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Hydraulic Engineering

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Prof. Mohammad Saud Afzal
Department of Civil Engineering

Boundary Layer Theory

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Introduction

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• When a real fluid flows past a solid, the fluid particles stick

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to the solid surface. No- Slip Boundary Condition

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• The velocity of the fluid particles close to the solid
boundary is equal to velocity of the boundary.

• For a stationary boundary, the fluid velocity

at the boundary is zero.
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• Far away from the boundary, the velocity of the fluid is

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higher.

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• The velocity increases from zero value on the stationary

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surface to free-stream velocity of the fluid in a direction
normal to the boundary.

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• As a result of this velocity variation, a velocity
𝒅𝒖
gradient exist in the normal direction.
𝒅𝒚
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• This velocity variation occurs in a very thin region of flow

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near the solid surface.

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Boundary Layer

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Adapted from Som, S.K., Biswas, G., & Chakraborty, S.
(2012). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid
Machines. McGraw-Hill Education (India).
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• Prandtl divided the flow of fluid in the neighbourhood of

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the solid boundary into 2 regions:

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 BOUNDARY LAYER – In the immediate vicinity of the solid

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boundary where viscous forces and rotationality cannot

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𝒅𝒖
be ignored. In this region velocity gradient exists and
𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒖
fluid exerts a shear stress 𝝉 = 𝝁 on the wall.
𝒅𝒚
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• OUTER FLOW REGION – The velocity is constant and is

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equal to the free stream velocity. Flow is essentially
irrotational and potential flow techniques may be

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utilized to obtain the velocity field.

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Adapted from Çengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J.
M. (2006). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals

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and applications. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.
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Growth of the Boundary Layer over a Flat
Plate

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• Consider the flow of a fluid, having a free stream velocity U,

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over a smooth flat stationary plate placed parallel to the

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direction of the free stream.

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• Velocity of the fluid on the plate surface is 0.

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• At some distance away from the plate the

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fluid is having certain velocity.

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• Hence, a velocity gradient is setup.

• This velocity gradient results into shear stress.

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• This shear stress retards the fluid motion in

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the vicinity of the plate.

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• The BOUNDARY LAYER REGION begins at the LEADING EDGE.

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• The boundary layer grows with downstream
distance from the leading edge 𝒙 .
𝑼𝒙
The flow is governed by 𝑹𝒆 𝒙 = .
𝝂
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Laminar Boundary Layer

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• Near the leading edge of the plate, the

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flow in the boundary layer is laminar.

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• The length of the plate from the leading edge to the
point upto which laminar boundary layer
exists is called LAMINAR ZONE.
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• For a flat plate, the laminar boundary layer

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occurs upto 𝑹𝒆 𝒙 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 .

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Turbulent Boundary Layer
• With increasing 𝒙, the value of 𝑹𝒆

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𝒙 increases.

• When 𝑹𝒆 𝒙 > 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 , the laminar

boundary layer becomes unstable.
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• There is a transition from laminar to turbulent

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boundary layer.

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• The short length over which the laminar boundary layer

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changes to turbulent is called TRANSITION ZONE.

• Downstream of the transition zone, the

boundary layer becomes turbulent.
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Laminar Sub-layer
• This is a region in the turbulent boundary

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layer zone, very close to the solid boundary.

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• Here viscous effects are dominant.

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• Since the thickness of this layer is very small,
the variation of the velocity is assumed
to be linear.
Constant Velocity Gradient
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• For linear variation of the velocity, we can write

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𝒅𝒖 𝒖
=
𝒅𝒚 𝒚

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• The shear stress in this layer is a constant and is equal to the

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boundary shear 𝝉𝟎 .

𝒅𝒖 𝒖
𝝉𝟎 = 𝝁 =𝝁
𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎 𝒚
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Distortion of a Fluid Particle within the
Boundary Layer

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• A fluid particle retains its
original shape in the

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uniform flow outside the

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boundary layer.
Adapted from Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H.
(2006). Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. J. Wiley & Sons.

• After entering the boundary layer,

the particle begins to distort.
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• The distortion occurs due to the velocity

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gradient inside the boundary layer.

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• The top of the particle has a larger velocity than its bottom.

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• Flow inside the boundary layer has non-zero vorticity.

• In the turbulent boundary layer, the

particles become greatly distorted.
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Boundary Layer Thickness

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• Physically, there is no sharp edge to the boundary layer.

