T EL

P
Hydraulic Engineering

N
Prof. Mohammad Saud Afzal
Department of Civil Engineering

Introduction
 Linear wave Theory

L
 Real water waves propagates in a viscous fluid over an irregular bottom of

T E
varying permeability.

P
 However the main body of the fluid is irrotational.

N
 L
 WHY ?

E
 Because viscous effects are usually concentrate in thin boundary layers near the

P T
surface and bottom.

N
 Since water can also be considered reasonably incompressible, a velocity

potential & stream function should exist for wave.

 BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS (BVP)

L
 The formulation of BVP is simply the expression of a physical solution in

T E
mathematical form such that a unique solution exists.

P
 Steps

N
 Establishing a region of interest.

 Specifying a differential equation that must be satisfied within the region.

  Selecting one or more solutions out of infinite number of solutions relevant

EL
to physical problem under investigation. This is done using the Boundary

T
Conditions(BC), i.e rejecting those solutions that are incompatible with these

N P
conditions.

 In addition to spatial (geometric) BC, temporal (initial condition) BC should be

specified.
Under the assumption of irrotational motion and incompressible fluid a

EL
velocity potential exist which satisfies continuity equation

T
𝛁. 𝐔 = 𝟎 (1.a)

P
OR 𝛁. 𝛁ϕ = 0 (1.b)

N
Giving

𝝏𝟐 𝝋 𝝏𝟐 𝝋 𝝏𝟐 𝝋
𝜵𝟐 𝝋 = + 𝟐+ 𝟐 (2)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
 For flows that are non-divergent and irrotational Laplace equation also applies to
stream function.

EL
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒖
− =0 (3.a)

T
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛

P
𝝏𝝍 𝝏𝝍
Since u= − and w= (In 2D Plane)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙

N
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
+ 𝟐 =0 (3.b)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒛
 L
Above equation must hold throughout the fluid.

T E
 Question what if the flow was frictionless but rotational what could be the

P
equation (3.b) look like?

N
 Answer
𝛻 2 𝜑= 𝜔 (4)
Vorticity

 Velocity potential can be defined for 2D and 3D whereas the definition

L
of the stream function is such that it only can defined for 2D and 3D if

E
and only if the flow is symmetric about an axis i.e is mathematically

T
2D.

N P
 Laplace equation is linear i.e involves no products and thus has a
valuable property of superposition.

 If 𝝓𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓𝟐 each satisfy Laplace equation then 𝝓𝟑 =A𝝓𝟏 +B𝝓𝟐 also

satisfies Laplace equation.
 KINEMATIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS(KBC)

L
 At any boundary (whether fixed or free) certain physical conditions must be satisfied

T E
by fluid velocities. These conditions on water particle kinematics are called kinematic

P
boundary conditions.

N
 At any surface or fluid interface there must be no flow across the interface :
otherwise there would be no interface.
quite obvious in case of an impermeable fixed surface like sea wall.
 Mathematical expression for KBC may be derived from the equation which
describes the surface that constitutes the boundary.
 HOW?

T EL
 Any moving or fixed surface is written as

P
F(x, y, z, t) = 0

N
Example: sphere?? (of radius a)

F(x, y, z, t)= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 = 0
For such surface to represent an interface the total derivative or material derivative of the

L
surface would be zero on surface.

E
𝑫𝑭 𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭

T
= +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘 =𝟎 (5.a)
𝑫𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

P
on F=0 (surface)
Or

N
−𝝏𝑭
ഥ 𝜵𝑭
= 𝑼. (5.b)
𝝏𝒕
 𝜵𝑭
If we define unit vector normal to the surface such as n= Eq. (5.b) can be

L
𝜵𝑭
written as

E
−𝝏𝑭
ഥ 𝒏 𝜵𝑭
= 𝑼. (5.c)

T
𝝏𝒕

P
Or

N
−𝝏𝑭
𝝏𝒕
U.n = on F(x, y, z, t)=0 (6)
𝜵𝑭
here
𝝏𝑭 𝟐 𝝏𝑭 𝟐 𝝏𝑭 𝟐
𝜵𝑭 = + +

L
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

T E
 This condition requires that (u.n) fluid velocity normal to surface be related to

P
𝝏𝑭

N
local velocity of surface ( )
𝝏𝒕

 If surface do not move with respect to time i.e u.n = 0 or velocity component
normal to surface is zero.
 Bottom Boundary Condition (BBC)

L
 Bottom described as z=-h(x) for 2D case where origin is located at still water level(SWL) &

E
h represents depth.

T
 Since bottom is fixed U.n=0

P
 Here F(x,z) = z+h(x)=0 (7)

N
&
u.n = 0
෡
U= u𝒊Ƹ + w𝒌

𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭 ෡ 𝝏(𝒛+𝒉 𝒙 ) 𝝏(𝒛+𝒉 𝒙 ) ෡
𝜵𝑭 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒌 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒌
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
 𝝏𝒉 ෡ 𝝏𝒉 ෡
𝜵𝑭 = 𝒊Ƹ + 1. 𝒌 = 𝒊+Ƹ 𝒌
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

EL
𝒅𝒉 ෡
𝜵𝑭 Ƹ 𝒌
𝒊+
𝒅𝒙
n= = (8)

T
𝜵𝑭 𝝏𝒉
𝟏+(𝝏𝒙)𝟐

P
𝒅𝒉
u.n = u + 𝐰=0 on z=-h(x) (9.a)

N
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒉
Or W= -u on z=-h(x) (9.b)
𝒅𝒙

𝝏𝒉
Special case of horizontal bottom =𝟎
𝝏𝒙
W=0
For sloping bottom

L
𝒘 𝒅𝒉
=−

E
(10)
𝒖 𝒅𝒙

P T
 Question?? Could we treat bottom as a streamline?

