Ethics Module (Lesson 1 To 6)

Biliran Province State University
Biliran Campus
SCHOOL OF TEACHER
EDUCATION
REMELYN C. RODRIGO
Subject Instructor
GE-E: ETHICS
REMELYN RODRIGO- Subject Instructor
VISION STATEMENT
A state university leading in research and innovation for human empowerment
and societal development.
MISSION STATEMENT
To advance the university through innovative human resource, responsive
research, sustainable production and demand-driven extension services.
BEED GOALS
The BEEd program aims to develop highly motivated and competent teachers
specializing the content and pedagogy for elementary education.
BIPSU Core
Values
Brilliance, Innovation, Progress, Service, & Unity
General Education Objectives

The general education program primarily aims to enable graduates to assert their
identities in the community and the world amidst the forces of globalization.
Specifically, it enables the students to:
1. develop their identity as persons, conscious of their talents, rights and
responsibilities towards their selves and others;
2. allow them to discover a sense of awareness of their collective identity and
contribute to the development of Filipino society at local and national levels:
and
3. create a global community, where they recognize and respect the
fundamental humanity of all, respect and appreciate diversity, and care
about the problems that affect the world.
GE-E: ETHICS
COURSE OVERVIEW
This Module will provide students an introduction to ethics. It will survey
ethical theories that some philosophers established as they tried to answer the
questions: How do we decide what is right action and what is not? How character
affects decision making? How do we measure the intrinsic rightness/wrongness of
action? Can we determine rightness/wrongness of action depending on the results of
action? The course will examine four of the major theories in ethics: Virtue Ethics,
Natural Law Ethics, Deontology and Utilitarianism.
Module Title
ETHICS
Description
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behaviour on modern society at the level of the person,
society, and interaction with the environment and other shared resources.
Lesson 1: Preliminary Notions

Lesson 2: Virtue Ethics
Lesson 3: Natural Law
Lesson 4: Deontology
Lesson 5: Utilitarianism
Lesson 6: Universal Values
MODULE GUIDE
Welcome to GE-E: Ethics. This course will focus on determining the rightness
or wrongness of action based on the four major theories in ethics: Virtue Ethics,
Natural Law Theory, Deontology and Utilitarianism. This section of the module will
walk you through the structure of the course so that you can maximize the
experience. It will help you learn diligently and independently.
1. Read the module. Read it thoroughly. Read it over and over until you
understand. Take your time and don’t worry so much because this course is
asynchronous.
GE-E: ETHICS
2. Manage your time wisely. Be conscious of the study schedule. Be mindful of
the deadlines.
3. There are announcements, discussion and activities that will be posted, so
check course site, and group chat or text messages.
4. Before you start doing the tasks, read and be mindful of the assessment tool
and the instructions. Always aim for the highest standard. Your entire task
must be submitted typewritten/Encoded.
5. Do not plagiarize. It is a crime you will be penalized. Do not copy and paste.
Quote your sources.
6. Lastly, if you have problems, questions and feedback don’t be shy to tell it to
your course Instructor. You can send it through our course site, through email:
ebcremz@gmail.com or through text: 09469514886. I will be available for your
queries every MWF 8:00-11:00 AM and TTH 1:00-4:00 PM.
This module will empower you also to become self-directed learners. This is
considered as an alternative strategy in learning in place of face-face-instruction. Read
all the content of each lessons for you to be able to answer the quizzes, post-
assessment, and activities provided herein.
You will start with a pre-assessment to determine if you have prior knowledge of the
subject. Likewise, post-assessment will be given at the end of the course to assess
and determine your understanding of the content covered. In the learning plan, the
strategy of 4As will be used: Activity, Analysis, Abstraction, and Application. The
detail of the module guide is provided below.
(Pre-Activity)- this is an introductory activity of the lesson. It will help you to be more
prepared of the topic in each lesson.
Activity- Varied activities are provided in this section. Some activities will stimulate
your experiential learning, while others will activate your conceptual and analytical
thinking.
Analysis- Questions will be presented in this phase and you will process and classify
what is valid and not. This part addresses the lesson’s effectiveness-to what extent did
you understand and the learn the lesson.
Abstraction – important concepts in the lesson presented will be summed up. It may
be presented as a generalization of the lesson covered or may be in a form of
question/s to reinforce what you know and should know more.
Application- this is the phase where problem situation, scenarios and questions will
be presented to bring you to a more practical way of using HOW you are going to use
what you have learned, and think of new ways on how it can be improve further.
GE-E: ETHICS
Course Outline and Timeframe
Week Topics
1-2 Lesson 1:Preliminary Notions
a. Ethics
b. Value
c. Source of Authority
3-5 Lesson 2: Virtue Ethics

a. Happiness and Ultimate Purpose
b. Virtue as Excellence
c. Moral Virtue and Mesotes
6 Preliminary Examination
7-8 Lesson 3: Natural Law
a. Thomas Aquinas
b. The Greek Heritage
c. The Essence and Varieties of Law
9-11 Lesson 4: Deontology

a. Duty and Agency
b. Autonomy
c. Universalizability
12 Midterm Examination
13-15 Lesson 5: Utilitarianism
a. The Principle of Utility
b. Principle of the Greatest Number
16-17 Lesson 6: Universal Values

