DCN UNIT1 Complete

FIFTH SEMESTER BCA
BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
UNIT 1 – PART1
Introduction: Communication Network and services, Approaches to Network Design,
Network Functions and Network Topology, Message ,packet and circuit Switching , Internet,
Packet Switching ; Key factors in Communication Network Evolution ; Layered Architecture
and Applications – Examples of Layering , OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Model ,Telnet FTP
and IP Utilities.
Digital Transmission: Digital Representation of Information: Properties of digital

transmission: Characterization of Communication Channels Frequency Domain and Time
Domain : Fundamental limits in Digital Communication – The Nyquist Signalling rate, The
Shannon channel capacity : Line coding , Modems & digital Modulations [ 12 Hours ]
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS home1
1. What is data communication?2m

2. Explain the 5 components of data communication. 5m
3. What is a protocol? give two examples. 2m
4. what is protocol and internet protocol suite? 2m
4. Define computer network 2m
5. The goals of a computer network 5m
6. What are types or categories of network? explain. 5m
or Explain classification of networks based on size. 5m
7. what is network topology? list any 2 types. 2m
8. What are the factors that must be considered while making choice of particular topology?
2m
9. Explain 5 different types of Network Topology in detail. 10m
10.What are the three different TRANSMISSION MODES ? Explain. 4m
11.Explain 3 types of switching techniques in detail. 10m
12.Explain switching and forwarding (or packet switching) techniques
with a neat diagram. 6m
13.What is the difference between datagram and virtual circuit? 4m
14.Define Routing. 2m
15. What are the network criteria 3m
16. Explain the Key factors in Communication Network Evolution. 5m
17. Explain OSI reference model in detail. 10m
EXPLAIN the function of any 3 layers of OSI reference model. 6m
DCN notes – UNIT1 VBCA A – PRESIDENCY COLLEGE FACULTY: Ms. Anitha Page 1
18. Explain the functionality of data link layer. 4m
19. Expand SMTP and SNMP. 2m
20. Explain TCP/IP architecture. 10m
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model 8m
21. Explain HTTP. Where it is used? 2m
22. What are the differences between between OSI and TCP/IP models. 5m
23. What is the use of Telnet? 2m
24. Explain the working of File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 6marks
25. What are the various TCP/IP diagnostic utilities?5m
26. Define NETSTAT command. 2m
27. Explain the properties of digital transmission system. 5m
28. What are the characteristics of Analog signals? 2m
What are the characteristics of digital s
ignal? 2m
29. Define Time and Frequency Domain with the representation of any 2 frequency signals.
6M
30. Bit interval and Bit rate and baud rate.
31. Define Attenuation. 2m
32. DEFINE SNR 2M
32. what are the fundamental limits in digital communications? 4m
33. Write note on Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Signal Rate 3Marks
34. Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity 5marks
35. problem : For a channel with bandwidth of 3KHz and with a SNR value of 1000, like that
of a typical telephone line, what is the maximum channel capacity ?
36. What is digital-to-digital encoding? 2m
37. How to convert digital data into digital signals?.
38. Explain in detail Line Coding: 10m
39. Write the signal waveforms when 101101 is transmitted using line coding. 5m
a> polar NRZ b> bipolar 5m
Draw using the above wave forms
40. Explain AM, FM and PM. 6m
41. Explain the Evolution of Network Architecture and services 5m
42. Explain connection and connectionless services. 5m 18
43. Explain digital representation of information. 7m 18
44. what is modem? 2m
what is data communication?2m
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Explain the 5 components of data communication. 5m
Message.
 The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

 Information may include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender.
 The sender is the device that sends the data message.

 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver.
 The receiver is the device that receives the message.

 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium.
 The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver.
 Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol.
 A protocol is a set of rules that manage data communications.

