AE 451 Irriigation and Drainage PP

AE 451 Irrigation and Drainage
SK Agodzo
College of Engineering
KNUST, Kumasi
1
Irrigation: Definition and Importance(1)
Definition
• The artificial application of water to the soil for crop
production. Naturally, the soil medium is used for plant
production but soil-less medium and other media can
also be used.
• Irrigation is not a substitute for rainfall but it is

intended to supplement rainfall. But in areas where
rainfall is too small or absent, irrigation can be used to
provide all the crop water requirements.
• Irrigation can be classified into two(2) depending on

rainwater availability: 1) supplementary irrigation; and
2) total irrigation.
SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 2
Irrigation: Definition and Importance(2)
Importance
• Twenty percent (20 %) of the world’s arable land
is said to be under irrigation, yet provides 40 – 50
% of the world’s food and fiber requirements.
Irrigation therefore can produce more crop yield
per unit area of land.
• Ensures crop and food security and improves

farm income and the economy of a nation.
• It allows for a more efficient use of water for crop

production. Crop water productivity is improved.
Supplementary and Total Irrigation
Supplementary irrigation
• Crop water requirements = Rainfall + Irrigation
• Practiced in the humid and semi-humid areas
Total irrigation
• Crop water requirements = Irrigation
• Practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas

Gravity and Pumped Irrigation (1)
• Irrigation schemes can be classified depending

on the mode of water delivery:
- gravity schemes
- pumped schemes
• If farm level is lower than the level of water
source, deliver water by gravity
• If farm level is higher than the level of water
source, deliver water by pumping

Gravity and Pumped Irrigation (2)
• Gravity schemes: water delivery is entirely by

gravity from the source to the farm.
• Pumped schemes: water delivery is by
pumping under pressure from the source to
the farm.
• Gravity + pumped schemes: water delivery is
both by gravity and pumping.

Irrigation in Ghana(1)
Water year in Ghana
• 01 March – 28/29 February
• All water sources (surface + ground water) are at the lowest
levels at the peak of the dry season in Ghana
• Irrigation activities are more pronounced in the dry season
Agroecological zones in Ghana

• Ghana [238,535 km2] has 6 distinct agro-ecological zones:
• Rain Forest ( area = 7,156 km2; annual rainfall = 2,200 mm),
• Deciduous Forest (66,790 km2;1,500 mm),
• Transitional Zone (7,157 km2; 1,300 mm),
• Coastal Savannah (4,770 km2; 800 mm),
• Guinea Savannah (150,277 km2; 1,100 mm) and
• Sudan Savannah (2,385 km2; 1,000 mm).
• Total agricultural land area is estimated at about
13.6 million ha of which 29 % is said to be under
production.
• Need for irrigation is driven by need for food
security and provision of raw materials for industry.
• High crop water deficits in the 3 northern regions of
Ghana, thus needing irrigation: Total crop
evapotranspiration far exceeds total rainfall.
• Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA)
established by SMC Decree 85 in 1977
• Mandated to develop irrigation in Ghana
• Irrigation potential: 250,000 – 500,000 ha
• Current land under formal irrigation: 10,000 ha
• Irrigation policy document classifies irrigation
development in Ghana as:
- formal
- informal
- commercial
• Formal schemes: government developed schemes
under GIDA management
• Informal schemes: private, individual or community
initiated schemes
• Commercial schemes: private, export-led
commercial irrigators.
The Irrigation System (1)
The typical irrigation system comprises:
• Intake structure or pump house connected to a

water source
• Conveyance and distribution system
• Field water application system
• Drainage system

The Irrigation System (2)
• Intake structure or pump house connected to a
water source
• The water source can be surface water or
groundwater
• Surface water can be a river, natural or artificial
lake (dam)
• Groundwater can be wells, boreholes and
washbores