a. Basic Human Universal Values
b. Development of Moral Character
c. Stages of Moral Development
18 Final Examination
GE-E: ETHICS
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon satisfactory completion of this course, the students will be able to:
CO1. Apply the ethical theories or frameworks on moral issues involving the self, society, and
the non-human environment.
CO2. Evaluate the difficulties that are involved in maintaining certain commonly-held notions
on ethics.
CO3. Conduct a research on the level of moral development of a group of millennial’s of your
choice. Base your tool on Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
Module Requirements
Read all the content of this module, understand and answer the pre and post
assessment. You are required to complete all the activities found in every lesson,
pass the midterm and final examination and submit all extended activities in the
suggested readings. You are expected to submit one (1) requirement in this course:
Conduct a research on the level of moral development of a group of millennials of your
choice. Base your tool on Kohlbergs stages of moral development. Share/Present your findings
in class through Powerpoint presentation/slides. This could be your Course Final Requirement
in this subject.
Suggested Readings and References:
Bulaong, O. et. al. (2018). Ethics: foundation of moral valuation. Manila: Rex
Bookstore.
Gualdo, R., Placido, D., & Dagwasi, C. (2012). Ethics: basic concepts and
contemporary moral issues. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Mac Kinnon, B. (2012). Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues. (7th ed.). United
States of America: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Shafer-Landau, R. (2013). Ethical theory:an athology. (2nd ed.). United Kingdom: John
Wiley&Sons, Inc.
Thiroux, J. (2012). Ethics: theory and practice.(11th ed.). Engelewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
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PRE-ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Direction: Read the questions carefully and choose the correct option.
1. The resource for everyday life –
a. Health
b. Nature
c. Happiness
2. This is needed to realize and maintain our highest human values of freedom, peace,
life, love and happiness –
a. Equality
b. Justice
c. Fairness
3. The ultimate value of all religious people –
a. Love
b. Faith
c. Happiness
4. The basic condition for freedom and happiness –
a. Peace
b. Love
c. Liberty
5. This is needed in order to have a strong moral character except –
a. Increase leadership ineffectiveness
b. Define your core values
c. Achieve peace of mind
6. The English word dignity comes from the Latin word, dignitas, which means –
a. Happiness
b. Thoughtfulness
c. Worthiness
7. This is the stage where the behavior is determined by social approval.
a. Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation
b. Punishment/Obedient orientation
c. Social contract
8. This is the highest stage of functioning.
a. Social Contract orientation
b. Universal Ethical Principle orientation
c. Law and Order orientation
9. Conformity to social rules remains important to the individual.
a. Pre-conventional
b. Post-conventional
c. Conventional
10. This is the stage where individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.
a. Instrumental purpose orientation
b. Social contract orientation
c. Law and order orientation
GE-E: ETHICS
LESSON 1: PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
This Lesson makes you feel what ethics is about. The discussion starts with
the etymological definition of ethics. Major parts of this lesson are dedicated to
understanding what ethics is and what is not. Ethics talks about good and bad. But
you must remember not all good and bad are part of ethics. This lesson will help you
make the valuation of actions based on reason not based on emotion, legal, cultural,
and religious claims. In the latter part of the lesson, there are cases that you will
analyze. It will make you feel what ethics is. Lastly, follow the sequence of the
lesson. Don’t skip.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain what ethics is;
2. differentiate ethics from technical, societal, and aesthetic and recognize what
are ethical problems;
3. apply the concepts on actual life experience from news, events, and everyday
experience.
ETHICS
Ethics etymologically comes from the Greek word ethos. It means custom,
usage, character. The Latin equivalent of ethos is mores which in turn is the
etymological word of “moral”, “morality”, “morals”. Many people tried to make
distinctions on the words ethics and morality. According to Bulaong, et al. (2017), the
word morals may be used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have to
describe acts that people perform. An Individual’s conduct is referred to as his
morals, and if he falls short behaving properly, it is immoral. For example: When a
man returned a lost wallet to the owner, his action is considered moral. But when a
man kept the lost wallet and has no intention to return it to the owner, his action is
considered as immoral. On the other hand, Ethics can be spoken of as the discipline
of studying and understanding the ideal of human behavior and ideal ways of
thinking. It could be acceptable or unacceptable behavior or describe as ethical or
unethical. This term is mostly used on ways of behaving in a given field, this is
popularly known as “professional ethics” (Bulaong, et al, 2017). For example, a
policeman arresting a man bribing him, the action is considered as ethical. But if the
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policeman accepts the bribe and sets the man free, his action is considered as
unethical.
The distinction between ethics and morals could clarify different dimensions of
our lives. But in our discussion, we will be using the terms ethical and moral
interchangeably. According to Reyes (2009), “ethics and morals are ordinarily used
as equivalent terms in Western language that refers to traditional manners, customs,
habits, systems of values or character of the community.”
Value
We can easily say that ethics is about what is good or bad actions, right or
wrong, acceptable or unacceptable. It is doing what is good and avoiding what is
bad. In ethics, we are putting a value on our actions. For example, An elected official
helps the poor to battle the pandemic that we are experiencing. We say that the
value of his action is good. But an elected official takes advantage of the situation by
placing his relatives to be the first recipient of the government’s social amelioration is
valued to be as bad. Here we can see that the primary concern of ethics is good and
bad or right and wrong. But we must be able to clarify that not all that is valued to be
good and bad are part of ethics. For instance, Ben and Ben's songs are good
because of their vibe. The movie I watched is bad because of the storyline. It is right
to dip my fried chicken on the gravy. It is wrong to wear basketball shorts during
formal events. In the examples, we can see that there are valuations of what is good
and bad or right and wrong. However, the valuation is not part of ethics rather it is
part of aesthetics. The word aesthetic comes from the Greek word aesthesis which
means sense or feeling. The judgments are based on what we see, hear, smell, or
taste. It is leaning towards our taste. When we talk about taste it is subjective. Take
this as an example, Pedro sports a neon pink socks and neon shorts. Many will say it
is not good because it was not good for our taste. The valuation of its goodness or
badness is more on personal aesthetic preference and it is not the case in ethics.
Besides aesthetics, there is another way we can value judgment on the

goodness and badness of actions and it is what we call etiquette. This is telling us
what is proper to do in specific situations. Take these examples: When a young boy
talks to an elder, he say “po” or “opo”. When we eat, we don’t talk when our mouth is
full. These actions will receive our approval. But if the bus is full and the young guy
did not offer his seat to an old lady, it is disgust. This will get our disapproval. Many
people have a connotation that ethics and etiquette are the same but they are not.
Yes, etiquette is indeed concerned with what is right and wrong actions but to a
certain degree, it is not enough to be in parallel with ethics. Let us clarify it, we may
be displeased when somebody interrupts us when we are speaking (etiquette), and it
will be much of greater offense when this man starts to curse us and utter libelous
words towards us (ethics).
The technique is another thing that has the notion of good and bad or right
and wrong but is not part of ethics. Technique comes from the Greek word “techne”
GE-E: ETHICS
which means the proper way of doing things. Take the example of cooking bacon,
there is a technique when we cook bacon. The proper way to cook it is by not putting
oil in the pan. The bacon will produce its oil and when we put oil the bacon will
shrink. But it only makes sense in cooking and it does not have any connection of
whatever in ethics. Hence, it is not part of ethics.
Now it is clear that aesthetics, etiquette, and technique is not part of ethics.
So, every problem raised on aesthetics, etiquette, and technique cannot be
considered as ethical problems. When we see a person not dressing up properly for
the occasion does not violate any ethical norms because it is not an ethical problem.
Same as when a person barges into one’s room without knocking is not an ethical
problem. Recognizing ethical problems will greatly help us understand what ethics is
all about. There seems to be a certain degree that can qualify an event or action to
be ethical problems. Many ethicists believe that matters concerns the life or matters
concerns about man’s well-being are considered part of ethics. Issues like the death
penalty, corruption in the government, and the inequality are part of ethics, thus they
are considered to be ethical problems.
This discussion clarifies that not all kinds of valuation belong to ethics. You
must be able to remember that ethics is not dependent on taste to be able to classify
what is good and bad action. Ethics does not value good or bad actions based on its
acceptability and unacceptability in the community. Lastly, ethics does not classify
good and bad actions based on technique or the proper way of doing things.
Activity 1: Recognizing Ethical Problems
Name five events in past months, weeks, or days that can be qualified as
ethical problems. Give your reasons. You can use stories or events published in
newspapers or aired on televisions.
Please give proper acknowledgment of the source. You don’t need to get the whole
story. This activity is meant to assess whether you can recognize ethical problems. It
will be graded and categorized as a performance outcome.
1. Birthday big salu-salo for NCRPO chief Debold Sinas amid ECQ on May 8,
2020(Rappler.com, May 12, 2020)- despite of the restriction to the social gathering, one of
thehighest official of the one who enforce the law violates it, this is purely unethical.
2. The pardon given by President Rodrigo Duterte to the mañanita celebrant Debold Sinas-but
rather promoting Debold Sinas; this shows that the president is tolerating the act face-to-face
to the society showing that law doesn’t enforce big name personalities.
3. The bubble-like resignation of Ricardo Morales due missing funds of PhilHealth which
isabout Php 147 billion. The former Chief Morales resigned without any such acceptablecause,
and not dealing the cases filled against him.
4. Duterte Jokes About Rape, Again. Philippine Women Aren’t Laughing (Nytimes.com,
August 31, 2018). President Duterte must promote human right especially to women butin the
GE-E: ETHICS
other hand the President romanticizing the act, making it fun with the wicked turn,being a
president it is unethical.
5. “Pagmumura ni Duterte kay Obma, OKS lang kay Obama. (Newsnow.ph, September
10,2016)- disrespecting one of the most prominent President of United States, considering it’s
a joke as a escape, crediting as mental gymnast; this is unethical wherein disrespectingone’s
leader.
Source of Authority
It is clear to us that ethics is about good and bad actions. But how can we
determine good and bad action? Let us take the action lying. We can say that lying is
bad or wrong. But what is the basis? Why do we value lying as a bad action? What is
the source that will tell us why lying is bad? Many of us will certainly go on the
obvious sets of standards that we have, like law, religion, and culture. We will say
that lying is bad because it is against the law. Others will say that it is prohibited in
our religion. Some would even declare that it is not acceptable in their culture. Now,
can law, religion, and culture be the source of authority in ethics? Let us try to
analyze them.
Can a law be a source of authority in ethics? On the surface, we can easily