 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
What is a protocol? give two examples. 2m
 A protocol is a set of rules that manage data communications.
example: FTP (file transfer protocol), HTTP ( hyper text transfer protocol)
what is internet protocol suite? 1m
The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of

communications protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks. It is
commonly known as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols in the suite are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP).
Computer Network (Define computer network 2m)

The term ''computer network'' means an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; Fibre optics, microwaves,
infrared and communication satellites can also be used. Networks come in many sizes, shapes
and forms.
The goals of a computer network 5m
The goals of a computer network include:
 Resource sharing: Many organization has a substantial number of computers in

operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a
common printer, fax, modem, scanner etc.
 High reliability: By replicating files on different machines and having spare CPU’S,
users are more protected from hardware/software failure.
 Less cost: a local area network LAN can be cheaply installed. It is easy to increase
the capacity by adding new machines.
 Communication Medium: Computer networks provide a powerful communication

medium. A file that was updated or modified on a network can be seen by the other
users on the network immediately.
What are types or categories of network? explain. 5m
or Explain classification of networks based on size. 5m
 Local Area Network (LAN):
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
Local Area Network (LAN):

 Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited. By
definition, the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware
(Such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables).
 LAN size is limited to few kilometres and are privately owned.
 One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc.
 LAN is easy to design and maintain.
 A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables.
It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
 Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally
100 or 1000 Mbps
 For example : A bunch of students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without
internet).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.

 It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
 It is designed for customers who need a high speed connectivity, normal to the
internet and have end points spread over a part of city or full.
 It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
 Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and Wire/Cable.
 Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can provide
a high-speed line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN):
 WAN is a network that provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio and
video information over large geographical area
 It covers different cities, states and even countries.
 A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines
and radio waves and may be limited to an organization.
 The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
 A Communication medium used for WAN is Satellite Link.
 Due to long distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
 Devices used for transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves
and Satellites.
 Example home computer connected to the Internet.
(what is network topology? list any 2 types. 2m)
 A Topology is a schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its

nodes and connecting lines.
 The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations.
 There are five basic topologies BUS, STAR, TREE, RING, MESH
What are the factors that must be considered while making choice of particular
topology? 2m
 easy to install
 easy to reconfigure
 easy to trouble shoot
Explain 5 different types of Network Topology in detail. 10m
 A Topology is a schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its

nodes and connecting lines.
 A network topology determines how different nodes in a network are connected to
each other and how they communicate with each other .
 There are five basic topologies BUS, STAR, TREE, RING, MESH
Bus
Linear Bus topology
 Also called horizontal topology

 Here all devices are connected to a central cable called bus by means of connectors
 When one computer sends a signal, all the computers on the network receives the
information, but one computer accepts the information.
 If one computer goes faulty all the computers may be affected as the computer share
the same cable for sending and receiving information.
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to use and understand
 Less cabling is required
 Installation is easy
 Low cost
 Can extend a bus
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Cannot be used in heavy network
 Fault identification is difficult
 Failure in the cable affects all devices
 Performance will go down when more computers are added.
Star Topology
 A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes
are individually connected to a central connection point, like a hub or a switch.
 A star takes more cable than a bus. but the benefit is that if a cable fails, only one
node will be brought down.
Star topology
Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disturbance to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or switch fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
Tree Topology
Tree topology
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
 It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable .
 Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools
to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Ring Topology:
 A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two
other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node -
a ring.
 Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.
Advantages:
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure
Disadvantages:
 Unidirectional traffic can be disadvantage
 A break in the ring can disable the entire network
Mesh topology:
 A mesh network is a network topology in which each node sends data for the
network.
 All mesh nodes cooperate in the distribution of data in the network.
 Mesh networks can send messages using a routing technique..
 It is commonly used in wireless networks.
Advantages:
 Robust and reliable (The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can
carry its data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems )
 Mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not harm the entire
system
 Privacy and security are ensured
 Fault identification would be easy
DisAdvantages:
 This type of topology is very expensive (as there are many redundant connections,
thus it is not mostly used in computer networks.)
 Large number of i/o ports are required
 Difficult of reconfiguration and installation
What are the three different TRANSMISSION MODES ? Explain. 4m