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• Boundary layer thickness 𝜹 is the distance from the plate

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at which the fluid velocity is within some arbitrary value of
the free stream velocity.
Usually 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝑼
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• What is so special about 0.99???
Why not 0.96 or

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0.98???????

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• To remove this confusion, we shall now look at the

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following definitions:

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 Displacement Thickness 𝜹∗

 Momentum Thickness 𝜽

 Energy Thickness 𝜹∗∗

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Adapted from Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi,
T. H. (2006). Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. J. Wiley

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& Sons.

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• Consider two velocity profiles

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for flow past a flat plate.
 Uniform Profile 𝝁 = 𝟎

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 Slip at the wall
 Boundary Layer Profile 𝝁 ≠ 𝟎
 No- slip at the wall
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• Within the boundary layer, there is a velocity

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deficit equal to 𝑼 − 𝒖.

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• Because of this deficit, the flow rate across

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section b – b is less than the flow rate across section a – a.

• What happens if the plate is displaced

at section a – a by an amount 𝜹∗
(Displacement Thickness) ???
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• Answer:

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The flow rates across each section will be same.

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• Due to the deficit 𝑼 − 𝒖 , the momentum flux across section b
– b is also less than that across section a – a.

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• The momentum thickness 𝜽 is defined
in terms of the momentum flux.
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Displacement Thickness 𝜹∗

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• Displacement thickness is the distance by which a

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streamline, just outside the boundary layer, is displaced

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away from the wall due to the viscous effects on the plate.

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Adapted from Çengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M.
(2006). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and
applications. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
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• Consider the flow over a smooth flat

E
plate.

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• Concentrate on section 1 – 1, located

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at a distance x from the leading egde.

• At section 1 – 1, consider an elemental

strip of thickness dy (located at
distance y from the plate).
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• If b is the width of the plate, then the area

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of the strip is given by 𝒅𝑨 = 𝒃𝒅𝒚.

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• Mass flux through the elemental strip is given by

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𝝆𝒖𝒅𝑨 or 𝝆𝒖𝒃𝒅𝒚 .

• For the uniform velocity profile, the mass

flux is given by 𝝆𝑼𝒃𝒅𝒚 .
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• Hence, the reduction in mass flux through

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the elemental strip is given by:

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𝝆𝑼𝒃𝒅𝒚 − 𝝆𝒖𝒃𝒅𝒚

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or
𝝆 𝑼 − 𝒖 𝒃𝒅𝒚

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• Total reduction in mass flux through BC
𝜹
=‫ 𝑼 𝝆 𝟎׬‬− 𝒖 𝒃𝒅𝒚 (Eq. 1)
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• When the plate is displaced by 𝜹∗ such that

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the velocity at 𝜹∗ is equal to 𝑼, then the

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reduction in mass flux through the

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distance 𝜹∗ = 𝝆𝑼𝜹∗ 𝒃 (Eq. 2)

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• Equating Eq. 1 and Eq. 2
𝜹
𝝆𝑼𝜹∗ 𝒃 = ‫𝝆 𝟎׬‬ 𝑼 − 𝒖 𝒃𝒅𝒚
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• Thus for an incompressible fluid, we obtain

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∗ 𝜹 𝒖
𝜹 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 𝟏 − 𝒅𝒚 Displacement Thickness

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𝑼

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Momentum Thickness 𝜽

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• It is the loss of momentum flux in the boundary layer as

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compared to that of the potential flow.

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• The deficit in the momentum flux for the
boundary layer flow
𝜹
= 𝝆𝒃 ‫ 𝑼 𝒖 𝟎׬‬− 𝒖 𝒅𝒚 (Eq. 3)
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• Eq. 3 must be equal to the momentum flux in a layer of

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uniform speed U and thickness 𝜽.

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𝜹
∴ 𝝆𝒃𝑼𝟐 𝜽 = 𝝆𝒃 ‫ 𝑼 𝒖 𝟎׬‬− 𝒖 𝒅𝒚

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or
𝜹𝒖 𝒖
Momentum Thickness
𝜽= ‫𝑼 𝟎׬‬ 𝟏− 𝒅𝒚
𝑼
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Energy Thickness 𝜹∗∗

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• Some authors define another thickness of the boundary

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layer based on the reduction of kinetic energy of the
flowing fluid due to the velocity deficit.

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𝜹
𝒖 𝒖𝟐
𝜹∗∗ =න 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒅𝒚
𝟎 𝑼 𝑼
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Note

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• Boundary layer theory is based on the fact that the

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boundary layer is thin.