Feasibility Study
Site selection
• Reliability of water source
• Suitability of land
• Accessibility
Feasibility study
• Pre-feasibility study
• Detailed feasibility study
12
Feasibility study
Pre-feasibility study
• Desk study: maps (cartography, air photo, satellite
imagery). Look out for drainage features, topography
of land, soil and vegetation type, best access route to
possible site
• Field visit: Team of experts in irrigation, hydrology, soils
and crops, socioeconomy, environmental science.
Reconnaissance survey of site to establish reliability of
water source and suitability of soil. Talk to community
nearest to site to verify climate trends, water
availability, soil suitability, demography, livelihood
indicators, social services, market access and
environmental issues
• Site selection: based on a consensus by all the experts
who undertake the field visit 13
Feasibility Study
Detailed feasibility study
• Prepare a study plan: Number of experts for
the study, number of days required for the
field and desk work, logistics (vehicle and
consumables), budget
• Data gathering for scheme design and
management: climate, soil and topography,
crop, hydrology, socioeconomy, environment
14
Feasibility Study
Climatic data: 30-year average data recommended for
• Precipitation
• Evaporation
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Wind velocity
• Sunshine duration
• Solar radiation
Data source: Ghana Meteorological Services Dept
15
Feasibility Study
Soil and topographic data
• System design soil data : field capacity water
content, permanent wilting point, soil infiltration
rate, soil saturated hydraulic conductivity,
electrical conductivity and SAR (Soil Scientist)
• Soil data for agricultural suitability: texture,
drainage, carbon content, nitrogen content, C/N
ratio, CEC, NPK (Soil Scientist)
• Toposurvey maps with contours (Geodetic
Engineers)
Additional data source: Soil Research Institute
16
Feasibility Study
Crop data
• Average rooting depth of crop
• Crop coefficient
• Growth period
Additional data source: Crop Research Institute
17
Feasibility Study
Hydrology data
• Surface water: dam and weir (peak flood),
river direct abstraction (minimum discharge
and water level) [stage – discharge data for
rivers; stage – capacity data for reservoirs]
• Ground water: minimum aquifer yield and
groundwater level
Additional data source: Hydrological Services
Department, CWSA, WRI
18
Feasibility Study
Socioeconomic data
• Demography: population distribution,
educational background, religion,
employment, income level
• Social services: education, health, water and
sanitation, roads, telecommunication
• Market access, prices of goods and services
Additional data source: GSS
19
Feasibility Study
Environmental data
• Degradation indicators: climate change,
bushfires, loss of soil fertility, vegetation loss
rate (rate of deforestation), loss of biodiversity
• Environmental Impact Assessment: positive
versus negative impact
Additional data source: EPA
20
Soil-Plant-Water Relations (1)
• Water in the soil is held under a certain force
often referred to as suction, potential or
pressure
• Water content at saturation: this is the water
content of the soil at saturation. This water is
held at zero pressure.
• Water content at field capacity: This is the
most ideal soil water content for plant growth.
This water is held at -0.1 or -0.3 bar.
Soil-Plant-Water Relations(2)
• Water content at permanent wilting point:
this is the water content of the soil at which
the plant will permanently wilt and die. This
water is held at -15 bars. This is different from
temporary wilting.
• Soil total available water capacity (TAWC): This
is the total amount of water retained in the
soil and available for plant use. It is the
difference between field capacity and
permanent wilting point water contents.
• Readily available soil water capacity(RAWC): This
is a fraction of the of the TAWC and it the that
water which is readily available for plant use.
Since plants experience more water stress as the
water content decreases, it is advisable not
deplete the TAWC before more water is added.
• Soil water depletion factor: This is ratio between
the RAWC and the TAWC. It is the maximum
allowable fraction of the TAWC before irrigation is
applied again.