The direction of signal flow between two linked devices is called transmission modes. There
are three types of transmission modes:
1. Simplex: information is transmitted in one direction only and the roles of transmitter and
receiver are fixed. This form is not used for conventional data transmission. Example: Pager,
instructions / command send from computer to printer.
2. Half Duplex (HDX): transmission is allowed in both directions but in only one direction
at a time. Data communication systems that use the telephone network usually transmit in
HDX. Example: walkie-talkie.
3. Full Duplex (FDX): sender/receiver can transmit and receive from each other at the same
time. In order to transmit in FDX, the user usually has private direct lines. Example:
Telephone, Mobile.
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Explain 3 types of switching techniques in detail. 10m
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links,

in which each link is divided into n channels.
 A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
Circuit switching communication involves three stages.
i. Circuit establishment – before any data is transmitted, end-to-end dedicated

connection is established
ii. Data transfer – once the connection is established data is transmitted on the link
iii. Circuit Disconnect – after data transmission is completed, circuit is terminated and
resources are deallocated.
advantages:
1. data is transmitted without delays
2. this method is well suited for long continuous transmission.
Disadvantages
1. long connection establishment delay

2. network does not provide error control
3. more expensive
MESSAGE SWITCHING
Circuit switching has two limitations
 both hosts (stations) must be available at the same time for data exchange
 Resources must be available and dedicated through network between two hosts.
It is a concept of Store and Forward Networks. The message is stored temporarily before
sending it. When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance
between sender and receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is
stored in the first switching office (i.e., router) and then forwarded later, one hop at a time.
ex: telegrams
advantages:
1. channel efficiency is better compared to circuit switched systems.
2. message priority can be established due to store-and-forward technique.
3. in expensive
Disadvantages
1. long messages can block link for a long time

2. switches must have large storage capacities to store long messages
3. do not support voice or videos.
Explain switching and forwarding (or packet switching) techniques with a neat
diagram. 6m
PACKET SWITCHING
 messages are divided into smaller units called packets.

 Any message exceeding the maximum defined length of the packet is broken down
into packets.
 Each packet contains header, user data and trailer.
 header specifies beginning of the packet which contains source and destination
addresses, packet no, priority code etc.
 user data contains information.
 trailer used for error detection and correction.
advantages:
1. it does not require dedicated links.
2. It does not require large amount of buffers to store the entire message like message
switching.
3. error detection is possible in faulty packets.
Disadvantages
1. data transmission delay compared to circuit switching

2. not suited for small data packages.
There are 2 modes of operations

 Datagram –Each packet contains its destination address and is transmitted
independently
 Virtual Circuit –Each packet contains V.C.I –Network protocol establishes a
virtual circuit before sending any packets –Packets are delivered using the same
route
What is the difference between datagram and virtual circuit? 3m
UNIT1 – PART 2
Define Routing. 2m
selecting best path for sending a packet from source to destination when more than one path
is available.
What are the network criteria 3m
A network is considered effective and efficient if the following criteria are met
1.Performance – Performance is measured in many ways including transit time and response
time.
i> Transit time – amount of time required for the message to travel from one device to
another
ii> Response time – the elapsed time between an inquiry and response.
(time taken after a user enter key and requested web page is displayed by the browser)
2. Reliability – network reliability is measured
i> accuracy of deliver ii> frequency of failure
iii> recovery time from network failure
3. Security – In includes protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
Explain the Key factors in Communication Network Evolution. 5m
Role of Technology
 Technology always plays a role in determining what can be built.

 The capabilities of various technologies have improved by reductions in cost.
 As a result, many systems that were simply impossible two decades ago have become
not only feasible but also cost-effective.
Ex: Best tools for overseas meeting – Video Conference, Gathering of knowledge
Role of Regulation
 Traditional communication services in the form of telephony and telegraphy have
been government regulated.
 Governments often chose to operate communications networks as monopolies
(dominating) because of the importance of controlling communications.
Ex: issuing authorisations and licenses, monitoring of security of supply, organisation,

monitoring and control, dispute-settlement arrangements
Role of Market
 Success is ultimately determined by a customer's willingness to pay, which, of course,
depends on the cost, usefulness, and appeal of the service.
 For a network-based service, the usefulness of the service frequently depends on there
being a critical mass of subscribers.
 For example, telephone or e-mail service is of limited use if the number of reachable
destinations is small.
Role of Standards
 Standards are basically agreements, with industry wide, national, and possibly
international scope.
 Standards applying to data communications between computers specify the hardware
and software procedures through which computers can correctly and reliably "talk to
one another."
 Standards are extremely important in communications.
Layered Architecture & Applications