N
Yes since flow is everywhere tangential to it

 Bottom BC (Eq. 7) also applies to flows in 3D in which h is h (x,y)

 L
 Kinematic Free surface Boundary Condition (KFSBC)

T E
 Free surface of wave is written as

P
F(x, y, z, t) = z- η(x, y, t)=0

N
Here η(x, y, t) is displacement of free surface about horizontal plane z=0
 𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭 𝝏𝑭 ෡ −𝝏η 𝝏η ෡
𝜵F= 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒌 = 𝒊Ƹ − 𝒋Ƹ +𝒌

L
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

E
𝝏η 𝟐 𝝏η 𝟐 𝜵𝑭
𝜵F = 𝟏+ +

T
and n=
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝜵𝑭

P
෡
U= u𝒊Ƹ + v𝒋Ƹ + w𝒌

N
𝝏 η
−𝒖 𝝏𝒙 −𝒗 𝝏𝒚 +𝒘
𝝏 η
u.n = (11.a)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏+
η
𝝏
+
𝝏 η
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
 𝝏𝑭
− 𝝏𝒕
Using eqn (6) u.n=

L
𝜵𝑭

T E
𝝏 η
−𝒖 𝝏𝒙 −𝒗 𝝏𝒚 +𝒘
𝝏 η 𝝏 η
𝝏𝒕
=

P
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏+
η
𝝏
+
𝝏 η 𝟏+
𝝏 η +
η
𝝏

N
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝝏η 𝝏η 𝝏η
w= + 𝒖 + 𝒗 (11.b)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

z= η(x, y, t)
 Dynamic Free surface Boundary Condition
(DFSBC)

EL
 BC for fixed surfaces are easy to prescribe as they are applied on known surface.

T
The displacement of upper boundary in free surface problem is not known a priori

N P
in water wave problem.

 Fixed surface can support pressure variations across interface whereas free surface

cannot.
 Another BC is hence required on any free surface or interface to prescribe

EL
pressure distribution on the boundary. This is called Dynamic Boundary

P T
Condition.

N
 The DFSBC requires that the pressure on free surface be uniform along the wave

form. Thus, unsteady Bernoulli’s equation is applied on free surface Z= η(x, t).
 𝝏𝝓 𝟏 𝒑𝒏
𝒖𝟐 𝒘𝟐

L
− + + + + 𝒈𝒛 = 𝒄(𝒕) (12)
𝝏𝒕 𝟐 𝝆

E
𝒑𝒏 is constant and usually taken as gauge pressure 𝒑𝒏 = 0

P T
Class problem

N
If wave length are very short (order of several cm) that the surface is no

longer “free”. Write DFSBC for this case where surface tension T is important.

𝑻
Use σ̕= (surface tension per unit length).
𝒍
 Solution

L
consider a surface for which curvature exists as shown below

E
𝑝𝑛 T
p

T
α

P
T

N
x+ Δx
x

Denoting p as the pressure under the free surface a free body analysis in vertical
direction gives T −𝒔𝒊𝒏 α + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 α + (p-𝒑𝒏 )Δx + terms of Δ𝒙𝟐 =0
x x+Δx
𝝏η
Here ≈ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝝏𝒙
 L
Expanding using Taylor series and allow Δx 0

T E
𝝏𝟐 η
𝐏 = 𝒑𝒏 − �̕ 𝟐

P
𝝏𝒙

N
Hence DFSBC becomes

𝝏𝝓 𝟏 𝝏𝝓 𝟐 𝝏𝝓 𝟐 𝒑𝒏 �̕ 𝝏𝟐 η
− + + + − + 𝒈𝒛 = 𝒄(𝒕) at z= η(x, t)
𝝏𝒕 𝟐 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛 𝝆 𝝆 𝝏𝒙𝟐
 Lateral Boundary Conditions

EL
 Until now we have discussed BC for bottom and upper surfaces.

T
 Conditions must also be specified or remaining lateral boundaries.

lateral BC.

N P
 If waves are propagating in x directions no flow in y directions is

 In x direction if motion occurs due to a paddle or wave maker then

usual kinematic BC applied.
Consider a vertical paddle. If displacement of paddle is described as x=s(z, t) find KBC.

T EL
P
x=s(z, t)

N
 For waves that are periodic in space and time the BC is expressed as

φ(x,t)= φ(x+L,t) (13.a)

φ(x,t)= φ(x,t+T) (13.b)

 Velocity potential derivation assumptions

L
The assumptions in deriving the expression for the velocity potential due to

E
propagating ocean waves are;

T
• Flow is said to be irrotational

P
• Fluid is ideal

N
• Surface tension is neglected

• Pressure at the free surface is uniform and constant

• The seabed is rigid, horizontal and impermeable

Velocity potential derivation assumptions

L
• Wave height is small compared to its length

T E
• Potential flow theory is applicable

P
• A velocity potential 𝝓 exists and the velocity components u and 𝒘 in

N
𝝏𝝓 𝝏𝝓
the x and z directions can be obtained as and .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
 DERIVATION FOR VELOCITY POTENTIAL

L
The governing equation is the Laplace Equation given by

E
𝜵𝟐 𝝓 = 𝟎 (2.1)

T
The continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equations (2.2) and (2.3) are used in the

P
solution procedure

N
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
+ + =0 (2.2)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝝓 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒑
- + 𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘𝟐 + + gz =0 (2.3)
𝝏𝒕 𝟐 𝝆
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

EL
• The equation (2.1) is to be satisfied in the region −𝒅 ≤ 𝒛 ≤ 𝜼, −∞ ≤ 𝒙 ≤ ∞ where 𝜼

P T
is the water surface elevation measured from the Still Water Level (SWL).

N
• The kinematic bottom boundary condition meaning, that the vertical velocity

component at the sea bottom is zero. Since ‘z’ is negative in downward from SWL.