• Total soil water potential (H): This is the total pressure
under which the soil water is held at any given location.
• Soil matric potential (φm): This is the pressure of water in

the soil matrix or pore.
• Soil gravitational potential (φg): This is the pressure of

water in the soil with respect to its position within the
gravitational field.
• Soil osmotic potential (φo): This is the pressure of water in

the soil with respect to salt accumulation in the soil. Salt
accumulation problems can be either salinity or sodicity.
Instead of water flowing from the soil into the roots, water
rather moves from the roots to the soil.
• Soil hydraulic potential (φh): This is the sum of the
matric and gravitational potentials
Φh = φm + φg
• Total soil water potential (H) is the sum of matric,

gravitational and osmotic potentials
H = φm + φg + φo
• Soil water retention or characteristics curve: This is the

relationship between soil matric potential and soil
water content
• Soil infiltration
The penetration of water into the soil from the soil surface.
• Soil infiltration rate

The rate of infiltration of water into the soil. There is an initial
rate of infiltration which occurs at the onset of the application
of water. The final or basic infiltration rate is the practically
constant rate of infiltration of water into wetted soil after time.
• Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity

The ability of the soil to transmit water from one location to
another depending on a hydraulic gradient.
• Deep percolation
The portion of rainfall and irrigation that percolates through
the root zone of theSKcrop before it can be utilised by the crop.26
Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management
• Rainfall or Precipitation (P)
The depth of precipitation registered during a given period by a
correctly mounted rain gauge over a given space.
• Effective rainfall (Pe)

The rain that falls during a given cycle and than can be used profitably
by the plants and that partially or completely replaces scheduled
irrigation. The concept of effective rainfall varies depending on usage.
• Evaporation (E)
The loss of water from the soil surface. Evaporation can be weather-
controlled (constant rate) or soil profile controlled (falling rate). It
forms part of evapotranspiration.
• Transpiration (T)
The loss of water into the atmosphere from the growing plant
regulated by physical and physiological processes in the plant. It forms
part of evapotranspiration
• Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc)
The loss of water from the plant and its environment. It is the sum of
transpiration (T) and soil evaporation (E).
• Reference/Potential Evapotranspitation (ETo)

Evapotranspiration of a reference crop (green grass of uniform height
80 to 150 mm tall), growing actively, completely shading the ground
and not short of water.
• Pan Evaporation (Epan)

The amount of water that evaporates from an open water surface in an
evaporation pan during a certain period.
• Pan coefficient (kpan)

The ratio of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) to pan evaporation (Epan)
ETo = kpanEpan

• Evaporation pan
A device used for the measurement of the amount of
water lost through evaporation from an open water
surface during a specific period. An example is the
Class A pan.

Evaporation pan
• Dimension: 120.7 cm diameter; 25 cm (250 mm) depth

• Maximum level of water in pan is 20 cm (200 mm)
• Mounted on wooden platform for maximum air
circulation
• Readings: daily readings in the mornings (9.00 hrs GMT)
and can be done in 2 ways: 1) refilling the pan to the
maximum level or reference level; 2) adjusting a pointer
fitted to a vernier scale to the level of the water in the
pan
• The evaporation pan can be used to schedule irrigation

• Pan evaporation measurements using the depth
gauge
Epan = di + P – di-1
where, Epan = pan evaporation (mm)

di = present day gauge reading (mm)
P = rainfall since last reading (mm)
di-1 = previous day gauge reading (mm)

• Pan evaporation measurements based on refilling
pan to reference level
Epan = 40 V/πd2
where, Epan = pan evaporation (mm)

V = present day gauge reading (cm3)
d = diameter of class A pan (cm)

Irrigation Water Requirement
• Net irrigation water requirement
In = 10(θfc – θpwp)p𝜌dZ
• Gross irrigation water requirement

IG = (10/Ea)(θfc – θpwp)p𝜌dZ
• Irrigation interval
II = In/ETC
33
Irrigation System Design (1)
The Irrigation System
• Intake or pumping station connected to water source
• Conveyance and distribution system
• Field application system
• Drainage system
Irrigation system based on mode of water delivery