Explain OSI reference model in detail. 10m
EXPLAIN the function of any 3 layers of OSI reference model. 6m
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
OSI is the abbreviation of Open Systems Interconnection. This is a model of International
Organization for Standardization (widely known as ISO). The ultimate goal being that these
different vendor networks could work together in harmony. The OSI model may also be
helpful when troubleshooting a network issue.
SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI REFERENCE MODEL
The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each specifying particular
network functions.
• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
Layer 7: The Application Layer

 This layer provides an interface between the user applications and the Network
Services.
 It initiates the Communications session. Electronic mail, file transfer, connecting
remote terminals, etc. E.g. SMTP, FTP, Telnet, HTTP, etc.
Layer 6 : The Presentation Layer
 The data encoding is managed by the Presentation Layer .
 It provides translation between incompatible data encoding schemes, such as ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) & EBCDIC (Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code).
Layer 5 : The Session Layer
 The flow of communications during the connection between two computer systems is
maintained by this layer.
 This flow of communication is called a session.
 The layer ensures that a new request is accepted only when one request is completed.
Layer 4. The Transport Layer
 The Transport layer also ensures reliability of data transmission like the Data Link
layer. (Network layer does not deal with lost messages.)
 Data arrives as a sequence of packets and this layer identifies the original sequence
before they are passed to the Sessions layer.
 Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller packets, assigns sequence
number and sends them.
Two types of Protocols used :
TCP : (Transmission Control Protocol) Internet transport protocol. TCP/IP Widely used for
network/transport layer (UNIX).
UDP: (Universal Datagram Protocol) Internet connectionless transport layer protocol.
(Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.)
Layer 3 : Network Layer
 The Network Layer establishes the communications with computer systems and is
concerned with the transmission of packets.
 It does not have error detection / correction mechanisms.
 It establishes a route between the source and destination computers and for reliability
depends on the Data Link Layer & chooses the best path to send a packet (routing).
 It has its own routing architecture and uses protocols like IP.
Supports two general types of protocols.
Connection-Oriented :
 Sender and receiver first establish a connection, possibly
 negotiate on a protocol. (virtual circuit)
 Transmit the stream of data.
 Release the connection when done.
Eg.Telephone connection.
Connectionless :
 No advance setup is needed.
 Transmit the message (datagram) when sender is ready.

E.g. datagram
Layer 2: Data Link Layer Explain the functionality of data link layer. 4m
 This layer is responsible accepts the binary streams from the Physical layer ,
reassembles the bits into frames .
 Any errors are detected and corrected. Adds some bits at the beginning and end of
each frame plus the checksum.
 Receiver verifies the checksum. If the checksum is not correct, it asks for
retransmission. (send a control message)
 ensures reliability.
Data Link Layer consists of two sub layers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC) defines how data is transferred over the cable and
provides data link service to the higher layers (WAN protocols).
Provide three type of service –
Unacknowledged connectionless services – (UDP-user datagram protocol) ex:
games download/updates
Acknowledged connectionless service – (RUDP-reliable user datagram protocol)
ex: whatsapp
Connection-oriented services (TCP) ex: email service
 Medium Access Control (MAC) defines who can use the network when multiple
computers are trying to access it simultaneously (i.e. Token passing, Ethernet
[CSMA/CD]).
Layer 1: Physical Layer
 This is the bottom layer in the OSI reference model.
 This layer defines the hardware, cable wiring, power output etc.
 Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signalling mechanism.
 Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually deals with the
physical connectivity of two different stations.
 Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer.
 Data-link layer hands over frames to physical layer. 00-14-22-01-23-45 MAC ADD
255.255.255.255.255
 Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary data. The
binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.
Expand SMTP and SNMP. 2m

Simple mail transfer protocol
simple network management protocol.
Explain TCP/IP architecture. 10m

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model 8m
 It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture.
 The main design goal of TCP/IP was to build an interconnection of networks known
as internetwork, or internet that provides universal communication services over
heterogeneous physical networks.
 The clear benefit of such network is to allow communication between hosts on
different networks.
 TCP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the
TCP/IP protocol suite are located in the top three layers of this model.
4 layers of the TCP/IP model
 Layer 4: Application layer

