maximum level around the vocal onset. The audio
signal, that is the voice, starts slowly.
Figure 40 is a hard onset. The activity of VOC

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

 VOCAL MECHANISMS IN SINGING 67

TABLE 9. Duration of prephonatory muscular activity for different voice onset types: mean value and range
(in parentheses) for 10 utterances
Subject Onset CT LCA VOC
L. C. (soprano) Soft 1,050 1,170 890
(720- 1,240) (840-1,720) (640- l, 120)
Hard 1,020 1,130 810
(720-1,360) (720-1,600) (560-1,000)
Breathy 1,210 1,220 1,080
(720-1,600) (800-1,680) (680-1,360)
Imaginary H 1,010 1,010 850
(720-1,320) (720-1,280) (720-1,040)
J. R. (soprano) Soft 990 1,030
(560-1,360) (800-1,320)
Hard 890 740
(640-1,120) (600-1,040)
Breathy 860 320
(480- 1,200) ( 160- 640)
Imaginary H 920 860
(720-1,600) (440-1,520)
W.V. (bass) Soft 390 585 470
(345-425) (505-690) (345-660)
Hard 385 450 410
(290-530) (370-530) (290-500)
Breathy 460 520 425
(330-635) (370-610) (320-530)
Imaginary H 370 480 430
(320-450) (400-530) (345-660)

From Hirano (7).

TABLE 10. Maximum amplitude of muscular activity before and during phonation for different Voice Onset Types:
mean value and range (in parentheses) for I0 utterances
CT LCA VOC
Subject Onset Before During Before During Before During
L.C.(soprano) SoR 80 85 170 150 220 220
(60-90) (75-90) (140-230) (110-230) (180-270) (180-270)
Hard 90 70 230 170 460 350
(75-100) (60-90) (180-250) (140-200) (400-540) (270-400)
Breathy 80 80 170 150 26O 260
(60-90) (60-90) (140-200) (110-180) (220-27O) (220-270)
Imaginary H 75 75 140 140 220 230
(60-90) (60-90) (110-160) (110-160) (180-270) (200-270)
J. R. (soprano) So~ 105 105 240 24O
(100-110) (100-110) (190-290) (220-290)
Hard 110 110 250 2OO
(100-130) (110-130) (200-290) (160-260)
Breathy 100 105 200 25O
(100-110) (100-110) (190-220) (220-290)
Imaginary H 110 105 210 215
(100-160) (100-155) (190-220) 190-260)
W.~ (bass) SoL 90 115 85 155 100 175
(50-130) (100-135) (70-105) (85-110) (100-210) (150-200)
Hard 130 135 160 90 370 165
(100-150) (115-170) (140-175) (80-105) (335-430) (140-190)
Breathy 90 135 75 90 125 155
(60-120) (115-155) (60-90) (75-90) (100-155) (130-190)
Imaginary H 85 120 70 90 120 145
(70-95) (110-140) (65-80) (75-105) (100-140) (115-165)

From Hirano (7).

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988

68 M. H I R A N O

SOFT ONSET BREATHY ONSET

cricolhyroid 0.1 my cricothyroid 0.1 mV

lateral lateral
c ricoary tenoi d 0.1 mV cricoarytenoid o.1 mV

vocalis 0.3my vocalis 0.3mY

audio audio

1 sec I sec
FIG. 39. From Hirano (7). FIG. 41. From Hirano (7).

and LCA increases rapidly to reach a markedly
high level. The activity decreases abruptly immedi-
ately before the voice onset, and then increases to
the level during phonation. The voice onset is
abrupt.
In breathy onset (Fig. 41), the activity of CT,
LCA, and VOC increases gradually to reach the
phonation level. Occasionally, the activity of LCA
and VOC shows a temporary weakening during the
gradual increase. The vocal onset is naturally asso-
ciated with aspiration.
In the imaginary H onset (Fig. 42), the activity of
all three muscles increases gradually and reaches
the maximum level around the vocal onset. The
vocal initiation is not as slow as in the soft onset
and not as abrupt as in the hard onset. There is no
audible aspiration before the onset.
Recently, especially since 1984 when we started
using s t r o b o f i b e r s c o p i c video in r e s e a r c h of
singing, we have noted great contributions of the
supraglottic structures to the vocal mechanism in
singing. However, the muscles in the supraglottis,
including the ventricular, aryepiglottic, and thyro-
epiglottis muscles, are too small to be studied elec-
tromyographically. Furthermore, the supraglottis
receives adjustments from some extrinsic laryngeal
muscles. Therefore, we have not been able to con-
duct electromyographic studies on the supraglottic
adjustments, yet. We do not have any conclusive
evidence about the supraglottic contributions to the

HARD ONSET "IMAGINARY H" ONSET

cricothyroid 0.1 mV cricothyroid 0.1 mV
lateral
cricoarytenoid crico ar y t e n o id 0.1 mV
. 0.1 mV

vocal is 0.3my vocalis 0.3 mV

audio audio

1 sec I sec ~---

FIG. 40. From Hirano (7). FIG. 42. From Hirano (7).

Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. I, 1988

 VOCAL M E C H A N I S M S I N SINGING
singing mechanism. However, they seem to be im-
portant and merit further research.
CONCLUSIONS
Finally, we admit that the science is far behind
the art. In spite of many investigations conducted
by many researchers throughout the world, our
knowledge of the vocal mechanism in singing is
quite limited. There are two major bottlenecks: lim-
itation in subjects and limitation in techniques.
Many singers, quite understandably, are afraid of
being subjects for physiological studies, a s many
physiological studies employ more or less invasive
techniques.
The techniques available are also limited. Even
with the most advanced instrumentation, we are
not able to obtain directly all the information we
need.
Some indirect methods, including studies on an-
imal models, excised larynges, computer simula-
tions, and theoretical discussions, are somewhat
69
useful to make reasonable conjectures about the
vocal mechanism in singing.
There are many questions left for future investi-
gations. Close cooperation among different disci-
plines is clearly essential if we are ever to solve the
mysteries of the singing voice.
REFERENCES
1. Hirano M. Structure of the vocal fold in normal and disease
states. Anatomical and physical studies. A S H A Report
1981;11:11-30.
2. Hirano M. Phonosurgery. Basic and clinical investigations.
Otologia Fukuoka 1975;21:239-442.
3. Hirano M. Physiology of Voice and speech. In: Hinoki M.
ed. M o d e r n O t o r h i n o l a r y n g o l o g y . Tokyo: K a n e h a r a
Shuppan, 1979.
4. Hirano M: Clinical examination o f Voice. New York:
Springer-Verlag, 1981.
5. Hirano M. Regulatory mechanism of voice in singing. (16
mm film) Kurume University, Kurume, 1970.
6. Hirano M, Vennard W, Ohala J. Regulation of register, pitch
and intensity of voice. An electromyographic investigation
of intrinsic laryngeal muscles. Folia Phoniat 1970;22:1-20.
7. Hirano M. Laryngeal adjustment for different vocal onset. J.
Otolaryngol Jpn 1971 ;74:1572-9.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1988