say that law can be the source of authority in ethics. Law guides every country in this
world. It prohibits things that should not be done. It does not allow bad actions. Law
can easily claim that actions like stealing or murder are unethical because it is
prohibited by law. An action is considered good if it is not prohibited by law. Very
simple. Law seems to be a good source of authority in ethics. But let us analyze it
further. In the Philippines, Family members who steal from you may not be criminally
liable. According to Article 332 of the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines: states
that persons exempt from criminal liability in the event of the crimes of theft,
swindling or malicious mischief include spouses of relatives by affinity in the same
line, the widowed spouse with respect to the property that belonged to the deceased
spouse, and brother and sisters or brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law. So, this means
that stealing is permitted only to your family members. You can steal from them. Now
imagine, if the law will be the source of authority in ethics. Will you agree with it?
Perhaps we should think that ethics does not simply identify it with obedience to the
law. Remember the cliché: “What is legal is not necessarily moral”.
Now, can religion be a source of authority in ethics? In religion, it talks about

what is pleasing and not pleasing in the eyes of God. It tells us that if it is pleasing in
the eyes of God then it is good and if it is not pleasing then it is bad. Religion greatly
contributes to molding their faithful to be good. We members of particular religions
are guided by God’s commandment, to be specific it is the Ten Commandments.
This commandment gives us the guiding principle on how to be a good person. It
simply tells us that to become a good person we must avoid the following do not kill,
steal, lie, and commit adultery. When we look closer, we will realize that most of our
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laws are patterned on the precepts of God’s Ten Commandments. Now for us
believers, we can see that religion has a strong case to be the source of authority in
ethics. Let us analyze it further. Let us assume that religion is the source of authority
in ethics. If this is true, it will just lead us to more confusion. Why? Because of the
multiplicity of religion. There are thousands of religions in the world. The problem
lays on which among these thousands of religions is the ultimate source of authority
on ethics. One religion may say that they are the ultimate source of authority but
definitely, other religions have the same claim. Here in the Philippines, you can
already see the conflicts of religions. This kind of problem could clarify that religion
cannot become the source of authority in ethics. Another problem it may bring is the
reality that there are people who are atheists, persons who do not believe in deities
(God), who do good actions. So how can we say that religion is the source of
authority in ethics if there are persons who do not have religion and yet do good
actions? This is why we do not bring religion into the arguments of ethics.
Lastly, can culture be the source of authority in ethics? Culture sets standards
in our community. It tells the community what we should do and not to do. Philippine
culture for example sees that it is moral for a man and woman to live together after
they get married. It seems that culture could be a source of authority in ethics. But
with the great number of different cultures in this world, there will be different
standards. Take the example of the Namibian tribes, the Ovahimba and Ovazimba
tribes have a unique culture. When a man visits the tribe and knocks on the door, the
husband gives him the Okujepisa Omukazendu treatment. This means that his wife
is given to his guest to spend the night while the husband goes out of the house. In
other cultures, this kind of practice is unacceptable. But we are not in the position to
say that it is unacceptable. We cannot deny the fact that culture is something relative
to us. It means that we can say it is good or bad depending on one’s culture. This
brings us to the same criticism that religion face. Due to the multiplicity of culture
which culture is the standard in ethics. We must bear in mind that the standards of
ethics must be universal. It must be acceptable for you and me even we have a
different culture. That is why culture cannot be the source of authority in ethics.
So what is the source of authority in ethics? Ethicists would confer that the source of
authority in ethics must be common to all. It must be something universal. So let us
try to see what is common to all men that makes him unique from other creatures. All
of us would agree that what is common to all men is our ability to reason. There is no
other creature that can reason out. The reason is the source of authority in ethics.
Let us see how reason works in ethics. Have you ever asked yourself: Why I am not
stealing goods? Our initial answer would be: “I do not steal because I am afraid I can
get punish and I don’t like to be punished”. But this reason is to shallow. So man
realizes that we must be able to give a good reason that will be acceptable to all
something that would make sense. A better answer is that stealing is wrong because
it violates the principle of fairness and the respect of other’s property. This principle
becomes the ground of our judgment that justifies our decisions. This moral principle
is established in moral theory. This theory is a system of ideas which is used to
evaluate our valuing of actions and concludes decision on a certain action. The
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moral theory will be the center of this course. The succeeding modules will be
centering on moral theories.
Quiz 1: Keywords to remember and contrast.
1. Define ethics.
Answer:
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2. What is the difference between ethics and morals?

Answer:
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3. Differentiate ethics from aesthetics, etiquette, and technique.

Answer:
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GE-E: ETHICS
Activity 2: Analyzing Case
Last June 11, 2020, the Lucban Municipal Police Station (LMPS) posted on
their Facebook page: “Mahalin natin ang mga kababaihan at huwag nyo
abusuhin ang kanilang kabaitan. Kayo naman mga ghErlsz, wag kayo magsuot
ng pagkaikli-ikling damit at pag naman nabastos ay magsusumbong din sa
amin. Isipin nyo rin!” This post became viral on the worldwide-web. Comments on
this post flooded the different social media platforms. This particular post tells women
to avoid wearing certain clothes.
You need to analyze this case. There are conflicting thoughts on the post of
LMPS. Are clothes just a matter of aesthetic? or Can clothes become an ethical
problem? Explain your answers. Explain it in 7 to 10 sentences.
Answer:
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Reference:
Bookstore.
Reyes, R. (2000 Ground and norm of morality: ethics for college students. Quezon
City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
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LESSON 2: VIRTUE ETHICS
Do you remember the last part of Lesson 1? It discussed the source

of authority in ethics. It is said that a good source of authority in ethics
is moral theories. So what are we going to do in Lesson 2 is to discuss
one of the moral theories, Virtue Ethics. This theory is a product of
Aristotle's intuitive mind. We will start on the background on how Aristotle arrived in
conceptualizing Virtue Ethics. The lesson would also focus on the important
concepts in Virtue Ethics like telos, eudaimonia, arete, mesotes and phronimos. We
will characterize actions as virtuous acts or non-virtuous acts. Then we will try to
apply the concept of virtue ethics in a reallife setting. You will analyze a case for you
to experience how virtue ethics work.