 Layer 3: Transport layer
 Layer 2: Internet layer
 Layer 1: Network Interface layer
The Application Layer
 The application layer is the highest layer of TCP/IP.
 The application layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP for
communication.
 An application is a user process cooperating with another process usually on a
different host.
 Examples of applications include Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
 The interface between the application and transport layers is defined by port numbers
and sockets,
Protocol Function
HTTP Browser and web server

communication.
FTP File transfer protocol, transmission of

files between computers.
TELNET Primary function is to allow user to log

into remote host system in UNIX
environment.
DNS (Domain Name Service) It map the IP

Address to name
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP
-SMTP is used by an email client to
send messages to its local email server.
The local server then decides if the
message is destined for a local mailbox
or if the message is addressed to a
mailbox on another server.
Simple Network Management Protocol
SNMP (SNMP) is a popular protocol for
network management. It is used for
collecting information from, and
configuring, network devices, such as
servers, printers, hubs, switches, and
routers on an Internet Protocol (IP)
network
The Transport Layer

 The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an
application to its remote peer.
 Multiple applications can be supported simultaneously.
 The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which provides connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate data suppression,
congestion control, and flow control.
 Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol It provides
connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service.
 Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can
tolerate the loss of some data.
Protocol Functions
Transmission Control  Connection oriented

Protocol (TCP),
 Connection established
before sending data
 Reliable
 Used in mail services.
User Datagram  Connectionless
Protocol (UDP)  Sending data without
establishing connection
 Fast but unreliable
 Used in multimedia(games)
communication.
The Internet Layer
 Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer.

 It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability
 These functions must be provided at a higher level.
IP (Internet Protocol)
 The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet
Protocol).
 The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
 Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion.
IPSecurity (IPSec)
 is a collection of protocols designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
(INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY) to provide security for a packet at the network
level.
 is a network protocol suite that authenticates and encrypts the packets of data sent
over a network
The Network Interface Layer

 The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the data-link layer, is the
interface to the actual network hardware.
 This interface may or may not provide reliable delivery, and may be packet or stream
oriented.
What are the differences between between OSI and TCP/IP models. 5m
OSI TCP/IP
OSI is a reference model TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model
The OSI model however is a TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be
"generic, protocol- independent standards around which the internet has
standard." developed.
The OSI model consists of 7 TCP/IP only has 4 layers.

architectural layers
networks are not usually built TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible
around the OSI model as it is model- This is mainly due to the fact because
merely used as a guidance tool. TCP/IP protocols are the standards around
which the internet was developed therefore it
mainly gains creditability due to this reason.
OSI do not combine TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and
physical layers into the network access layer.
OSI do not combine TCP/IP combines the presentation and session

layer issues into its application layer.
Application Layer Protocols and TCP/IP utilities :
Telnet, FTP, HTTP and IP utilities like PING, TRACEROUTE, IPCONFIG, NETSTAT
Telnet (What is the use of Telnet? 2m)

 Telnet which stands for Telecommunications Network, is a protocol that provides a
way for users (or Clients) to connect to multi-user computers (or servers) on the
Internet.
 In most cases users use telnet to communicate with a remote login server.
 The telnet command is similar to using the FTP command.
 Telnet has no graphical user interface (GUI).
Remote Login.
 The telnet protocol gives you the ability to connect to a machine, by giving
commands and instructions interactively to that machine.
 In such a case, the local system becomes transparent to the user, who gets the feeling
that he is connected directly to the remote computer.
 The commands typed by the user are transmitted directly to the remote machine and
the response from the remote machine is displayed on the user’s monitor screen. An
interactive connection is also known as remote login.
Explain the working of File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 6marks
 Transferring data from one host to another is one of the most frequently used
operations.
 Both need to upload data (transfer data from a client to a server) and download data
(retrieve data from a server to a client) are addressed by FTP.
 Additionally, FTP provides security and authentication measures to prevent
unauthorized access to data.
 FTP uses TCP as a transport protocol to provide reliable end-to-end connections.
 The FTP client initiates the first connection, an FTP server listens for and accepts
new connections.
 The control connection is used for all of the control commands a client user uses to
log on to the server, manipulate files, and terminate a session.
 The FTP client’s user interface communicates with the protocol interpreter, which
manages the control connection.
 This protocol interpreter translates and communicates control commands to the FTP
server.
 The FTP server’s PI receives these commands, and then initiates the appropriate
processes to service the client’s requests.
 If the requests require the transfer of data, data management is performed by the
DTPS on both the client and server applications.
 Following the completion of the data transfer, the data connection is closed, and
control is returned to the PIs of the client and server applications.
FTP operations
 Connect to a remote host.