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• ∴ at any location 𝒙, 𝜹 ≪ 𝒙; 𝜹∗ ≪ 𝒙; 𝜽 ≪ 𝒙 and 𝜹∗∗ ≪ 𝒙.

• Boundary layer thickness 𝜹 is a

function of 𝒙.
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Problem- 1

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• Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness

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and the energy thickness for the velocity distribution in the
𝒖 𝒚

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boundary layer given by = .
𝑼 𝜹

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Problem- 2

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• Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness

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and the energy thickness for the velocity distribution in the
𝒖 𝒚 𝒚 𝟐
boundary layer given by =𝟐 − .

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𝑼 𝜹 𝜹
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Problem- 3

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• For the laminar flow over a plate, the experiments confirm
𝟏 𝒚 𝟑

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𝒖 𝟑 𝒚
the velocity profile = − .
For the turbulent
𝑼 𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹

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flow over a flat plate, the experimental observations over a
range of Reynolds number suggest
𝟏ൗ
𝒖 𝒚 𝟕 𝜹∗
= . Find the ratio of for
𝑼 𝜹 𝜹
laminar and turbulent cases.
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von Karman Momentum

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Integral Equation

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• Consider uniform flow past a flat plate of width b.

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Adapted from Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., &
(2006). Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. J. Wiley & Sons.
Okiishi, T. H.
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• Assumption: The pressure is constant

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throughout the flow field.

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• The flow entering the control volume at section (1) (leading
edge of the plate) is uniform.

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• The velocity of the flow at section (2)
(exit of the control volume) varies
from 0 to U.
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• The fluid in the immediate vicinity of

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the plate makes up the lower portion

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of the control volume.

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• The upper surface of the control volume coincides with the
streamline just outside the edge of the
boundary layer at section (2)
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• Applying the conservation of linear

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momentum along 𝒙 − direction for

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steady flow: Reynolds
Transport

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Theorem

σ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆 ‫𝑽𝒖 ׬‬. 𝒏
ෝ 𝒅𝑨 ෝ 𝒅𝑨
+ 𝝆 ‫𝑽𝒖 ׬‬. 𝒏 (Eq. 4)

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𝟏 𝟐

• We can write σ 𝑭𝒙 = −𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈

Due to 𝝉𝒘
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• ∴ Eq. 4 can be written as:

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𝜹
−𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝑼 −𝑼 𝒃𝒉 + 𝝆 ‫𝒚𝒅𝒃 𝟐𝒖 𝟎׬‬

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Because the velocity vector makes an

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or angle of 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 with the normal at
section (1)
𝟐 𝜹 𝟐
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝑼 𝒃𝒉 − 𝝆 ‫𝒚𝒅𝒃 𝒖 𝟎׬‬ (Eq. 5)
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• From the conservation of mass, the

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mass flow rate through section (1)

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must equal the mass flow rate through

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section (2).

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• Hence, we can write

𝜹
𝑼𝒉 = ‫𝒚𝒅𝒖 𝟎׬‬ (Eq. 6)
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• Multiplying 𝝆𝑼𝒃 to both the sides of

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Eq. 6, we get

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𝜹
𝛒𝑼𝟐 𝒃𝒉 = 𝝆𝒃 ‫𝒚𝒅𝒖𝑼 𝟎׬‬ (Eq. 7)

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• Substituting Eq. 7 in Eq. 5,

𝜹 𝜹
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝒃 ‫ 𝒚𝒅𝒖𝑼 𝟎׬‬− 𝝆 ‫𝒚𝒅𝒃 𝟐𝒖 𝟎׬‬
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or

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𝜹
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝒃 ‫ 𝑼 𝒖 𝟎׬‬− 𝒖 𝒅𝒚

T
Momentum
Thickness 𝜽

P
???
or

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𝟐 𝜹𝒖 𝒖
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝒃𝑼 ‫𝑼 𝟎׬‬ 𝟏− 𝒅𝒚
𝑼

∴ 𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = 𝝆𝒃𝑼𝟐 𝜽 (Eq. 8)

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• Differentiating both the sides of Eq. 8 w.r.t 𝒙,

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𝒅𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 𝒅𝜽
= 𝝆𝒃𝑼𝟐 (Eq. 9)

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𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

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• Since 𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = ‫𝒙𝒅𝒃 𝒘𝝉 ׬‬, we get

𝒅𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈
= 𝝉𝒘 𝒃 (Eq. 10)
𝒅𝒙
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• Equating Eq. 9 and Eq. 10,