1. explain the important concepts and principles of virtue ethics;
2. differentiate virtuous acts from non-virtuous acts;
3. use the principles of virtue ethics in real-life situations.
Historical Background
Aristotle lived from 384-322 BC. He was a student of Plato in Academia in Athens.
Most of the time Aristotle was in an intellectual dispute with Plato. Due to these
disputes with Plato, he founded his school, the Lyceum. Aristotle made a good
account of himself. He was able to create different works in different fields. Some of
the notable works of Aristotle were Metaphysics, De Generatione et Corruptione
(biology), De Anima (psychology), Nicomachean Ethics, and the Organon (logic).
Some historians claimed that Aristotle was greatly influenced by his father who was a
physician. Aristotle was very observant of the surrounding like a physician who tries
to observe his patients. He had a son and named him Nichomachus. The book of
Aristotle in ethics was named after his son and it was called Nichomachean Ethics.
Nichomaen Ethics
Aristotle establishes his ideas in Ethics using the Platonic understanding of reality
and its concept of good as his springboard. He abandons the idea of Plato about
reality and good. Aristotle particularly contests the separation of matter and form. If
you are going to look at Plato's understanding of reality and its concept of good it is
quite ideal. He believes that everything outside the world of forms or ideas are not
true. Take this example: Juan is a good boy. Plato argues that Juan is not a good
boy. Because he is in a world of matter. Everything in the world of matter is not true
because they are subject to change. Plato would claim that Juan's goodness is just a
copy of the real goodness that is found in the world of forms or ideas. But Aristotle
did not agree with this. He contests that we will not be able to understand a thing
without having matter and form. We will not understand that Juan is a good boy if
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there is no matter and form. We will not be able to know Juan is a good boy if we
don't see the body (matter) of Juan, his looks, and his built, and if we don't have the
idea (form) of what is a good boy. When we say that Juan is a good boy, it means
that being good does not exist independently of Juan. Our experience dictates when
we say that Juan is a good boy, we are referring to Juan in his totality as a
composition of matter and form, not as a separate entity.
TELOS
As we establish the ground of Aristotle's ethical framework, we now look at how it
works. Aristotle's ethical framework starts with observing what is there in nature.
Aristotle is keen on looking for what is common in nature. In his observation, he sees
that when you throw a stone upward it will go down. It will not suspend in the air. If
you throw it up ten thousand times, it will go down ten thousand times. Similar to a
ball place on a slope. If you put a ball on a slope, it has nothing to do but to roll
downwards. When a person performs actions, it is always directed towards
something. It is directed towards a purpose. A person can't perform actions without a
purpose. Aristotle sees that there in common in all of these. He concludes that
everything in this world including a person has "telos". The word telos means end,
goal, or purpose. When we go back to our example, a stone thrown upward will end
downward, a ball place in the top of the slope will end on the lower part of the slope
and a person jumps into action because of the goal or purpose.
We already know that a person acts towards a goal or purpose. We cannot deny the
fact that there is a purpose why we do something. Now a person will perform an act
when she sees the purpose as good. No person will do something if she sees the
purpose as bad. We eat because we know that it is good. It will give much-needed
sustenance to our bodies. You enroll in this course because you see good on it. You
believe that it will provide you a good future. So it means that the telos or the
purpose is always good. A person performs an act because she sees that the telos
or the purpose as good. But you may ask why are there some people who do bad
acts. Let us take the example of a drug dependent. She takes an illegal drug
because she believes that it will solve all her problems. Here you will find that the
purpose is good, to solve all her problems. The problem lies in the action she has
taken. It is bad. Taking illegal drugs is bad. We do not say that taking illegal drugs
can become good what we are showing is that the telos or purpose is good. It is what
all of us seek to achieve.
In our experience, we act because we seek to achieve a specific purpose. But we
cannot also deny that this purpose is used to attain a higher goal or purpose. Let's
have the example of a student. We all know that you are here to study so you can
earn a degree. You are moved to study because of the purpose of earning a degree.
But it does not end there. You want to earn a degree so you can find a job. Because
Filipinos believe that if you have a degree you can find a job easily. But it does not
end there. You want to find a job so that you can earn money. You want to earn
money so you can buy things you want. There seems to be a hierarchy of telos, goal,
or purpose.
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EUDAIMONIA
In the hierarchy of telos, goal, or purpose there must be the highest purpose, this
must be ultimate. It is the ultimate good of a human being. Now let us see what is the
ultimate purpose of a person. When we say ultimate it means that it is last and final.
Nothing follows. According to Aristotle, to consider the telos to be ultimate it must fit
the criteria. The first criterion says that it must be final. It means that it is the final end
or purpose and it is not used to attain any other higher ends. Unlike the examples in
the earlier discussion, we can see that the end is used to attain another end.
Studying to earn a degree and earning a degree to find a job. So these goals cannot
be considered as ultimate telos because they are not final. The second criterion of
the ultimate telos is that it must be self-sufficient. Meaning that when we attain it
nothing else will be sought. It will completely satisfy our desires to attain something
once we attain the ultimate telos. The last criterion of the ultimate telos is that it must
be attainable. It is non-sense if the ultimate telos of a person is not attainable. It is
absurd to say that the ultimate telos of a person cannot be attained.
So what is the ultimate telos of a person? According to Aristotle the ultimate telos of
a person is "eudaimonia". It means happiness. But mind you the happiness that
Aristotle is telling is not an emotion. Like the happiness that we experience when we
receive gifts during our birthdays. This kind of happiness is on the level of feelings.
Aristotle is not referring to this kind of happiness because it is temporary. He argues
this happiness is permanent and it is what everybody desires to attain. Eudaimonia
being the ultimate telos makes every person desires it.
ERGON
We already established that the ultimate telos is eudaimonia or happiness, but how
can we attain it. According to Aristotle, we can achieve eudaimonia by fulfilling a
person's "ergon". The word ergon means function. So, it only means that we can
attain the ultimate telos by fulfilling our function. But what is the function of a person?
A function is what distinguishes or characterizes the thing from other beings.
Example: key, it is used to lock or unlock doors, cabinet, etc. This makes the key
unique from other things. Again, what is the function of the person? What
distinguishes a person from other beings? What sets a person apart from other
beings? The function of a person is the ability to reason. This ability distinguishes a
person from other beings. There is no other being that can reason. To be a person is
to act in accordance with reason. Aristotle argues that we can attain eudaimonia by
performing our ergon which is the ability to reason but it is not enough by just
performing it. He would say that we should perform our function well. We must
perform it in a good or excellent way.
ARETE
In Greek, performing in a good or excellent way is "Arete". The word arete is
equated to the word virtue. The word virtue is associated with the words good,
excellent, and noble. Now, how do we attain virtue? According to Aristotle, virtue
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cannot be accomplished in a single act. Virtue is accomplished through repetitive
actions. It is acquired through habits. But remember that habit is not always good.
That is why Aristotle distinguishes what habit we need to have. Habit is essential to
the formation of one's character. So to be able to have a good character, we need to
habitually do the good, thus we will acquire virtue. But acquiring virtue is not that
easy. The test is on how to act out the right feelings and passions. It is how we can
control our feelings and passions because they are neither good nor bad. According
to Aristotle, virtue is the excellent management of one's feelings and passions. Let us
take an example. We all know that anger is an example of feelings and passions. It is
neither good nor bad. To be a virtuous person, we must have excellent management
of anger. We can get angry for the right reason, time, manner, and to the right
person. Which is something difficult to attain. The difficulty lies in finding the mesotes
(mean) according to Aristotle. "Hence it is hard work to be virtuous since in each
case it is hard work to find what is the mean (mesotes)...So also getting angry, or
giving and spending money, is easy and anyone can do it, but doing it to the right
person, in the right amount at the right time, for the right end, and in the right way is
no longer easy, nor can everyone do it. Hence, well is rare, praiseworthy, and fine. "
(Nichomachean Ethics Bk. II, 1109a24) To become a virtuous person, we need to
find the mesotes. Aristotle believes that when a person is already habituated on
finding the mesotes she will be called "phronimos". This phronimos is a virtuous
person who does not have to control oneself because one's resolution has been
habituated to always do the right act, self-possessed.
VIRTUE
"Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with a choice, lying in a mean, i.e.,
the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, by that principle
by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it". (Nichomachean Ethics Bk.
II, 1106b36-1107a2) It simply means that virtue is the mean between two vices. It is
the mean between excess and deficiency. Vices are either excess or deficiency.
Let's have an example. Let us see what is the mean (mesotes) of fear and
confidence. The mean is courage, the excess is rashness and the deficiency is
cowardice. The mean (mesotes) is always exact or as the maximum act, not an
excess nor a deficiency. It is not good if the person is "sobrang bait, sobrang tapang
at medyo palakaibigan" because this is not exact. You must also be careful on
genaralizing that all actions have mesotes. Many actions do not have mesotes and
they are considered as wrong actions. Examples would be stealing, committing
adultery and killing. Can you find their mesotes? None, there is no such thing as
stealing the right amount of money. No matter what a person steals, whether it is in a
small amount or a big amount they are both stealings.
Activity 1: Recalling Terms