 Navigate and manipulate the directory structure.
 List files available for transfer.
 Transfer data to or from the remote host.
 Disconnect from the remote host.
HTTP
 The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a protocol designed to allow the transfer of
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents.
 HTML is a tag language used to create hypertext documents.
 Hypertext documents include links to other documents that contain additional
information about the highlighted subject.
 Such documents can contain other elements apart from text, such as graphic images,
audio and video clips, Java applets.
 HTTP is based on request-response activity.
An HTTP transaction is divided into four steps:

1. The browser opens a connection.
2. The browser sends a request to the server.
3. The server sends a response to the browser.
4. The connection is closed.
What are the various TCP/IP diagnostic utilities?5m
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AimCNTzDlVo
IP utilities like PING, TRACEROUTE, IPCONFIG, NETSTAT
PING is one of the easiest way to test connectivity across the network to determine whether a
host is online and available.
Ping Commands
To check the connectivity of the system
Trace Route
Trace Route is a computer network diagnostic tool for displaying the route (path) and
measuring transit delays of packets across an Internet Protocol (IP) network.
Traceroute is the program that shows you the route over the network between two systems,
listing all the intermediate routers a connection must pass through to get to its destination. It
can help you determine why your connections to a given server might be poor, and can often
help you figure out where exactly the problem is. It also shows you how systems are
connected to each other, letting you see how your ISP connects to the Internet as well as how
the target system is connected.
NETSTAT Define NETSTAT command. 2m
netstat (network statistics) is a command-line tool displays network connections (both
incoming and outgoing) , routing tables and number of network interface statistics.
IPCONFIG
Ipconfig utility is be used to display TCP/IP information about a host. This command when
executed displays the IP address, subnet mask and default gateway for the host.
Digital Transmission
Explain the properties of digital transmission system. 5m
Transmitter
Converts information into signal suitable for transmission.
Ex: Telephone converts voice into electric current
Ex: Modem converts bits into tones
Receiver
Receives energy from medium
Converts received signal into form suitable for delivery to user
Ex: Telephone converts current into voice
ex: Modem converts tones into bits
Communication medium
Between transmitter and receiver carries data between them.
What are the characteristics of Analog signals? 2m

What are the characteristics of digital signal? 2m
Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in form. Analog
and Digital Signal. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range. Digital
signals can have only a limited number of values.
Characteristic of Digital signals
Digital Signals are

discrete
constant in intensity(measurable amount)
require greater channel bandwidth (amount of data that can be

transmitted in a fixed amount of time) than analog signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Periodic Aperiodic
A periodic signal completes a pattern within A nonperiodic signal changes without
a measurable time frame, called a period, and displaying a pattern that repeats over time.
repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods.
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic.

The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a periodic event per time and is measured
in cycles/second
Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of period,
the following formulas shown below. Frequency f= 1/T and

Period  T=1/f
Problem: A sine wave has frequency of 4KHz. What is its period?
Ans: Let T be the period and F be the frequency
T = 1/F => 1/4000 => 0.00025 => 0.25sec
Define Time and Frequency Domain with the representation of any 2 frequency signals.
6m
A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude (It refers to the height of the signal)
, frequency, and phase.
 The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time .
 A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value and the frequency.
Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero. The phase is measured in
degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2p radians)
Wavelength
It is the distance signal can travel in one period.
Wavelength = Propagation speed * period
OR
Wavelength = Propogation speed / Frequency
Properties of Digital Transmission Systems

a) Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
Problem: A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20Hz. The highest frequency is 60Hz. What is
the lowest frequency?
Ans: Let f2 be the highest frequency = 60Hz
Let f1 be the lowest frequency.
Bandwidth = 20Hz
By definition, Bandwidth = f2 – f1
20 = 60 – f1
F1 = 60 – 20 = 40 Hz
Bit interval and Bit rate
The bit interval is the time required to send one single bit.
The bit rate is the number of bit intervals in one second, usually expressed in bits per second
(bps).
Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur per second. A symbol
is one of several voltage, frequency, or phase changes.
Problem: A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000bps. What is the duration of each bit (bit
interval)?
Ans: Bit interval is the inverse of bit rate