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Can be applied to

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𝟐 𝒅𝜽 both Laminar and
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝆𝑼 Turbulent boundary
𝒅𝒙

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Layers

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von Karman Momentum Integral Equation
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Boundary Conditions

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•𝒖 𝒚=𝟎 =𝟎

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𝒅𝟐 𝒖
• 𝟐 𝒚=𝟎 =𝟎
𝒅𝒚

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•𝒖 𝒚=𝜹 =𝑼

𝒅𝒖
• 𝒚=𝜹 =𝟎
𝒅𝒚
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Problem- 4

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• An approximate expression for the velocity profile in a
steady, 2-D, incompressible boundary layer is

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𝒖 𝝅𝜼
= 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜼 + 𝒌 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜼 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ,𝟎 ≤ 𝜼 ≤ 𝟑

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𝑼 𝟔
𝒚
= 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝜼 − 𝒌𝒆−𝜼 , for 𝜼 ≥ 𝟑, where 𝜼 = .

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𝜹
Show that the profile satisfy :
(i) 𝒖 𝒚 = 𝟎 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
(ii) 𝒖 𝒚 = ∞ = 𝑼, = =𝟎
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚𝟐
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Problem- 5

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𝒖
• The velocity profile for laminar boundary layer is given as: =

T
𝑼
𝒚 𝒚 𝟐
𝟐 − Find an expression for boundary layer thickness 𝜹
.

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𝜹 𝜹
and the wall shear stress.

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Problem- 6

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• For the previous problem, find the thickness of the boundary

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layer at the end of a plate 1 m long and 0.8 m wide when

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placed in water flowing with a velocity of 150 mm/s. Take the
viscosity of water as 0.01 poise.

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Laminar Boundary Layer over a

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Flat Plate

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• The analysis is done by applying von Karman Momentum

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Integral Equation.

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• Assumptions:
𝒚 Third order polynomial law
 𝒖 is a function of 𝜼 =
𝜹
and invariant of 𝒙.
𝒖
 = 𝒇 𝜼 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝜼 + 𝑪𝜼𝟐 + 𝑫𝜼𝟑
𝑼
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• Applying the boundary conditions, we obtain

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𝟑 −𝟏
𝑨 = 𝑪 = 𝟎, 𝑩 = and 𝑫 =

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𝟐 𝟐

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• Therefore, we get

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𝒖 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
=𝒇 𝜼 = 𝜼 − 𝜼
𝑼 𝟐 𝟐

• Inserting the above in von Karman

Momentum integral equation:
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𝟐 𝒅 𝜹𝒖 𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝆𝑼 ‫𝑼 𝟎׬‬ 𝟏− 𝒅𝒚

E
𝒅𝒙 𝑼

T
When 𝒚 varies from 0 to 𝜹,
or 𝜼 varies from 0 to 1

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𝒅𝜹 𝟏
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝆𝑼𝟐 ‫𝒇 ׬‬ 𝟏 − 𝒇 𝒅𝜼

N
𝒅𝒙 𝟎

or
𝟐 𝒅𝜹
𝝉𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝝆𝑼 (Eq. 11)
𝒅𝒙
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• Applying Newton’s law of viscosity at the boundary, we get

E
𝒅𝒖
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝁

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𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎

P
or

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𝟑 𝑼
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝁 (Eq. 12)
𝟐 𝜹

• Equating Eq. 11 and 12,

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𝝂
𝜹𝒅𝜹 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 𝒅𝒙

E
𝑼

T
• Integrating the above equation

P
𝜹 𝝂 𝒙
‫𝜹𝒅𝜹 𝟎׬‬ = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 ‫𝒙𝒅 𝟎׬‬
𝑼

N
𝟏
or 𝑹𝒆 𝒙
𝜹𝟐 𝝂 𝜹𝟐 𝝂 𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 𝒙 or = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟗 𝒙
𝟐 𝑼 𝟐 𝑼𝒙
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or

E
𝟒.𝟔𝟒𝒙
𝜹=

T
𝑹 𝒆𝒙

P
• The above equation can be utilized for obtaining the

N
expressions of 𝝉𝒘 and 𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 . 𝑳
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈 = න 𝝉𝒘 𝒅𝒙
From the expression of 𝟎
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
applied at the wall.
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Problem- 7

E
𝒖
• For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer =

T
𝑼
𝟑 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝟑
− , determine the shear stress and the drag force

P
𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹
in terms of Reynolds number.