Define the following concepts in virtue ethics:
1. Telos –
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2. Eudaimonia-
3. Ergon-
4. Arete –
5. Mesotes –
Activity 2: Filipino Virtues

We have lists of Filipino Virtues on the table. The word virtue is translated as birtud.
While deficiency is pagkukulang and excess is pagmamalabis. What are you going to
do is to list the pagkukulang and pagmamalabis of each birtud.
Pagmamalabis Birtud Pagkukulang
Pakikisama
Utang na loob
Hiya
Relihiyoso
Magalang sa Matanda
Activity 3: Wait or Marry? You will analyze the case using virtue ethics. You will
analyze a case about the virtue of prudence. Don't use your feelings. Analyze it well.
Read the rubric so that you will be guided in answering the case.
A piece of news broke out that Juan, a soldier was killed in an encounter with the
rebels. But the news on the death of Juan was sketchy. There are no clear details
about Juan's death. The sketchy news reached Maria, Juan's wife. Due to this, there
is uncertainty on the part of Maria. Years had passed and there is no certain news
about Juan. The long years of wait allowed Pedro to court Maria. True enough
Pedro's perseverance made Maria fall in love. Pedro had found that it is the right
time to propose to marry Maria. Now if you are Maria will you give in to Pedro's
proposal or wait for the confirmation on the death of Juan? What if you already
married Pedro and Juan was alive and ready to come home, what will you do?
Answer:
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References:
Aristotle (350 BCE). Nicomachean Ethics (W.D. Ross, Trans.)
Bookstore.
Prentice Hall
Lesson 3: NATURAL LAW THEORY
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This Lesson deals with the Natural Law Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas. It
defines law and discusses the different kinds of law. The Lesson clarifies the
difference between Natural Law from Eternal Law, Divine Law, and Human Law. In
this lesson, you must read the text, Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas which is
provided. Lastly, the lesson challenges you to apply the precepts of the natural law to
contemporary moral issues.
1. define what is a law and its kinds;

2. distinguish natural law from the eternal law, divine law and human law, and;
3. apply the precepts of natural law to contemporary moral issues.
LET’S READ
You must read Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas. You will find it in
the readings section of the lesson. After reading it, you must answer the following
questions:
1. What is the law?

Answer:
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2. What is Eternal law?

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3. What is Divine law?

Answer:
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4. What is Human law?

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NATURAL LAW
There are different kinds of law. We have seen it in the readings and you have
defined it clearly. We now turn our attention to natural law. When we talk about
natural, it brings more questions rather than answers. How might one commonly
define what is “natural” or “unnatural”? Persons are having difficulty in differentiating
what is natural and unnatural. Let us test your understanding of what is natural and
what is not. We have here some list and tell us whether it is natural or unnatural.
After finishing the module we go back to your answers and test it if you got it right.
Natural or Unnatural
eating insects
picking one’s nose (pangungulangot)
mixed martial arts (combat sports)
plastic surgery
eating raw beef
cross-dressing
IUD (intra-uterine device)
incest
male on male sex
male infidelity (pambababae)
According to Thomas Aquinas:
The Natural Law

Summa Theologiae 1-2, Question 94, Article 2
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Since however, good has the nature of an end, and evil, the nature of
a contrary, hence it is that all those things to which man has a natural
inclination are naturally apprehended by reason as being good, and
consequently as objects of purs uit, and their contraries as evil, and
object of avoidance. Wherefore according to the order of natural
inclinations, is the order of the precepts of the natural law. Because in
man there is first of all an inclination to good in accordance with the
nature which he has in common with all substances inasmuch as
every substance seeks the preservation of its own being,
according to its nature: and by reason of this inclination, whatever is a
means of preserving human life, and of warding off its obstacles,
belongs to the natural law. Secondly, there is in man an inclination to
things that pertain to him more specially, according to that nature
which he has in common with other animals: and in virtue of this
inclination, those things are said to belong to the natural law,
"which nature has taught to all animals“ … such as sexual
intercourse, education of offspring and so forth. Thirdly, there is in
man an inclination to good, according to the nature of his reason,
which nature is proper to him: thus man has a natural inclination to
know the truth about God, and to live in society: and in this
respect, whatever pertains to this inclination belongs to the
natural law; for instance, to shun ignorance, to avoid offending
those among whom one has to live, and other such things regarding
the above inclination.
ORDER OF THE PRECEPTS OF NATURAL LAW
According to Thomas Aquinas, God created the world according to natural

law. It is a goal driven system whereby life is sustained and everything function
smoothly. God created a good thing for His creatures. Like meat that is good for
dogs and cats or water that is good for plants. God being the creator, Thomas
Aquinas argues that God instills in creatures an intuitive desire or inclination to seek
GE-E: ETHICS
what is best for them. We, creatures, are designed to seek basic goods. Now, what
are the basic goods? There are seven basic goods: self-preservation, procreation,
educate offspring, seek God, live in society, avoid offense, and shun ignorance.
The first basic good is self- preservation. We cannot deny the fact that the
drive to sustain life is very visible to all creatures. It is common to all beings. Have
you noticed it? There are certain trees when they are cut they release a certain foul
odor that shoos away threats. Animals fight back or run away when they feel that
their lives are in danger. In the same way that persons have that natural inclination to
preserve their being. When we hear a gunshot like sounds we duck or stop to
process what we think is a potential threat.
The second basic good is reproduction. It is a desire to do sexual intercourse.