• Gravity scheme
• Pumped scheme
• Pumped + gravity scheme
34
Ekumdi Dam (bad) Nkanchina Dam (good)

35
36
Irrigation System Design(4)
37
38
39
Irrigation system based on field application method
• Surface irrigation (furrow, border and basin)
• Sprinkler irrigation
• Drip or trickle irrigation
Recommended methods of water delivery

• If farm level is lower than the level of water source,
deliver water by gravity
• If farm level is higher than the level of water source,
deliver water by pumping
40
Surface
irrigation
41
Sprinkler
irrigation
42
Drip irrigation
43
Canal water delivery system comprises
• Distribution control structures
• Erosion control structures
• Crossing structures
• Water measurement structures
Pipe water delivery system comprises

• Pipe
• couplings
• T-s
• Elbows
• Valves
• Pressure gauges
44
Hydrological Analysis
• Determination of minimum flow rate and
water levels for schemes requiring direct
surface water abstractions
• Determination of peak flood for the design of
dams
• Determination of minimum yield and water
level for schemes requiring groundwater
abstractions
45
Streamflow or
discharge
Q = k(h-a)x
46
Groundwater
Theim
Theis
Jacob
47
Dam Features
• Upstream and downstream slopes
• Crest width
• Height of dam from level of crest to ground level
• Length of embankment
• Cut-off trench
• Toe drain
• Spillway
• Maximum reservoir level
• Maximum depth of water in reservoir
• Maximum reservoir capacity
• Maximum surface area of the reservoir
• Maximum throw-back length of reservoir
• Stone pitching/rip rap on upstream slope
• Grass cover on downstream slope
48
Dam
Volume
Estimation
49
Data required for estimating volume of dam earthworks
• Chainage
• Distance from one end of embankment to chainage i,
xi (m)
• Height of embankment from ground level at chainage i,
hi (m)
• Base length of dam at chainage i, Li (m)
• Crest width of embankment , w (m)
• Sectional area of earthworks at chainage i, Ai (m2)
• Volume of earthworks between chainage i and i+1 (m3)
• Total volume of earthworks (m3)
50
• Volume of dam earthworks (V) can be
estimated as follows:
xi = distance from one end of embankment to

chainage i (m); hi = height of embankment from
ground level at chainage i, (m); Li = base width of
dam at chainage i, (m); w = crest width of
embankment (m); n = total number of chainages.
51
Dam reservoir capacity estimation
52
• Development of area-capacity curves
• Development of stage-capacity curves
• These curves are essential in the management
of the reservoir. It is important that the
designer derives these curves at the design
stage.
53
• Reservoir capacity (Vr) can be estimated using
the following equations:
T = maximum length of water in contact
with dam at full supply level (m); L =
maximum throw back length of reservoir
(m); D = maximum depth of reservoir
near the dam (m); A = reservoir surface
area at full supply level (m2); Ai =
reservoir surface area at elevation i (m2);
hi and hi+1 = elevations i and i+1 (m).
54
• Scheme irrigation requirement
I = irrigation (mm); ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm); Pe = effective rainfall

(mm); kc = crop factor; ETo = potential evapotranspiration (mm); P = reliable
rainfall (mm); D = normal depth of soil water prior to irrigation (mm); = field
capacity water content of soil (% wt.); = permanent wilting point water
content (%wt.); p = soil water depletion factor; = dry bulk density of soil; Z =
average rooting depth of soil (m).
55
Project Irrigation
Supply Requirement
Q = project irrigation supply requirements (m3/month); Ai = area of crop i