N
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Turbulent Boundary Layer over

E
a Flat Plate

T
• Prandtl assumed one-seventh power law of velocity

P
distribution for turbulent boundary layer.
𝒖 𝟏ൗ 𝒚
∴ =𝒇 𝜼 =𝜼 , where 𝜼 =

N
𝟕 .
𝑼 𝜹

• Application of von Karman momentum

integral equation yields,
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𝟕 𝟐 𝒅𝜹
𝝉𝒘 = 𝝆𝑼 (Eq. 13)

E
𝟕𝟐 𝒅𝒙

T
• Blasius gave the following expression of the wall shear for a

P
hydrodynamically smooth surface,

N
−𝟐 𝟐 𝝂 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝝉𝒘 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝝆𝑼 (Eq. 14)
𝑼𝜹

• Equating Eq. 13 and 14,

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𝝂 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝜹𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒅𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝒙

E
𝑼
• Integrating the above equation as follows

T
𝜹 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝝂 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
‫𝜹𝒅 𝜹 𝟎׬‬ = ‫𝟎 𝟎׬‬. 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝑼 𝒅𝒙

P
we obtain

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𝟏.𝟐𝟓 𝝂 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝒙 or
𝑼

𝝂 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝟏.𝟐𝟓
𝜹𝟏.𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝒙
𝑼𝒙
 L
or

E
−𝟎.𝟐 Turbulent boundary
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝒙𝑹𝒆𝒙

T
layer grows faster
Valid for 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑹𝒆𝒙 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕

P
Observations

N
• Laminar boundary layer - 𝜹 𝒙 ∝ 𝒙𝟎.𝟓

• Turbulent boundary layer - 𝜹 𝒙 ∝ 𝒙𝟎.𝟖

 L
Local Coefficient of Drag 𝑪𝑫 ∗

E
• 𝑪𝑫 ∗ is given by

T
𝝉𝒘
𝑪𝑫 ∗ = 𝟏

P
𝝆𝑼𝟐
𝟐

N
Average Coefficient of Drag 𝑪𝑫
• 𝑪𝑫 is given by
𝑭𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏
𝟐
𝝆𝑨𝑼𝟐
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Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer
over a flat plate

E
• For 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 < 𝑹𝒆𝒙 < 𝟏𝟎𝟕 , 𝑼𝑳

T
𝑹𝒆 𝑳 = ,where L is the
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟐 𝝂
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝒙𝑹𝒆𝒙 −𝟎.𝟐 and 𝑪𝑫 = . length of the plate

P
𝟏ൗ
𝑹 𝒆𝑳 𝟓

N
• For 𝟏𝟎𝟕 < 𝑹𝒆𝒙 < 𝟏𝟎𝟗 , Schlichting (Empirical) gave
the following equation
𝟎.𝟒𝟓𝟓
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟐.𝟓𝟖
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑹𝒆𝑳
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Problem- 8

TE
• Water flows over a flat plate at a free stream velocity of

P
0.15 m/s. There is no pressure gradient and the laminar
boundary layer is 6 mm thick. Assume a sinusoidal velocity

N
𝒖 𝝅 𝒚
profile = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 . Calculate the wall shear stress and
𝑼 𝟐 𝜹
the local coefficient of drag.
For water : 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑷𝒂 − 𝒔
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Problem- 9

TE
• Air at standard conditions flows over a flat plate. The free
stream velocity is 3 m/s. Find 𝜹 and 𝝉𝒘 at 𝒙 = 𝟏 from the

P
leading edge. Assume a cubic velocity profile. For air, 𝝂 =

N
𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔 and 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 .
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Problem- 10

E
• Consider a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate with a

T
𝒖 𝟑 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝟑
velocity profile given by = − . For this profile,

P
𝑼 𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹
𝟒.𝟔𝟒𝒙
𝜹= .Determine the expression for the local coefficient
𝑹 𝒆𝒙

N
of drag.
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Problem- 11

E
• The velocity profile for a laminar boundary layer is given by

T
𝒖 𝒚 𝒚 𝟑 𝒚 𝟒
= 𝟐 −𝟐 + . Obtain an expression for the
𝑼 𝜹 𝜹 𝜹

P
boundary layer thickness, shear stress on the plate, drag
force on the plate and the average drag coefficient.

N
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Problem- 12

E
𝒖
• For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer as =

T
𝑼
𝟑 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝟑
− , find the thickness of the boundary layer and

P
𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹
the shear stress at a point 1.5 m from the leading edge of the

N
plate. The plate is 2 m long and 1.4 m wide and is placed in
water which is moving with a velocity of 200 mm/s. Find
the total drag force on the plate if viscosity
of water is 0.01 poise.
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Problem- 13

E
𝟏ൗ
𝒖 𝒚 𝟕
• The velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer is = .