• The pressure at the free surface is zero or at z= 𝜼

 Linearizing the Bernoulli’s equation results in

L
𝝏𝝓 𝒑
− + + gz =0 (2.4)

E
𝝏𝒕 𝝆

T
• When z= 𝜼 and taking 𝒑 = 0 using equation (2.4) we get

P
𝟏 𝝏𝝓

N
𝜼=
𝒈 𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝜼

• This is the dynamic free surface boundary condition. Since we assume that
amplitude of the waves are small, the above equation can be written as
 L
𝟏 𝝏𝝓
𝜼= (2.5)

E
𝒈 𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

T
𝑯 𝑯
This is applicable only when 𝜼 is small and valid for and <1 .The definition
𝒅 𝑳

P
sketch is given in Fig.2.2. With the above boundary conditions, the solution to

N
eqn. (2.1) is solved
 T EL
N P
Fig. 2.2 Definition sketch for wave motion
 SOLUTION TO THE LAPLACE EQUATION:

L
𝝏𝟐 𝝓 𝝏𝟐 𝝓

E
+ = 0 (2.6)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐

T
• Method of separable is used to obtain the solution to Eqn. (2.6)

N P
• Let us assume

ഥ 𝒙 𝒁
𝝓 𝒙, 𝒛, 𝒕 =𝑿 ഥ 𝒛 𝑻
ഥ 𝒕 (2.7)
• Substituting Eq. (2.7) in Eq. (2.6) we get

L
𝑿′′ ഥ𝒁𝑻
ഥ+𝑿
ഥ 𝒁′′𝑻
ഥ =0

T E
• Where each prime denotes differentiation once with respect to the

P
particular independent variable.

N
ഥ𝒁
• Dividing both side of the above 𝑿 ഥ𝑻
ഥ gives

ഥ ′′
𝑿 −𝒁′′
ഥ
= ഥ
𝑿 𝒁
• Let this be constant = -𝒌𝟐 ; then

L
ഥ =0
𝑿′′+𝒌𝟐 𝑿

E
(2.8)

T
ഥ=0
𝒁′′ − 𝒌𝟐 𝒁 (2.9)

N P
ഥ = Acoskx + Bsinkx
𝑿

𝒁ഥ = C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛

ഥ 𝒕
Hence 𝝓 𝒙, 𝒛, 𝒕 = Acoskx + Bsinkx C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝑻
 ഥ 𝒕 be replaced as
• The solutions to ɸ are simple harmonic in time requiring 𝑻

L
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 or 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 , thus leading to four forms of solutions to ɸ, such that

T E
• 𝝓𝟏 =𝑨𝟏 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕

P
• 𝝓𝟐 =𝑨𝟐 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕

N
• 𝝓𝟑 =𝑨𝟑 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕

• 𝝓𝟒 =𝑨𝟒 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕

 DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS:

EL
The constants are determined by using the dynamic free surface boundary condition

T
and the kinematic bottom boundary condition.

P
Considering 𝝓𝟐

N
𝝓𝟐 =𝑨𝟐 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝈𝒕 (2.10)
• Applying the kinematic bottom boundary condition

EL
𝝏𝝓
i.e., = 0 at z = -d

T
𝝏𝒛

N P
𝝏𝝓𝟐
ቚ = 𝑨𝟐 C𝒌𝒆−𝒌𝒅 − 𝑫𝒌𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 = 0
𝝏𝒛 𝒛=−𝒅

𝑨𝟐 ≠ 0; 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 ≠ 0 [since velocity potential exists]

∴ 𝑪 = 𝑫𝒆𝟐𝒌𝒅
 L
Substituting for C in (Eq. 2.10) and simplifying,

T E
𝒌𝒅 𝒆𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) +𝒆−𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝝓𝟐 = 2𝑨𝟐 𝑫𝒆 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕
𝟐

N P
𝝓𝟐 = 2𝑨𝟐 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛) 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 (2.11)
 𝝏𝝓𝟐
• ቚ = 𝟐𝑨𝟐 𝑫𝝈𝒆𝒌𝒅 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕

L
𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

E
On assuming

P T
𝑯
• 𝜼 = 𝒂 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 where a = wave amplitude = and applying the free
𝟐

N
𝟏 𝝏𝝓𝟐
surface boundary condition 𝜼 = ቚ we get
𝒈 𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎
 𝟐𝑨𝟐 𝑫𝝈𝒆𝒌𝒅
• 𝒂 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 = . 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕
𝒈

EL
𝒂𝒈 𝟏
𝟐𝑨𝟐 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 = .
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝝓𝟐 =
𝝈

Let us consider 𝝓𝟑 N
Substituting in eq. (2.11), we get

𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝
P T
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝈𝒕 (2.12)
 𝝓𝟑 =𝑨𝟑 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.13)

L
• Applying the kinematic bottom boundary condition

T E
𝝏𝝓𝟑
=𝑨𝟑 C𝒌𝒆−𝒌𝒅 − 𝑫𝒌𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 = 0

P
• ቚ
𝝏𝒛 𝒛=−𝒅

N
• 𝑨𝟑 ≠ 0; 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 ≠ 0

𝑪 = 𝑫𝒆𝟐𝒌𝒅

• Substituting for C in eq. (2.13)

 𝝓𝟑 = 2𝑨𝟑 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛) 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.14)

L
And

T E
𝝏𝝓𝟑
• ቚ = −𝟐𝑨𝟑 𝑫𝝈𝒆𝒌𝒅 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕
𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

P
• On assuming 𝜼 = 𝒂 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 and applying the free surface boundary condition

N
we get

−𝒂𝒈 𝟏
𝟐𝑨𝟑 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 = .
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
 Substituting in eq. (2.14), we get

L
−𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝝓𝟑 = 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.15)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

E
Let us consider 𝝓𝟒

P T
𝝓𝟒 =𝑨𝟒 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 (2.16)

N
Applying the kinematic bottom boundary condition

𝝏𝝓𝟒
ቚ =𝑨𝟒 C𝒌𝒆−𝒌𝒅 − 𝑫𝒌𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 𝑪 = 𝑫𝒆𝟐𝒌𝒅
𝝏𝒛 𝒛=−𝒅

Substituting for C in eq. (2.16)

• 𝝓𝟒 = 2𝑨𝟒 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 (2.17)