(ha); Ini = ETci – Pei = net water requirements of a given crop i (mm); LR =
leaching requirement (fraction); Ep = project irrigation efficiency (fraction); f =
system flexibility factor (fraction)
56
Field supply for design and operation of water
distribution system
q = stream size (m3/s); t = supply duration (s); Ea = water application

efficiency (fraction); p = allowable soil water depletion factor
(fraction); θfc = field capacity soil water content (% mass); θpwp =
permanent wilting point soil water content (% mass); 𝜌d = specific
gravity of dry soil; Z = average rooting depth (m); A = area of farm (ha)
57
Channel design is based on the Manning’s equation
58
• Canal (lined and unlined) design can be based
on:
- Maximum velocity criterion
- Maximum tractive force theory
• Maximum velocity criterion states that for a
channel flow to be non-erosive, the velocity of
flow should be below a threshold value. In
many situations, unless otherwise stated, the
threshold flow velocity assumed is 1.5 m/s.
59
• Maximum tractive force theory states that the
flow resistance at the channel boundary
should be below a threshold value so as not to
cause channel erosion. Unlined channels are
best designed based on this theory. Governing
equations are:
60
• Economic or hydraulically efficient channel
section: for this condition to be satisfied, the
channel should carry the maximum permissible
flow at minimum flow resistance at the
boundary. This implies minimising the wetted
perimeter of the channel boundary.
• The governing equations are:
w = 2d [(N2 + 1)1/2 – N] trapezoidal section
w = 2d rectangular section
61
Surface Irrigation Design (1)
• Surface irrigation requires flooding the soil
surface and as the flow advances on the
surface, it infiltrates into the soil at the same
time. Simple as surface flooding may seem,
achieving a good water application efficiency
can be daunting.
• Irrigation stream flow
• Advance
• Recession
• Infiltration
62
Surface Irrigation Design (2)
• The time the water is in contact with the soil is
known as contact time and it is equivalent to
the difference between recession and advance
times.
tc = contact time; tr = recession time; ta =

advance time
63
Sprinkler Irrigation Design (1)
• Nozzle operating pressure
• Nozzle discharge
• Sprinkler x lateral spacing
• Sprinkling rate
• Radius of throw
• Wind effect
• Sprinkler uniformity – Christiansen uniformity
coeficient
64
Sprinkler system capacity (Q) is computed using the
following equation
Q = continuous flow rate required (L/s); IG = gross

irrigation requirement; A = total irrigated area; Nop =
number of days of operation per irrigation interval (d);
Top = hours of operation per day (h/d)
65
Lateral discharge (Ql) can be computed as:
Ql = lateral discharge; q = sprinkler discharge; N = number

of sprinklers on the lateral
66
Nozzle sprinkling rate (is) can be computed as:
is = sprinkling rate (mm/h); q = nozzle discharge (L/h); Ll =

lateral spacing (m); Ls = sprinkler spacing (m)
For the selection of the sprinkler type, the sprinkling rate

should be less than or equal to the soil infiltration rate.
67
Nozzle sprinkling rate (is) can be computed as:
is = sprinkling rate (mm/h); q = nozzle discharge (L/h); Ll

= lateral spacing (m); Ls = sprinkler spacing (m)
68
Sprinkler Uniformity is computed using Christiansen
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
Cu = coefficient of uniformity; xi = depth of water

collected in the measuring can (mm); = mean depth
of water collected in the measuring can (mm)
69
Drip Irrigation Design (1)
• Drip system: 1)mainline: pump, primary filter,
pressure gauge, discharge control valve, flow
meter; 2) sub-main: secondary filter, solenoid
valve for automation, secondary pressure gauges,
flush valves; 3) lateral: lateral pipes, emitters
• System operating pressure
• Emitter flow rate
• Emitter uniformity
• Filtration and water treatment
• Chemical injection
70
Drip Irrigation Design
71
Irrigation Water Management (1)
• Net irrigation requirement (NIR)
Depth of irrigation water necessary to meet crop
evapotranspiration during a certain period
In = 10(θfc – θpwp)p𝜌dZ
• Gross irrigation requirement