This process makes us feel good. Similar to other beings that periodically engage in
this kind of activity. Reproduction leads to the third basic good, which is the
education of offspring. It is good to take care of the offspring. We need to feed, give
them shelter, and educate them. Similarly, persons and animals do educate their
offspring. Persons do bring their offspring to school while animals teach their
offspring how to hunt or protect themselves from predators.
The first three basic goods are a commonality of person to other beings but
the remaining four basic goods are exclusive to a person. It is exclusive because it
uses reason. The fourth basic good is to seek God. It is a natural inclination to seek
God. We seek the truth about God because of reason. People tend to think that there
is a greater good. It does not end there. We want to be part of the community. This
leads us to the fifth basic good and that is to live in the community. Persons are
social animals and we have this inclination to live in the community. Thomas Aquinas
would argue that we basically pack animals, our desire for love and acceptance, and
our susceptibility to peer pressure are all evidence of this desire. So, to be accepted
in the community, we need to avoid offense, which is the sixth basic good. We must
avoid alienating others. Our reason tells us that it is not good to alienate others. Like
stealing something from them or spreading gossip about others. The last basic good
is to shun ignorance. There is no denying that persons are knowers. We think that
knowledge promotes survival. Thomas Aquinas argues that knowledge promotes
survival and ignorance can mean starving to death. This very inclination pushes us to
study to shun ignorance. Have you noticed it? Parents will always tell that the only
inheritance they can give their children is education. They do not like that their
children become ignorant. Being ignorant is not a good thing.
Thomas Aquinas believes that from these seven basic goods, the natural law
is derived. Our inclination shows us basic good and reason allows us to derive
natural law from them. This brings us to the understanding that the right acts are in
accordance with natural law. How thus this system of Natural law works? Let us take
the obvious inclination, self-preservation. We all see that our lives are valuable. It is
the reason why we do not do stupid or dumb acts that will put our lives in danger.
However, we cannot deny the fact that others’ lives are also valuable the same as
ours. The reason will tell us that killing is wrong because it is a violation of natural
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law. From here, we will be able to create prohibition: “do not kill”. In turn, it will bring
to a positive injunction which promotes life.
TIME TO THINK :
You need to answer this problem using the principle of utilitarianism. Limit
your answer from 10 to 15 sentences.
Tensions have been rising between the U.S. and Iraq. Now Iraq has succeeded in
smuggling an atomic bomb into New York and exploding it. First reports indicate that
over a million people are dead and more will die from radiation. You are the
president of the U.S., you have enough atomic weapons presently aimed at Iraq to
destroy every city in the country. The Joint Chiefs of Staff are awaiting your decision.
Can you ethically authorize a retaliatory strike and basically destroy Iraq?
Answer:
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References:
Bookstore.
Prentice Hall
4 – Above 3 – Meet Standards 2 – Approaching Standards 1 - Below Standards
CATEGORY Standards
Position The position The position statement A position statement is present, There is a position
Statement statement provides a clear but does not make the author\'s statement.
provides a clear, statement of the position clear.
strong statement of author\'s
the author\'s position position on the topic.
on the topic.
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Evidence All of the Most of the evidence and At least one of the piece Evidence and
and evidence and examples are specific, of evidence and examples examples are NOT
Examples examples are relevant and is relevant
specific, relevant explanations relevant and has an AND/OR are
and explanations are are given that show how explanation not
given that each piece of evidence that shows how that piece of explained.
show how each piece supports the author\'s evidence
of position. supports the author\'s
evidence position.
supports the
author\'s position.
Accuracy All supportive facts Almost Most supportive facts and Most supportive
and all supportive statistics are reported facts and statistics were
statistics are reported facts and accurately. inaccurately reported.
accurately. statistics are reported
accurately.
Sequencing Arguments and Arguments and support A few of the support Many of the support
support are are provided in a fairly details or arguments are details or
provided in a logical order not in an expected or arguments
logical order that that makes it reasonably logical order, are not in an expected or
makes it easy easy to follow distracting the reader and logical order, distracting
and interesting to the author\'s train of making the the reader
follow the thought. essay seem a little and making the essay
author\'s train of confusing. seem very confusing.
thought.
Closing The conclusion is The conclusion is The author\'s position is There is no conclusion
paragraph strong and leaves recognizable. restated within the
the The author\' position is the closing paragraph, but paper just ends.
reader solidly restated within the first two not near the beginning.
understanding the sentences of the
writer\'s position. closing paragraph.
Effective restatement
of
the position statement
begins the closing
paragraph.
LESSON 4: DEONTOLOGY
This Lesson tackles deontology of Immanuel Kant. It shows how Kant

establish his ethical system using pure reason. This pure reason bring
us to the idea of imperatives. There are two kinds of imperatives,
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hypothetical and categorical imperatives. The emphasis of this module is on
categorical imperative that has three formulations: universalizability, autonomy and
kingdom of ends. There are ethical problems you are going to resolve. You are task
to resolve them using the test of universalizability.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should:
1. discuss Kant's ethical system based on pure reason,

2. apply the concepts of the formulations of categorical imperatives, and;
3. evaluate actions using the universalizability test.
BACKGROUND
Deontology is the study of the nature of duty and obligation. The word deontology
comes from the Greek word "deont" which means being necessary. Immanuel Kant's
ethical system is found in Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten. He never called it
as deontology. C.D. Broad called it as deontology in his book Five Types of Ethical
Theory.
PURE REASON
Immanuel Kant is in search of the supreme principle of morality. He sees that
previous moral theories could not give exact answers to moral problems. Kant
believes that morality is constant. It is similar to simple arithmetic that 1 + 1 = 2. Even
we interchange the position of the numbers it brings the same answer. When we say
that an action is good, it is good no matter what the situation is.
“Since my aim here is directed properly to moral philosophy, I limit the question
proposed to this: is it not of the utmost necessity to work out for once a pure moral
philosophy completely cleansed of everything that may be only empirical and that
belongs to anthropology? [...] Everyone must grant that a law, if it is to hold morally,
that is, as a ground of an obligation, must carry with it absolute necessity [...] [...]
that, for example, the command “thou shalt not lie” does not hold only for human
beings, as if other rational beings did not have to heed it, […] the ground of
obligation here must not be sought in the nature of the human being or in the
circumstances of the world in which he is placed.
According to Immanuel Kant to determine what is good we need to use reason. He