EL
And

P T
𝝏𝝓𝟒
• ቚ =𝟐𝑨𝟒 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕

N
𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

Assuming 𝜼 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 and applying eq (2.5)

𝒂𝒈 𝟏
We get 𝟐𝑨𝟒 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 = .
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
• Substituting in eq. (2.17), we get

EL
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝝓𝟒 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 (2.18)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

T
• Let us consider 𝝓𝟏

N P
𝝓𝟏 =𝑨𝟏 C𝒆𝒌𝒛 + 𝑫𝒆−𝒌𝒛 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.19)

• Applying the kinematic bottom boundary condition

𝝏𝝓𝟏
• ቚ =𝟎 𝑪 = 𝑫𝒆𝟐𝒌𝒅
𝝏𝒛 𝒛=−𝒅
• Substituting for C in eq. (2.19)

L
• 𝝓𝟏 = 2𝑨𝟏 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.20)

T E
• assuming 𝜼 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕 and applying equation (2.5)

P
We get

N
−𝒂𝒈 𝟏
• 𝟐𝑨𝟏 𝑫𝒆𝒌𝒅 = .
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

• Substituting in eq. (2.20), we get

−𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
• 𝝓𝟏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 (2.21)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
• If 𝝓+ = 𝝓𝟐 -𝝓𝟏

EL
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝈𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝈𝒕
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

P T
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
φ= . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 . (2.22)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

N
• This is the expression for the velocity potential for a propagating wave in

a constant water depth

 𝟏 𝝏𝝓
Since 𝜼 = ቚ
𝒈 𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

EL
𝟏 𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)

T
𝜼= . 𝝈𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 .
𝒈 𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
Hence 𝜼 =𝐚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 . (2.23)

N
• ‘𝜂’ is periodic in x and t. If we locate a point and traverse along the wave,

such that, at all-time ‘t’ our position relative to the wave form remains

fixed then the phase difference is zero or 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 = constant

• And the speed with which we must move to accomplish this is given by 𝒌𝒙 = 𝝈𝒕 + constant

EL
𝒅𝒙
k =𝝈
𝒅𝒕

P T
𝒅𝒙 𝝈 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝑳
= = = =𝑪

N
𝒅𝒕 𝒌 𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝑻

𝑳
• 𝑪 = = CELERITY or Speed of the wave (2.24)
𝑻
 Wave moving in negative ‘x’ direction

L
• If 𝝓− = 𝝓𝟐 + 𝝓𝟏

T E
−𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒌𝒙+𝝈𝒕)
= . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 + 𝝈𝒕 .
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
𝟏 𝝏𝝓

N
• Since 𝜼 = ቚ
𝒈 𝝏𝒕 𝒛=𝟎

𝟏 −𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝜼= (−𝝈𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 + 𝝈𝒕 )
𝒈 𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝜼 =𝐚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 + 𝝈𝒕
 L
To obtain the celerity of the wave we have

E
𝒌𝒙 + 𝝈𝒕 = constant

T
𝒅𝒙 −𝝈 −𝟐𝝅 𝑳 −𝑳
= = = = −𝑪

P
(2.25)
𝒅𝒕 𝒌 𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝑻

N
 DISPERSION RELATIONSHIP

L
• The relationship between wavelength, period and water depth is obtained as given

E
below. The main assumption while establishing the relationship is that, since, we are

T
dealing with small amplitude waves, meaning that the slope of the wave profile are

P
𝒅𝜼
small so that can be approximately said as equal to the vertical component velocity,

N
𝒅𝒕

w . This is

𝒅𝜼 𝝏𝜼 𝝏𝜼 𝝏𝒙
• 𝒘= = + .
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝜼
• Wave slope being small by setting, = 0
𝝏𝒙
 𝝏𝜼 −𝝏𝝓
𝒘= but 𝒘 =

L
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛

E
𝝏𝜼 −𝝏𝝓
Hence = (2.26)

T
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛

P
𝝏𝜼 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝝓
Differentiating the expression of 𝜼 we get = ቚ

N
𝝏𝒕 𝒈 𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝒛=𝟎

𝝏𝜼 −𝑨𝝈𝟐
Hence = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 . (2.27)
𝝏𝒕 𝒈
 𝑯𝒈 𝟏

L
• Where 𝐀 =
𝟐 𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝

T E
−𝝏𝝓
𝒘= = −𝐀𝐤. 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 . (2.28)

P
𝝏𝒛

N
• Using the relation of Eq. (2.26), equating Eq. (2.27) to Eq (2.28), we get

𝑨𝝈𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 = 𝐀𝐤. 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 .
𝒈
 𝝈𝟐 𝐤 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅
• =

L
𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝐤𝐝

E
• 𝝈𝟐 = 𝒈𝒌. 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅 (2.29)

P T
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
• 𝝈:Wave angular frequency =

N
and k: wave number =
𝑻 𝑳

• The above equation can be written as

𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝟐𝝅
• =𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅
𝑻 𝑳
 𝑳 𝟐 𝒈𝑳

L
= 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅
𝑻 𝟐𝝅

E
𝒈

T
𝟐
𝑪 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅 (2.30)
𝒌

P
The speed at which a wave moves in its direction of propagation as a function of water

N
depth is given by Eq.(2.30)

Since

𝑳
𝑪 = from the above equation we get
𝑻
 L
𝒈𝑳
• 𝑪 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅 (2.31)
𝟐𝝅

Or 𝐋=
𝒈𝑻𝟐
𝟐𝝅
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅

P T E (2.32)

N
• Since the unknown ‘L’ occurs on both sides (Implicit Eq.) of Eq. (2.32), it has

to be solved by trial and error.