NIR of a given crop plus operational losses
72
• Irrigation system efficiency (Ep)
Efficiency is the output of a specific operation in
relation to the input. Irrigation efficiency is water
actually delivered for use by the plant in relation
to water supplied. It includes conveyance
efficiency (Ec), field distribution efficiency (Ed) and
field water application efficiency (Ea)
• Conveyance efficiency (Ec)

Total water delivered to the farm gate or draw-off
point in relation to the total water transported
from the source
73
• Field water distribution efficiency (Ed)
Total water applied to the soil surface in relation
to the total water delivered to the farm gate or
draw-off point.
• Field water application efficiency (Ea)

Total irrigation water in the root zone of the soil
used by the plant in relation to total water applied
on the soil surface.
Ep = EcEdEa
74
• Irrigation interval (II)
The number of days separating successive irrigation events.
II = In/ETC
• Leaching requirement (LR)

The portion of irrigation water used to wash the soil root
zone of salt affected lands to tolerable levels for plant
production
LR = Ddw/Diw = ECiw/ECdw
LR = ECiw/(5ECdw – ECiw)
75
Seasonal Irrigation Requirements
I = irrigation (mm); ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm); Pe = effective rainfall

(mm); kc = crop factor; ETo = potential evapotranspiration (mm); P = reliable
rainfall (mm); D = normal depth of soil water prior to irrigation (mm); = field
capacity water content of soil (% wt.); = permanent wilting point water
content (%wt.); p = soil water depletion factor; = dry bulk density of soil; Z =
average rooting depth of soil (m).
76
Irrigation scheduling: involves two (2) decisions:
• How much water to apply (Quantity)

• How often should the water be applied (Frequency)
Irrigation Scheduling Methods
• Fixed amount, fixed interval method

• Fixed amount, variable interval method
• Variable amount, fixed interval method
• Variable amount, variable interval method
77
Fixed amount, fixed interval method
• Quantity of water to apply

• Frequency of application
II = In/peakETC
• Method is simple but does not account for

rainfall between intervals
78
Fixed amount, variable interval method

II = In/ETC
• Method is more complicated and even though

does not entirely account for rainfall between
intervals, it uses much less water.
79
Variable amount, fixed interval method
This is fixed by the irrigator and denotes n in the
equation above.
• Method is simple and uses water more efficiently. The

reference evaporation values are best determined from
daily pan evaporation measurements
80
Variable amount, variable interval method
• This is based on monitoring of the soil, the plant and the

weather using standard instrumentation
• Soil-based instrumentation: tensiometer, gypsum block,
neutron probe etc.
- Quantity of water to apply
IG = (10/Ea)(θfc – θi)𝜌dZ
- Frequency of application
This is at the discretion of the irrigator but interval
is not fixed
• Method uses water more efficiently but requires a lot more
work in field instrumentation.
81
Variable amount, variable interval method
• Plant-based instrumentation: involves the measurement of

sap flow in the plant material to ascertain if the plant is
experiencing water stress. This is used more as a research tool
and not for field practical applications.
• Weather-based instrumentation: involves monitoring weather

parameters that affect water loss from the plant and its
environment (Evapotranspiration). Pan evaporation
measurements have been used to schedule irrigation. Crop
canopy temperatures have also been used to schedule
irrigation.
82
Surface Irrigation Management
• Considerations
- Soil texture
- Slope of the land
- Field length
- Soil infiltration rate
- Irrigation stream flow
- Operation and maintenance
83
Irrigation Costs (1)
Investment Costs (Fixed Costs)
• Depreciation
• Taxes
• Interests
• Insurance
Operational Costs (Variable Costs)