Bit interval = 1/2000 = 0.0005 sec = 5msec
Amplitude
It refers to the height of the signal
Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes, or watts, depending on the type of Signal.
Transmission Impairment
It means the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of
the medium.
3 reasons
Define Attenuation. 2m
1. attenuation - Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength
of a signal. Usually amplifiers are used to strengthen the signal.
2. distortion - Distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of
something, such as an object, image, sound or waveform.
3. Noise – disturbance caused due to heat, loss in energy. Lighting etc.
DEFINE SNR 2M
b) SIGNAL – TO- NOISE RATIO (SNR)

The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
We need to consider the average signal power and the average noise power because these
may change with time.
SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the
signal is more corrupted by noise.
below figure shows the idea of SNR.
c) DATA RATE LIMITS (what are the fundamental limits in digital communications?
4m
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits
per second over a channel.
1. Data rate depends on three factors:
2. Bit error Rate
1. Data rate depends on three factors:
The bandwidth available
The level of the signals we use
The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel. Another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
2.Bit error rate : It defines what percentage of bits are in error from the point where the data
originates to the point where user receives at the other end. If the error rate is less than
0.0001 to 0.0002 percent, it is considered as good data .
Write note on Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Signal Rate 3Marks
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist signal rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit
rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L
In this formula,
 bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,
 L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and
 Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any
bit rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels. Although the idea is theoretically
correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number of signal levels, we impose
a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very
sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In other words, increasing the levels
of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity 5marks
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude
Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the Theoretical
highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth * log2 (1+ SNR)
In this formula,
 bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel;
 SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and
 capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
Note that in the Shannon formula there is no indication of the signal level, which means that
no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of
the channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the
method of transmission.
problem : For a channel with bandwidth of 3KHz and with a SNR value of 1000, like that of
a typical telephone line, what is the maximum channel capacity ?
Capacity = bandwidth * log2 (1+ SNR)
C = 3000 * log2(1+ 1000)
= 30000bps (approx)
__________________________________________________________________________
Encoding
For the information to be transmitted across a communication medium, it must be encoded
into signals. The signals must be manipulated so that it contains the information in the form
of recognizable to the sender and receiver. This process is known as encoding.
What is digital-to-digital encoding? 2m

Digital-to-Digital Encoding: How to convert digital data into digital signals?.
It can be done in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line
coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.
Explain in detail Line Coding: 10m

Explain digital representation of information. 7m 18
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format. It is stored as series of 1s and 0s.
Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data. There are three
types of line coding schemes available:
Line Coding:
1. Uni-polar Encoding: Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent
data. In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no
voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero(NRZ), because there is
no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.
2.Polar Encoding:
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in three types:
I> Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ); It uses two different voltage levels to
represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative
value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants:

NRZ-L
 In NRZ-level, the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
 A positive voltage means bit 1 and negative voltage means bit 0.
NRZ-I
 In NRZ-Inversion of the voltage level represents a 1 bit.
 It is the transition between positive and negative voltage, not the voltage itself.
 0 presents no change.
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I
changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
II> Return to Zero (RZ): Problem with NRZ is that the receiver does not know when
a bit ended and when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s
clock are not synchronized.
zero is one is
RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0
and zero voltage for none.
Disadvantage:
 It requires two signal changes to encode each bit and therefore occupies more
bandwidth.
Advantage: But it is more effective method than NRZ method.
III> Biphase
 The best solution for the problem of synchronization is Biphase.
 Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval instead of RZ.
There are 2 types:
Manchester:
 This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into
two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit
is encountered.
 Negative-to-positive transition(low-to-high) represents binary 1 and positive-to-
negative (high-to-low) represents binary 0.
Differential Manchester: This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also

transit at the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
3. Bipolar Encoding:
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.
Write the signal waveforms when 101101 is transmitted using line coding. 5m
a> polar NRZ b> bipolar 5m
Draw using the above wave forms
Analog-to-Digital Encoding
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated as
analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital
conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete.
To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form.
It involves three steps: Sampling, Quantization and Encoding.
Sampling:
In digital signal processing, sampling is the process of breaking up a continuous signal to a

discrete signal.
Quantization: (signal processing)