 CELERITY IN DIFFERENT WATER DEPTH
CONDITIONS:

EL
Classification d/L 2𝜋d/L tanh(2𝜋d/L)

T
Deep Waters >1/2 >𝝅 ~1

N P
Intermediate 1/20 to 1/2 𝜋/10 to 𝝅 tanh(2𝜋d/L)
waters
Shallow waters ≤1/20 0 to 𝜋/10 ~ 2𝜋d/L

Classification of ocean waves according to water depth

 Deep water conditions:

L
• In case of deep waters Eq (2.30) becomes

T E
𝒈𝑳𝟎
𝒄𝟎 = since, tanhkd=1
𝟐𝝅

N P
and Eq (2.31) becomes

𝒈𝑻
𝒄𝟎 = (2.33)
𝟐𝝅

𝒈𝑻𝟐
Or 𝑳𝟎 = (2.34)
𝟐𝝅
That is when d/L ≥ 1/2, tanh(kd) approaches unity and the wave characteristics are

L
independent of the water depth, d, while wave period remaining constant. Hence,

E
𝒈𝑻𝟐
𝑳𝟎 = = 5.12 𝑻𝟐 [FPS]

T
𝟐𝝅

P
𝒈𝑻𝟐
𝑳𝟎 = = 1.56 𝑻𝟐 [MKS]
𝟐𝝅

N
• If Eq (2.33) or(2.34) are used to compute wave celerity for shallow water conditions
(d/L<1/20) and error of about 20% to 50% results.
 Shallow water conditions:

L
𝝅 𝒅 𝟏
• When kd= , ≤
𝟏𝟎 𝑳 𝟐𝟎

T E
𝟐 𝒈𝑳
𝑪 = .tanh(kd)
𝟐𝝅

P
𝒈𝑳 𝟐𝝅𝒅
𝑪𝟐 = 𝑪𝟐 = gd

N
• Hence tanh(kd)≈kd=2𝜋d/L .
𝟐𝝅 𝑳

C= 𝒈𝒅 (2.35)

This relation shows that when a wave travels in shallow waters wave
celerity depends only on the water depth.
 Relationship between d/L and d/𝑳𝟎

L
• It can be shown by dividing the Eq.(2.31) by Eq.(2.33) and dividing Eq.

T E
(2.32) by Eq.(2.34) that 𝐶/𝑪𝟎 =𝐿/𝑳𝟎 =tanhkd

N P
Multiplying both sides by d/L, then

𝑑/𝑳𝟎 =𝑑/𝐿tanhkd (2.36)

The relation between 𝑑/𝐿 and 𝑑/ 𝑳𝟎 is given in the wave Tables

 T EL
NP
LOCAL FLUID PARTICLE VELOCITIES AND
ACCLERATION UNDER PROGRESSIVE WAVES

EL
• In the evaluation of wave forces on offshore structures it is desirable to

T
know the fluid particle kinematics that is velocity and acceleration.

P
We know

N
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝝓= cos(kx -σt) (2.37)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

• The horizontal water particle velocity or orbital velocity u is given by

𝝏𝝓 𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
u=− = 𝒌 sin(kx -σt) (2.38)
𝝏𝒙 𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅
• The horizontal water particle velocity or orbital velocity, u is given by

EL
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
= 𝒌 .tanhkd.sin(kx -σt)

T
𝝈 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝

P
𝒈 𝑯
• Substituting the relationship 𝑪𝟐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅 (2.30) and a=
𝒌 𝟐

N
In the above expression we get

𝑯 𝟐 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
U= 𝒄 𝒌 sin(kx -σt)
𝟐𝝈 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝
 L
𝑯 𝑳 𝟐 𝟐𝝅/𝑳 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
= ( ) sin(kx -σt)
𝟐 𝑻 𝟐𝝅/𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

T E
Simplifying we get,

N P
𝝅𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
U= sin(kx -σt) (2.39)
𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

The vertical fluid particle velocity, w is given by

 𝝏𝝋 −𝒂𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
w=- = 𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.40)
𝝏𝒛 𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅

EL
−𝒂𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
= 𝒌 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝. 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt)

T
𝝈 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
Using eq (2.30) we get

N
−𝝅𝑯 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
w= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt)
𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

−𝝅𝑯 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
w= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.41)
𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐤𝐝
The equations express the velocity components with the wave at any depth z. At a
given z, all the velocities are seen to be harmonic in x and t as shown in 2.4.a

T EL
N P
Z=-1m

Z=-2m

Z=-3m

Z=-4 m
Z=-n m
Fig.2.4a shows the horizontal velocity components are the hyperbolic functions of depth
At a given phase angle θ,(θ=kx- σt) the hyperbolic function of z (cosh and sinh) cause an
exponential decay of u and w with the distance down from free surface. This is indicated

L
schematically in fig 2.4.b for the phase angles at which the components are largest. The

E
variation of u and w with respect to phase are shown in fig 2.5.

T
d/L > 0.5 0.5<d/L > 0.05 0 d/L < 0.05
0 0

N P
z/d
z/d
z/d

-0.5 -0.5 w -0.5 w

u, w u u

-1 -1
-1
Fig 2.4.b Variation of maximum u and w
 θ= π/2
U=+ve

L
W= 0

E
θ= 2π
U=0

T
W= -ve

P
θ= π
θ= 0

N
U=0
U=0 W= +ve
W= -ve
θ= 3π/2
U= -ve
W= 0

Fig 2.5 Variation of u and w with phase

• The local acceleration in x and z direction are given by

L
𝝏𝒖 −𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝒂𝒙 = = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.42)
𝝏𝒕 𝑻𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

E
−𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝑯 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)

T
𝝏𝒘
𝒂𝒘 = = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(kx -σt) (2.43)
𝝏𝒕 𝑻𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
• This expression for the fluid particle kinematics reported above is for the

N
water surface elevation, 𝜼 being a sinus curve. The fluid particle kinematics
for 𝜼 being a cosine curve are given below.
The φ can be derived as
𝒂𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
φ= . 𝐬𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 . (2.44)
𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
 In which case

L
𝜼= a𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.45)

E
𝒂𝒈𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)

T
u= 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.46)
𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)

N
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂𝒈𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧(kx -σt) (2.47)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝒂𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
w= 𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧(kx -σt) (2.48)
𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝒂𝒘 = −𝒂𝒈𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬(kx -σt) (2.49)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅
WATER PARTICLE DISPLACEMENT UNDER
PROGRESSIVE WAVE

EL
• The expression for individual horizontal and vertical water particle displacements is

T
Obtained as follows.