T
𝑼 𝜹
Obtain an expression for the drag force and the average

P
coefficient of drag in terms of Reynolds number. The wall
shear stress for turbulent boundary layer is given as:

N
𝟏ൗ
𝝁 𝟒
𝝉𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟓𝝆𝑼𝟐 .
𝝆𝑼𝜹
 L
Boundary Layer Separation

E
• We have seen the mechanism of the formation of the

T
boundary layer.

P
• Along the length of the solid body, the thickness of the

N
boundary layer increases.

• The fluid layer next to the solid surface

has to do work against the surface friction.
 L
• This work is done at the expense of the kinetic energy.

TE
• The loss of the kinetic energy is recovered from the

P
immediate fluid layer in contact, through the momentum
exchange.

N
• Hence, the velocity of the layers goes on
decreasing.
 L
• Along the length of the body, a certain stage may come when

E
the kinetic energy is no longer sufficient to overcome the

T
frictional resistance.

P
• Hence, the boundary layer will be separated

N
from the surface.

Boundary Layer Separation

 L
• The point on the body at which the boundary layer is on the

E
verge of separation is called POINT OF SEPARATION.

P T
• Flow reversal occur at the downstream of the point of
separation.

N
 L
Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary
Layer Separation

E
𝒅𝑷
• Favorable Pressure Gradient <𝟎

T
𝒅𝒙
 The flow is accelerated by the pressure force.

P
 Hence, boundary layer thickness keeps thin and hugs
closely to the wall.

N
𝒅𝑷
• Adverse Pressure Gradient >𝟎
𝒅𝒙
 The outer flow is decelerated by
the pressure force.
 Boundary layer is usually thicker and does
not hug closely to the wall.
 L
 Hence, the boundary layer separate from the wall

E
(Separated Boundary layer) which progresses into the main

T
flow.

N P Adapted from Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T.

H. (2006). Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. J. Wiley &
Sons.
 L
• The separation point is determined from the condition

E
𝒅𝒖
=𝟎

T
𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎

P
• For a given velocity profile

N
𝒅𝒖
 <𝟎 The flow has separated
𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎

𝒅𝒖
 𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎
=𝟎 On the verge of separation
 L
𝒅𝒖
 >𝟎

E
𝒅𝒚 𝒚=𝟎

T
The flow is attached with the

P
surface

N
 L
Problem- 14

E
• For the given velocity profiles, determine whether the boundary

T
layer has separated or on the verge of separation.
𝒚 𝟐

P
𝒖 𝒚
(i) =𝟐 −
𝑼 𝜹 𝜹

N
𝒖 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚 𝟑
(ii) = −𝟐 +
𝑼 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹
𝒖 𝟑 𝒚 𝟐 𝟏 𝒚 𝟑
(iii) = +
𝑼 𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹
 L
Problem- 15

E
• The velocity distribution in the laminar boundary layer is of the

T
𝒖 𝟑 𝜼𝟑 𝜼
form = 𝑭 𝜼 + 𝝀𝑮 𝜼 , where 𝑭 𝜼 = 𝜼 − , 𝑮 𝜼 = −
𝑼 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒

P
𝜼𝟐 𝜼𝟑 𝒚
+ and 𝜼 = . Find the value of 𝝀 when the flow
𝟐 𝟒 𝜹

N
is on the verge of separation.
 L
Control of Boundary Layer Separation

E
• Boundary layer separation is associated with continuous

T
loss of energy. Eddy formation in the reverse flow region

P
• Hence, separation of boundary layer is undesirable.

N
• Methods for preventing the separation
of boundary layer includes:
 L
 By providing a streamlined profile to the body.

TE
 Supplying additional energy from a blower.

P
 Suction of the slow moving fluid by a suction slot.

N
 Rotating the boundary in the direction
of the flow.
 L
References:
 Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H. (2006). Fundamentals of

E
fluid mechanics. J. Wiley & Sons.

T
 Çengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M. (2006). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals

P
and applications. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

N
 Som, S.K., Biswas, G., & Chakraborty, S. (2012). Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics and Fluid Machines. McGraw-Hill Education (India).

 Dey, S. (2014). Fluvial Hydrodynamics. Springer- Verlag.

 Bansal, R.K. (2005). A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic

Machines. Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.
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