• Land preparation
• Energy
• Repair and maintenance
• Labour
• Irrigation levy (water charges + land rent)
• Others 84
Investment Costs (Fixed Costs)
• Depreciation: Linear depreciation assumed, based on

the useful life (N) of capital item. If the initial cost of the
capital item is Pi and the final cost (salvage value) is Pf,
the depreciation (D) can be computed as:
D = (Pi - Pf )/N
• Taxes: Computed based on assumed percentage of the
initial cost of capital item
• Interests: Computed based on assumed percentage of
the initial cost of capital item
• Insurance: Computed based on assumed percentage of
the initial cost of capital item
85
Investment costs
Description Investment Depreciati Interest Tax Insurance Total

(ȼ/ha) on (ȼ/ha) (ȼ/ha) (ȼ/ha) (ȼ/ha)
(ȼ/ha)
Land
Well
Pump
Pipe and
accessories
Sprinklers
Total investment cost =

86
• Land preparation: Lump sum cost per ha

• Energy: Fuel costs are computed on number of liters
used per ha at unit cost per liter. Electricity tariffs are
computed on kWh used per ha at unit cost per kWh.
• Repair and maintenance: Assumed percentages of
initial costs of capital items.
• Labour: Number of worker days (wd) per ha at unit cost
per wd
• Irrigation levy (water + land rent): For metered water,
charges are based on volume of water used per ha at
cost per unit volume. For unmetered water, lump sum
is paid per ha.
• Land rent is charged as unit cost per ha. 87
• Others
Total operational costs =
_____________________________________
• Total irrigation cost = Investment cost +
operational cost
88
Agricultural Land Drainage and
Reclamation(1)
Agricultural land drainage and reclamation involves:
• Controlling excess water on the soil surface;
• Controlling excess water in the soil; and
• Controlling excess salts within the soil, if any.
Causes of drainage and salt accumulation problems

• High rainfall
• Artesian flow from deep aquifers
• Overland flow in low lying areas
• Poor water management in irrigated areas
• Sea water intrusion in coastal areas
• Land underlain by salty rocks and shallow hard pans
89
• Agrochemical accumulation and high evaporation
Reclamation(2)
• Agricultural land drainage benefits can be related to: 1) crop

growth; 2) livestock production and 3) soil cultivation
Drainage benefits related to crop growth
• Increased soil volume available for plant roots

• Plant roots have access to more nutrients
• A well-drained soil warms up more quickly
• More activity by microbes, earthworms and other beneficial
organisms in the soil when soil is well-drained
90
Reclamation(3)
Drainage benefits related to livestock production
• A well-drained land produces grazing land early in the rainy

season
• The risk of causing damage to the soil structure by livestock
traffic on wet soils is considerably reduced
• Good drainage reduces the incidence of diseases which thrive
in wet conditions.
91
Reclamation(4)
Drainage benefits related to soil cultivation
• Well-drained soils reduce the number of occasions when

cultivation is held up waiting for soil to dry up
• There is less damage to the soil structure
• Good drainage allows early and good quality harvest.
Types of field drainage systems
• Surface drainage
• Sub-surface drainage
92
Reclamation(5)
Surface drainage
• The objective of surface drainage is to increase the removal of

surface water either by eliminating low spots where the water
tends to accumulate or by constructing drains and ditches to
speed up the movement of water out of the field.
• Surface drainage systems include:

- Random or irregular drains
- Interceptor drain
- Diversion drain
- Field drains
93
Reclamation(6)
Sub-surface drainage
• This aims at increasing the rate at which water will drain from
the soil, and so lowering the water table and increasing the
depth of drier soil above the water table.
• Sub-surface drainage systems include:

- Ditch drains
- Pipe or tube drains
94
Reclamation(7)
Hooghoudt Steady State Drainage Equation for ditch drains
q = drainage coefficient (m/d); L = drain spacing (m); D =

depth of water in the drain (m); k = saturated hydraulic
conductivity of soil (m/d); h = mid-drain water table height
above level of water in the drain (m)
95
Reclamation(8)
Hooghoudt Steady State Drainage Equation for pipe or tube drains
q = drainage coefficient (m/d); L = drain spacing (m); D = depth

of pipe drain to the impermeable layer (m); de = equivalent
depth of drain (m); k1 = saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil
above level of pipe drain (m/d); k2 = saturated hydraulic
conductivity of soil below the level of drain (m/d); h = mid-
drain water table height above level of water in the drain (m);
ro = radius of tube drain (m)
96
Reclamation(9)
van Beers Equation for equivalent depth (de) of tube drains
L = drain spacing (m); D = depth of pipe drain to the

impermeable layer (m); ro = radius of tube drain (m)
97
Reclamation(10)
Resultant hydraulic conductivity for layered soils
• Hydraulic conductivity above the level of tube drain (k1) can

be computed as:
ki = saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil layer i above the

level of tube drain; di = thickness of soil layer i above level of
tube drain; n = number of soil layers above the level of tube
drain. 98
Reclamation(11)
• Hydraulic conductivity below the level of tube drain (k2) can

be computed as:
kb = saturated hydraulic conductivity of the layer immediately

below the drain
99
Reclamation(12)
• When k2 is set to be kb, it will require the re-computation of

the value D, which is the depth of the drain to impermeable
layer as:
ki = saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil layer i below the

level of tube drain; di = thickness of soil layer i below the level
of tube drain; m = number of soil layers below the level of
tube drain. 100
Reclamation(13)
Salt accumulation problems
• Salinity
• Sodicity
101

AE 451 Irriigation and Drainage PP

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AE 451 Irrigation and Drainage

• Irrigation is not a substitute for rainfall but it is

• Irrigation can be classified into two(2) depending on

• Ensures crop and food security and improves

• It allows for a more efficient use of water for crop

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 4

• Irrigation schemes can be classified depending

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 5

• Gravity schemes: water delivery is entirely by

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 6

Agroecological zones in Ghana

• Intake structure or pump house connected to a

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 10

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 11

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 23

• Soil matric potential (φm): This is the pressure of water in

• Soil gravitational potential (φg): This is the pressure of

• Soil osmotic potential (φo): This is the pressure of water in

• Total soil water potential (H) is the sum of matric,

• Soil water retention or characteristics curve: This is the

• Soil infiltration rate

• Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity

• Effective rainfall (Pe)

• Reference/Potential Evapotranspitation (ETo)

• Pan Evaporation (Epan)

• Pan coefficient (kpan)

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 28

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 29

• Dimension: 120.7 cm diameter; 25 cm (250 mm) depth

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 30

where, Epan = pan evaporation (mm)

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 31

where, Epan = pan evaporation (mm)

SK Agodzo: Irrigation Systems Management 32

• Gross irrigation water requirement

Irrigation system based on mode of water delivery

Ekumdi Dam (bad) Nkanchina Dam (good)

Recommended methods of water delivery

Pipe water delivery system comprises

xi = distance from one end of embankment to

Dam reservoir capacity estimation

I = irrigation (mm); ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm); Pe = effective rainfall

Q = project irrigation supply requirements (m3/month); Ai = area of crop i

q = stream size (m3/s); t = supply duration (s); Ea = water application

Channel design is based on the Manning’s equation

tc = contact time; tr = recession time; ta =

Q = continuous flow rate required (L/s); IG = gross

Ql = lateral discharge; q = sprinkler discharge; N = number

is = sprinkling rate (mm/h); q = nozzle discharge (L/h); Ll =

For the selection of the sprinkler type, the sprinkling rate

is = sprinkling rate (mm/h); q = nozzle discharge (L/h); Ll

Cu = coefficient of uniformity; xi = depth of water

• Gross irrigation requirement

• Conveyance efficiency (Ec)

• Field water application efficiency (Ea)

• Leaching requirement (LR)

I = irrigation (mm); ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm); Pe = effective rainfall

• How much water to apply (Quantity)

Irrigation Scheduling Methods

• Fixed amount, fixed interval method

• Quantity of water to apply

• Method is simple but does not account for