P
𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
δ𝒙 = ‫= 𝒕𝒅𝒖 ׬‬

N
cos(kx −σt) (2.50)
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝑯 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
δ𝒛 = ‫= 𝒕𝒅𝒘 ׬‬ sin(kx −σt) (2.51)
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
Let δ𝒙 = D cos(kx −σt) where D=
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅
 𝑯 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
δ𝒛 = B sin(kx −σt) where B =
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉𝒌𝒅

L
𝟐 𝟐

E
δ𝒙 δ𝒛
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 = ∶ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 =
𝑫 𝑩

P T
Since, [𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 = 1], we have

N
𝟐 𝟐
δ𝒙 δ𝒛
+ =1 (2.52)
𝑫 𝑩

This equation of an ellipse showing that the water particles moves in an

elliptical orbit.
Where, D= Semi major axis (horizontal measure of particle displacement)
B= Semi minor axis (vertical measure of particle displacement)
  Shallow water Condition:
𝒅 𝟏

L
For < we have used coshk(d+z) and sinhk(d + z)
𝑳 𝟐𝟎

E
Sinhk(d+z) k(d+z)

P T
Sinhkd kd
𝑯 𝟏
Hence, D= .

N
𝟐 𝒌𝒅

𝑯 𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) 𝑯 (𝒅+𝒛)
B= =
𝟐 𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝒅

• Hence, the water particles move in elliptical orbits (paths) in shallow and
intermediate waters with the equation of the form
 𝟐 𝟐
δ𝒙 δ𝒛

L
𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯(𝒅+𝒛) =1 (2.53)
𝟐 𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝒅

E
 Deep water condition:

P T
𝒅 𝟏
For the case >

N
𝑳 𝟐

𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) 𝑯 𝒆𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) +𝒆−𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)

D= =
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝒆𝒌𝒅 −𝒆−𝒌𝒅

As ‘d’ (depth of water of d/L) is very large 𝒆−𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) and 𝒆−𝒌𝒅 will be
very small compared to 𝒆𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
 𝑯 𝒆𝒌(𝒅+𝒛) 𝑯
Hence D= = 𝒆𝒌𝒛

L
𝟐 𝒆𝒌𝒅 𝟐

E
𝑯
Similarly B= 𝒆𝒌𝒛

T
𝟐

P
• Thus, the particles move in circular orbits in deep waters (since D=B) with the

N
equation of the form
2 2
δ𝑥 δ𝑧 (2.54)
𝐻 𝑘𝑧 + 𝐻 𝑘𝑧 =1
𝑒 𝑒
2 2

This shows that for deep water conditions, the water particles are circular.
• The amplitude of the water particle
displacement decreases exponentially

EL
along with the depth. The water

T
particle displacements becomes small

P
relative to the wave height at a depth

N
equal to one half the wave length
below the SWL. The variation of the
Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of fluid
water particle displacements under particle trajectories
different depth conditions is
illustrated in Fig 2.6
 Solution to the Dispersion equation
• An approximate solution for wave number k in the dispersion relationship given by eq. (2.29)

L
• For a given σ and d proposed by Hunt (1979) can be solved directly for kd.
𝒚

E
(𝒌𝒅)𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 + σ𝟔 (2.55)
𝟏+ 𝒅 𝒀𝒏
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏

T
𝝈𝟐 𝒅
Where y= = 𝒌𝟎 𝒅 and

P
𝒈
𝒅𝟏 = 0.666666666 𝒅𝟐 = 0.35555555 𝒅𝟑 = 0.160846508

N
𝒅𝟒 = 0.0632098765 𝒅𝟓 = 0.0217540484 𝒅𝟔 = 0.0065407983
The celerity can be obtained as
𝑪𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟏
= 𝒚 + 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟐𝒚 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟒𝒚𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟓𝒚𝟓 (2.56)
𝒈𝒅
Which is accurate to 0.1% for 0<y<∞
 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION UNDER

L
PROGRESSIVE WAVES:

E
• The linearized Bernoulli’s equation is given by

T
−𝝏𝝓 𝒑
+ + 𝒈𝒛 = 0

P
𝝏𝒕 𝝆

N
• Multiplying through out by ρ the total pressure is given as,
𝝏𝝓
𝐩= 𝝆 + (−ϒ𝒛) (Dynamic + Static)
𝝏𝒕
• Substituting for φ from eq. (2.22) we get
ϒ𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
P= sin(kx – σt)-ϒz
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅
 𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
𝜼= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 and let = 𝑲𝒑

L
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒉𝒌𝒅

Where 𝑲𝒑 is the pressure response factor then,

T E
P= ϒ𝜼𝑲𝒑 - ϒz

P
𝑷

N
Or =(𝜼𝑲𝒑 - z) (2.57)
ϒ

It is to be mentioned that p was set to zero to define the free surface boundary
condition in the Bernoulli equation. However φ was determined by setting p=0 at
z=0 instead of z=η [Refer Eq 2.5]. Hence eq 2.57 is valid only for negative z.
Applying Eq (2.57)

L
𝑷
Pressure at z=0 , = η
ϒ

E
𝑷 η
Pressure at z=-d, = +d (2.58)

T
ϒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
η
This is [ + d] < d+ η
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

N
Since cosh kd is always greater than 1
Under the trough at sea bed
Conditions are z= - d, η= - η
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝒅−𝒅) 𝟏
Substituting 𝑲𝒑 = =
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
And η= - η Hence from eq (2.57)

L
𝑷 −η
= +d (2.59)

E
ϒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅
𝑷 η

T
=[d - ] > (d- η)
ϒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

P
It is often needed to determine the surface wave height based on subsurface

N
measurement of pressure. For this purpose Eq. (2.57) is represented as
𝑵(𝒑+𝝆𝒈𝒛) 1
η= , where ‘K’ is pressure response factor at the seabed given by .
𝝆𝒈𝑲 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

N is the correction factor depending on the period, depth, wave amplitude etc.
N> 1 for long period waves N<1 for short period waves
N=1 for linear waves
 The pressure distribution under a progressive wave is given in Fig 2.7

T EL
d+

N
𝜼
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

d+η
P d-
d-η
𝜼
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒌𝒅

Fig 2.7 Pressure distribution under a progressive wave

 GROUP CELERITY:

L
• When a group of waves or a wave train travels its speed is generally not identical to the

E
speed with individual waves within the group travel. If any two wave trains of the

T
same amplitude, but slightly different wavelengths or periods, progress in the same

P
direction, the resultant surface disturbance can be represented as the sum of the
individual disturbances. For waves propagating in deep or transitional waters, the

N
group velocity is determined as follows.