In digital signal processing, quantization is the process of mapping a larger set of values to a
smaller set. The best example is rounding the numbers to make them manageable
The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum
amplitude value.
Encoding:
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.
Digital-to-Analog encoding
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier(circuits), it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data. An analog
signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.
There are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:
Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK):,
Strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.
In this conversion technique , When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held;
otherwise it is set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain constant while amplitude changes.
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK): In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen to
represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0.
Phase Shift Keying(PSK): In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal
is altered to reflect the binary data.
When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered.
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
Analog-to-Analog Encoding:
example : radio – government assigns a bandwidth to each radio station. The analog signal
produced by each station is a low-pass all in same range. To be able to listen to different
stations, low-pass signals need to be shifted to different ranges.
Analog to analog (example audio and video transmission) conversion can be done in three
ways:
Explain AM, FM and PM. 6m
Amplitude Modulation: In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to
reflect the analog data.
Frequency Modulation: In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is
modified to reflect the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).
Phase Modulation: In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in
order to reflect the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.
Modems and Digital modulation: Amplitude shift keying, Frequency shift keying, Phase
shift keying.
A modem (modulator-demodulator) modulates outgoing digital signals from a computer or

other digital device to analog signals for a conventional copper twisted pair telephone line
and demodulates the incoming analog signal and converts it to a digital signal for the digital
device.
Note: Modulation is the process of transforming digital information (1's an 0's) into analog
(perceived as sound) signals. In the case of modems, capable of being transmitted over
telephone lines. Demodulation: the process of transforming analog signals, previously
modulated, back into digital information.
Types of computer Modems
Below are the four versions of a computer Modem found in computers.
 Onboard Modem - Modem built onto the computer motherboard. These Modems
cannot be removed, but can be disabled.
 Internal Modem - Modem that connects to a PCI (Peripheral Component

Interconnect,) slot inside a newer desktop computer or ISA (Industry Standard
Architecture) slot on an older computer.
 External Modem - Modem within a box that connects to the computer externally,
usually the Serial Ports or USB port.
 Removable Modem - Modem used with older laptops PCMCIA (Personal

Computer Memory Card International Association) slot and can be added or
removed as needed.

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FIFTH SEMESTER BCA

BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

Digital Transmission: Digital Representation of Information: Properties of digital

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS home1

1. What is data communication?2m

what is data communication?2m

 The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

 The sender is the device that sends the data message.

 The receiver is the device that receives the message.

 A protocol is a set of rules that manage data communications.

What is a protocol? give two examples. 2m

 A protocol is a set of rules that manage data communications.

what is internet protocol suite? 1m

The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of

Computer Network (Define computer network 2m)

The goals of a computer network 5m

The goals of a computer network include:

 Resource sharing: Many organization has a substantial number of computers in

 Communication Medium: Computer networks provide a powerful communication

Local Area Network (LAN):

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

 A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

 A Topology is a schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its

Explain 5 different types of Network Topology in detail. 10m

 A Topology is a schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its

Linear Bus topology

 Also called horizontal topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

What are the three different TRANSMISSION MODES ? Explain. 4m

Explain 3 types of switching techniques in detail. 10m

 A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links,

Circuit switching communication involves three stages.

i. Circuit establishment – before any data is transmitted, end-to-end dedicated

1. data is transmitted without delays

2. this method is well suited for long continuous transmission.

1. long connection establishment delay

Circuit switching has two limitations

1. channel efficiency is better compared to circuit switched systems.

2. message priority can be established due to store-and-forward technique.

1. long messages can block link for a long time

 messages are divided into smaller units called packets.

1. it does not require dedicated links.

3. error detection is possible in faulty packets.

1. data transmission delay compared to circuit switching

There are 2 modes of operations

What are the network criteria 3m

2. Reliability – network reliability is measured

i> accuracy of deliver ii> frequency of failure

iii> recovery time from network failure

3. Security – In includes protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.

Explain the Key factors in Communication Network Evolution. 5m

 Technology always plays a role in determining what can be built.

Ex: issuing authorisations and licenses, monitoring of security of supply, organisation,

Layered Architecture & Applications

Layer 7: The Application Layer

Supports two general types of protocols.