𝜼𝑻 = 𝜼𝟏 +𝜼𝟐 =a𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝟏 𝒙 − 𝝈𝟏 𝒕 + a𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝟐 𝒙 − 𝝈𝟐 𝒕) (2.60)

𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐 𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐 𝝈𝟏 +𝝈𝟐

𝜼𝑻 =𝟐𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙− 𝒕 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙− 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
• This is a form of a series of sine waves the amplitude of which varies slowly from 0 to 2a
according to the cosine factor.

L
• The points of zero amplitude(nodes) of the wave envelope 𝛈𝐓 are located by finding the

E
zeros of the cosine factor.

T
i.e
𝛈𝐓 𝐦𝐚𝐱= 0 occurs when

N P
𝐤 𝟏 −𝐤 𝟐 𝛔𝟏 −𝛔𝟐 𝛑
𝐱− 𝐭= (2m+1)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

• In other words the nodes will occur on ‘x’ axis at distances as follows:
(𝟐𝒎+𝟏)𝝅 𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐
𝑿𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 = + 𝒕
𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐
• Since the position of all the nodes in a function of time they are not stationary. At t=0,

L
there will be nodes at

E
𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟕𝝅
,

T
, , etc i.e at m=0,1,2,3….
𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐

P
• The distance between the nodes are given by

N
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟏
x= = (2.61)
𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝑳𝟐 −𝑳𝟏

• The speed of propagation of the nodes and hence the speed of propagation of the
wave group is called the ‘Group Velocity’ and is given by:
𝒅𝒙𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐 𝒅𝝈
= Wave group velocity 𝑪𝑮 = =
𝒅𝒕 𝒌𝟏 −𝒌𝟐 𝒅𝒌
 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝟐𝝅
But σ = K.C = =
𝑳 𝑻 𝑻

L
𝒅(𝑲𝑪) 𝒅𝒄 𝑲.𝒅𝑪 𝟏

E
𝑪𝑮 = =𝑪+𝒌 = C+
𝒅𝑲 𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝑳 𝒅𝑲

T
𝒅𝑳

𝟐𝝅

P
Since k=
𝑳
𝟐𝝅.𝒅𝑪 𝟏
𝑪𝑮 =C+

N
𝑳.𝒅𝑳 −𝟐𝝅
𝑳𝟐
𝒅𝑪
𝑪𝑮 = C - 𝐋
𝒅𝑳
𝒈
Since 𝑪𝟐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝒌𝒅)
𝒌

Substituting and on simplification we get

 𝑪𝑮 𝟏 𝟐𝒌𝒅
=𝒏= 𝟏+ (2.62)
𝑪 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅

EL
𝟐𝒌𝒅

T
For deep waters is zero
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅
𝟏

P
Hence 𝑪𝑮 = 𝑪
𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝑳𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝑮 = = 𝑪

N
𝟐 𝑻 𝟐 𝟎
(2.63)

The Group velocity is one half of the phase velocity in deep waters. Further it
should be noted that variables if associated with a suffix ‘0’ refer to deep-water
conditions. For example 𝑪𝟎 is deep water celerity.
 Table 2.2 Variation of Asymptotic Functions

L
Function Asymptotes

E
Shallow waters Deep Waters

T
Sinhkd kd 𝒆𝒌𝒅

P
𝟐

N
Coshkd 1 𝒆𝒌𝒅
𝟐
tanhkd Kd 1

In shallow waters,
𝑪𝑮 = 𝑪 = 𝒈𝒅 (2.64)
since sinh2kd = 2kd
Hence in shallow water the group and phase velocities are same and is a function

L
of only depth of water and in deep waters, the 𝑪𝑮 is a function of wave length.
Because of this, in deep waters, the longer waves (Long L) travel faster and

E
produce the small phase differences resulting in wave groups. These waves are

T
said to be dispersive or propagating in a dispersive medium, i.e., in a medium

P
where their celerity is dependent on wave length.

N
 WAVE ENERGY
• Total Energy = Potential energy + Kinetic Energy

EL
• In order to determine the total energy under progressive waves the potential

T
energy of the wave above z=-d with a wave from present is determined from which

P
the potential energy of the water in the absence of a wave from is subtracted. Refer

N
Fig 2.8 for definitions.
• The potential energy (with respect to z=-d) of a small column of water (d+η) high, dx
long and 1m wide.

dP𝑬𝟏 = ϒ𝑨ഥ
𝒙
d+η (d+η)𝟐
= ϒdx.(d+η)( ) = ϒ dx (2.65)
𝟐 𝟐
• The average potential energy per unit surface area (sometimes called the average potential
energy density) is

L
𝒕+𝑻 𝒙+𝑳

E
ϒ𝟏𝟏 (2.66)
𝑷𝑬𝟏 = න න (𝒅 + 𝜼)𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒕

T
𝟐𝑳𝑻
𝒕 𝒙

P
Using 𝜼=asin(kx-σt) then Eq. (2.66) becomes

N
𝒕+𝑻 𝒙+𝑳
ϒ
𝑷𝑬𝟏 = න න (𝒅𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒌𝒙 − 𝝈𝒕))𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒕
𝟐𝑳𝑻
𝒕 𝒙
On simplification
ϒ𝒅𝟐 ϒ𝒂𝟐
𝑷𝑬𝟏 = + (2.67)
𝟐 𝟒
• Which is the average potential energy per unit surface area of all the water above z=-d

L
• The potential energy in the absence of wave would be

E
ϒ 𝒕+𝑻 𝒙+𝑳 𝟐 ϒ𝒅𝟐
𝑷𝑬𝟐 = ‫𝒕𝒅𝒙𝒅 𝒅 𝒙׬ ׬‬ = (2.68)

T
𝟐𝑳𝑻 𝒕 𝟐

P
• The average potential energy density, 𝑷𝑬 which is attributable to the presence of the

N
progressive wave on the free surface, is
𝑷𝑬 = 𝑷𝑬𝟏 − 𝑷𝑬𝟐 = Average Potential Energy
ϒ𝒅𝟐 ϒ𝒂𝟐 ϒ𝒅𝟐
= + −
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
 ϒ𝒂𝟐
𝑷𝑬 = (2.69)
𝟒

EL
w

T
dz u

N P
dx
Fig.2.8 Definition sketch for potential and kinetic energy under progressive wave
Kinetic Energy
𝟏
The kinetic energy, KE = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 , where ‘m’ is the mass of the fluid and ‘v’ is
𝟐

the resultant velocity. For 2D wave flow

 𝟐

L
𝟏
d(KE)= 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒘𝟐 dM
𝟐

E
𝟐

T
𝟏
= 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒘𝟐 ρ.dz.dx
𝟐

P
• The average K.E. per unit of surface area is then given by

N
𝝆 𝒕+𝑻 𝒙+𝑳 𝜼 𝟐
𝑲𝑬 = ‫׬‬ ‫׬‬ ‫׬‬ (𝒖 + 𝒘𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒕
𝟐𝑳𝑻 𝒕 𝒙 −𝒅

• With η= a sin(kx-σt)
𝑲𝑬

EL
𝒕+𝑻 𝒙+𝑳 𝜼≅𝟎
𝝆 (𝒂𝒈𝒌)𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
= න න න 𝟐 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛)𝒔𝒊𝒏 (kx−σt) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛)𝒄𝒐𝒔 (kx−σt)) 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒕

T
𝟐𝑳𝑻 𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝒅
𝒕 𝒙 −𝒅

P
Using trigonometrical identities

N
𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝟐 𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛)= 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝟐𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛)
𝟐
−𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐 𝒌 𝒅+𝒛 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝟐𝒌(𝒅 + 𝒛)
𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 kx−σt − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 kx−σt = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 kx−σt
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 kx−σt + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 kx−σt = 1

L
Sinh2kd= 2sinhkd.coshkd

E
And 𝝈𝟐 = 𝒈𝒌𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒌𝒅

T
ϒ𝒂𝟐

P
It can be shown 𝑲𝑬 = (2.70)
𝟒

N
Total energy E= 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑲𝑬
ϒ𝒂𝟐
E= (2.71)
𝟐
The average total energy per unit surface area is the sum of the average
potential and kinetic energy densities often called as specific energy
density.
 WAVE POWER
• Wave energy flux is the rate at which energy is transmitted in the direction of wave

L
propagation across a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of the wave advance and

T E
extending down the entire depth. The average energy flux per unit wave crest width

P
transmitted across a plane perpendicular to wave advance is
ഥ =Wave power = Average energy flux per unit wave crest width

N
𝑷
ഥ =𝑬
𝑷 ഥ 𝒏𝑪= 𝑬
ഥ 𝑪𝒈 (2.72)
𝟏 𝟐𝒌𝒅
When n= 𝟏 +
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅

𝟐𝒌𝒅 𝟏
For Deep waters = 0 and 𝑪𝒈 = 𝑪𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅 𝟐
 𝟏
n=
𝟐

L
𝟏
Or 𝑷𝟎 = 𝑬ഥ 𝑪𝟎 (2.73)

E
𝟐

T
For shallow waters
ഥ =𝑬
ഥ𝑪 = 𝑬ഥ 𝑪𝒈 (since sinh2kd=2kd)

P
𝑷
• Assume the wave propagates from deep waters towards the shore. The ocean

N
bottom slope is gradual and there are no undulations and has parallel bottom slope
contours. According to the conservation of energy, equating the power in the
shallow waters (Eq. 2.72) to that in deep waters (Eq. 2.73) we get
ϒ𝑯𝟐 ϒ𝑯𝟎 𝟐 𝑪𝟎
. 𝑪𝒈= .
𝟖 𝟖 𝟐
On substituting for 𝑪𝒈 and on simplification we obtain
 𝑯 𝟐 𝑪𝟎 𝟏
=
𝑯𝟎 𝑪 𝟏+ 𝟐𝒌𝒅

L
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅

E
𝑯 𝑪𝟎 𝟏
Or = . = 𝒌𝒔 (2.74)

T
𝑯𝟎 𝑪 𝟐𝒏

P
𝟏 𝟐𝒌𝒅
Where n= 𝟏 +

N
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒌𝒅

• The above equation giving the ratio between wave height at any depth in
shallower waters and the deep water height. This relationship obtained
without considering the irregular variation in the sea bottom contours is
called as shoaling coefficient.
The variation of the different properties of a small amplitude waves are shown in Fig.2.9

T EL
N P
Fig.2.9 Properties of small amplitude waves
 MASS TRANSPORT VELOCITY

L
When waves are in motion, the particles upon completion of each nearly an elliptical or

E
circular motion would have advanced a short distance in the direction of propagation

P T
(Fig.2.10). Consequently there is a mass transport in the direction of progress of the

N
wave. The mass transport velocity at any depth z below S.W.L is given as

𝝅𝑯 𝟐 𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝟐𝒌(𝒅+𝒛)
ഥ 𝒛 =
𝑼 (2.75)
𝑳 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝒅
 L
The mass transport speed is appreciable for high steep waves and is very small for

E
waves of long period.

P T
ഥ 𝒛
𝑼
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

N Fig. 2.10