simply in the concepts of pure reason [...]” (4:389) understands that reason is a
unique faculty of a person that sets her a -part from animals. Persons use their
reason, which gives us the capacity to act accordingly to the principles that we
determine ourselves.
IMPERATIVES
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Reason determines what is good. We use our reason to determine what we ought-to-
do. It is a self-ordained task. However, we must be able to distinguish that there are
things that we ought to-do morally and there are non-moral. According to Kant, most
of the time, whether or not we ought to do something that is not really a moral
choice-instead, it is contingent on our desires. Let us take the desire for money.
Many of us desire to have money and there is nothing bad about it. To have money
we ought to have job or business. Same as when student desires to have a good
grade, you ought to study hard. These are examples that Kant calls as hypothetical
imperatives. It is putting conditions. Hypothetical imperatives are command you
should follow if you want something. It is putting premium in options. You may do it if
you want to and you may not do it if you don’t want it.
Hypothetical imperative is not a concern in ethics. Kant argues that we cannot view
morality through hypothetical imperative. Rather, we should view morality through
categorical imperative. What is categorical imperative? It is a command you must
follow regardless of your desires and moral obligations are derived from pure reason.
It does not matter whether you want to be moral or not. The moral law is binding on
all of us. Right and wrong is totally knowable by using your intellect.
FORMULATIONS OF CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
Categorical imperative is best understood through various formulations. We will

enumerate the different formulations of categorical imperative:
1. Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time
will that it become a universal law (4:421).
2. “So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of
any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means”
(4:429).
3. Act so that [your] “will is thus not solely subject to the law, but is subject in such a
way that it must be regarded also as legislating to itself, and precisely for this
reason as subject to the law (of which it can consider itself as the author)”
(4:431).
Among these three formulations of categorical imperative, we will focus on the first
one: “Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same
time will that it become a universal law”. This is popularly known as the
“universalizability principle”.
UNIVERSALIZABILITY
The formulation of universalizability principle focuses on two important terms, maxim

and universal law. Maxim refers to rule or principle of action while universal law
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refers to something that must always be done in similar situation. Let us read Kant’s
work on his demonstration of universalizability principle:
Another man finds himself urged by need to borrow money. He well

knows that he will not be able to repay it but sees also
nothing will be lent him unless he promises firmly to repay it
within a determinate time. He would like to make such a
promise, This but he still has enough conscience to ask
himself, is it not forbidden and contrary to duty to help
oneself out of need in such a way? Supposing that he still
decided to do so, his maxim of action would go as follows:
when I believe myself to be in need of money I shall borrow
money and promise to repay it, even though I know that this
will never happen.
Now this principle of self-love or personal advantage is perhaps quite consistent with
my whole future welfare, but the question now is whether it is right. I therefore turn
the demand of self-love into a universal law and put the question as follows:
How would it be if my maxim became a universal law? I then see at

once that it could never hold as a universal law of nature and be
consistent with itself, but must necessarily contradict itself. [...]
[...] For, the universality of a law that everyone, when he

believes himself to be in need, could promise whatever he
pleases with the intention of not keeping it would make the
promise and the end one might have in it itself impossible,
since no one would believe what was promised him but
would laugh at all such expressions as vain pretenses
(4:422).
What we do here is we start with zero (0). It is where we identify the action to be
tested. In one (1) we formulate the maxim and it always have the template: “When
I…, I shall…”. Two (2) is where we imagine that it is universal law and test if there is
a self-contradiction. Lastly, Three (3) conclude by articulating duty. To clarify it
further let us take an example of Kant, which we read earlier. We will try to simplify
using the universalizability test.
1. borrow money without intending to pay [false promises]
2. “When I need money, I shall borrow it from someone without intending to

pay it back.”
3. Suppose everyone were obligated to follow this maxim, as if it were a

universal law: Everyone ought to borrow money without intending to pay,
when they need money.
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No one will lend money, “who are you fooling, you ought not pay it back”, money-
lending loses its meaning, self-contradictory
What then is the resulting duty?
4. Therefore, do not borrow money without intending to pay.
REMINDERS
1. Consistency from step 0 to 3.

2. Kant provides a maxim that has a specific formulation: When [situation], I shall
[action].
3. Universalized maxim is not imagined as done by everyone, but an obligation
for everyone.
4. Test involves not consequences, but internal validity of the universalized
maxim.
UNIVERSALIZABILITY TEST
You are going to perform universalizability test of the following:
1. stealing someone’s valuables

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2. lying about credentials on curriculum vitae (CV)

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3. refusing to give a bribe, taking a ticket

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4. studying test leakage for aboard exam

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ANALYZE IT
1. National Telecommunication Commission (NTC), a government regulatory

office, handed ABS-CBN company a cease and desist order stopping its
broadcast. It is due to the company's expired franchise. The company's
franchise expired May 4, 2020. Many people are saddened. ABS-CBN's top
official contested the stoppage of their broadcast. They would argue that it is
wrong to hand down the order of stoppage because it will greatly affect their
eleven thousand employees (11,000). Arguments could go as far as saying
that the stoppage will be against the interest of the Filipino because of the
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pandemic we are experiencing. They would even claim that it clear violation of
press freedom.
Let us analyze this.
Is it unethical for NTC to issue stoppage of ABS-CBN because of their expired

franchise to operate? or it is unethical for NTC to issue stoppage of ABS-CBN
because of their expired franchise but it is pandemic and greatly affects 11,000
employees?
Analyze it using Kant's Universalizability Test.
1. Test the morality of the case using Kant's Universalizability Test.

2. Explain the morality of the cases. Explain it in 5 to 7 sentences.
References:
Kant (2016). Fundamental principles of metaphysics of morals. (T.K. Abott, Trans.)
Bookstore.
Prentice Hall.
LESSON 5: UTILITARIANISM
This Lesson tackles principles of Utilitarianism. It differentiates Jeremy

Bentham’s utilitarian concept and John Stuart Mill’s utilitarian concept.
The lesson tries to see the different types of utilitarianism. You need to
apply the principles of utilitarianism in different situations.
OBJECTIVES:
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At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
1. discuss the basic idea of utilitarianism,

2. distinguish Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism from John Stuart Mill’s
utilitarianism, and;
3. apply utilitarianism in evaluating community scenarios.
UTILITARIANISM
Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and
wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over
other actions/policies. As such, it moves beyond the scope of one's own interests
and takes into account the interests of others. It is about the “the greatest happiness
for the greatest number”. When we talk of utilitarianism, two names will appear
instantly, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills.
JEREMY BENTHAM
Jeremy Bentham is an English philosopher who introduces the principle of

utility. He recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life. He
argues that the approval or disapproval of an action is based on the amount of pain
or pleasure brought about by the consequences. Bentham equates good with
pleasure and evil with pain, and asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of
quantification (and hence 'measure').
In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham introduces the following criteria:

INTENSITY, DURATION, CERTAINTY (or UNCERTAINTY), and its NEARNESS (or
FARNESS). He also includes its "fecundity" (will more of the same follow?) and its
"purity" (its pleasure won't be followed by pain & vice versa). In considering actions
that affect numbers of people, we must also account for its EXTENT.
HOW IT WORKS
 Your task is to explain how the criteria of Jeremy Bentham works. You need
to research it on books or through the world-wide-web.
Answer:
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JOHN STUART MILLS
John Stuart Mills is also an English philosopher. He adjusted to the more

hedonistic tendencies in Bentham's philosophy by emphasizing. According to Mills, it
is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to
utilitarianism, He would add that the calculus is unreasonable and qualities cannot be
quantified (there is a distinction between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures). Mills argues
that utilitarianism refers to "the Greatest Happiness Principle" -- it seeks to promote
the capability of achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most amount of
people (this is its "extent").
EXPLAIN IT:
 Please explain “The Greatest Happiness Principle”.
Answer:
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ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM
We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL

RULES.
The former is called "act-utilitarianism" and the latter is called "rule-
utilitarianism."
Act-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act

in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about
the best results (or the least amount of bad results).
Rule-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules

of conduct
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(moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the
consequences of a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which
promises were binding. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking
those rules.
THINK OF THIS:
 You need to answer this problem using the principle of utilitarianism. Limit
your answer from 10 to 15 sentences.
It is noticeable before the pandemic that most of the elected officials have made
projects. The most common infrastructure projects are basketball courts. Because
most Filipinos are fans of basketball elected officials realized that building basketball
court is more productive in promoting health than building hospital. So, is it justifiable
to build basketball court because there are many basketball fans, than to build a
hospital because there are fewer sick people?
Answer:
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References:
Bookstore.
Thiroux, J. (2012). Ethics: theory and practice.(11th ed.). Engelewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall.
LESSON 6: UNIVERSAL VALUES
Human beings are endowed with spiritual capacities. This is a fact testified to
by the founders of all the world religions as well as by sages and philosophers
throughout history. An understanding of these positive virtues and values gives
individuals and societies the moral accountability that is the basis of human
integrity. Mere knowledge of ideals and principles is not enough. There is always
the need to translate the ideals into action.
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Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
● Identify the different universal values;

● Explain the relationship between individual acts and character;
● Explain and articulate each stage of moral development.
Content
I. BASIC UNIVERSAL VALUES
What is Universal Value?
A value is a quality that weans people, things, events or situations. The term is used
to designate the moral characteristics that are inherent in a subject piety,
responsibility, secularism, respect, etc.
Universal, however, is an adjective that is related to what belongs or which relates to

the universe. The concept refers to the set of all things created and what is common to
all its kind.
These definitions enable us to approach the notion of universal value. Universal

values are formed by implied behavioural standards that are necessary to live in a
harmonious and peaceful society.
We can say that the goodness, solidarity, volunteerism and honesty are virtues you
want in any country or region. So, these are universal values.
Universal values are acquired with family education and school, because the process
of socialization involves that new generations internalize timeless concepts.
Schwartz Concept of Universal Values
S.H. Schwartz, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out
empirical research investigating whether there are universal values and what those
values are. Schwartz‟s results from a series of studies suggest that there are 56
specific universal values and 10 types of universal values.
1. Power. Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people

and resources.
2. Achievement. Personal success through demonstrating competence
according to social standards.
3. Hedonism. Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
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4. Stimulation. Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
5. Self-Direction. Independent thought and action – choosing, creating,

exploring.
6. Universalism. Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection

for the welfare of all people and for nature.
7. Benevolence. Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people

with whom one is in frequent personal contact.
8. Tradition. Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and

ideas that traditional culture or religion provide.
9. Conformity. Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to

upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
10. Security. Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and

of self.
Basic Universal Human Values
The function of most of these basic values is to make it possible for every human to
realize or maintain the very highest or most basic universal core values of life, love
and happiness. Hereunder are some of the basic universal human values:
1. Happiness – In the ancient past the founders of the big religions in the
world have already taught about the reward for a religious life by an afterlife in
Paradise, Heaven, or Nirvana etc., to enjoy there an ultimate and eternal
happiness. And from this we can understand that in fact eternal happiness is
the ultimate value of all religious people.
2. Peace – Peace has to be seen as a basic condition for freedom and

happiness, for without peace there cannot be real freedom.
3. Love – Love in a general sense can be best defined as feelings, or an

experience of deep connectedness or oneness with any other human being,
any animal, plant, tree, thing or unnamable. Love can also be experienced as
something far beyond any comprehension, and totally indescribable.
4. Freedom – Freedom means the experience of unrestricted, and to be as

much as possible independent of the social pressure of others. A basic
condition for happiness is however the experience of an inner, or mental
freedom; freedom from all kinds of stress, worry, anxiety, problems, obligations
and fears.
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5. Safety – Safety means free of threat, fear and survival-stress. Without
safety, people tend to live out of their individual survival instinct, and long term
insecurity creates an egocentric survival-mentality. Without safety, people in a
society are burdened by emotional fear, helplessness, and anxiety.
6. Intelligence – A tremendous challenge to our human intelligence is our

ability to cooperate on a global scale, to avoid catastrophic global
developments, like climate change, population growth, the ecology problem
and the nuclear war problem. These problems of humanity show the urgent
need for a “global intelligence”, and the very basic value of human intelligence
on a global scale.
7. Human respect – The most basic principle of any social community is

feelings of connectedness which come out of our perception, empathy and
awareness that the other human is basically as we are ourselves. True respect
is a spontaneous phenomenon, which comes basically out of the understanding
that deep down the other person is the same as we are ourselves.
8. Equality – Equality originates from aequalis, aequus, and aequalitas.

These are all old French or Latin words. These words mean even, level and
equal. Every individual has the right to claim equal liberties with others and
when the state authority can ensure this, it will be assumed that justice will no
longer be far away.
9. Justice – It is the proper administration of the law; the fair and equitable
treatment of all individuals under the law. In general, justice is needed to realize
and maintain our highest human values of freedom, peace, life, love and
happiness.
10. Nature – Man is part of nature, and our very human existence is
dependent of nature and its ecology. And hence our highest human values of
life itself and freedom, safety, peace, love and happiness can only be realized
in harmony with nature.
11. Health – World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as being “a

state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”. In 1986, WHO also said that health is “a
resource for everyday life, not the objective of living”. Also there is a term
known as mental health and it describes either a level of cognitive or emotional
well-being or an absence of a mental disorder.
Human Dignity
The English word dignity comes from the Latin word, dignitas, which means
“worthiness”. Dignity implies that each person is worthy of honor and respect for who
they are, not just for what they can do. In other words, human dignity cannot be
earned and cannot be taken away. It‟s an inalienable gift given to us by God, and
every other good thing in life depends on the safeguarding of our fundamental diginity.
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Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and to
be treated ethically.
Human beings are qualitatively different from any other living being in the world
because they are capable of knowing and loving God, unlike any other creature. Belief
in the dignity of the human person is the foundation of morality.
II. DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL CHARACTER
What is Moral Character?
Moral character or character is an evaluation of an individual‟s stable moral qualities.

The concept of character can imply a variety of attributes including the existence or
lack of virtues such as empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good
behaviors or habits.
A moral character is defined as an idea in which one is unique and can be

distinguished from others. Perhaps it can assemble qualities and traits that are
different from various individuals. It implies to how individuals act, or how they express
themselves.
Importance of Having a Strong Moral Character
When you have a strong moral character, you‟ll be judged by who you are rather than
who you pretend to be. Below are some of the consequences of having a strong moral
character (Sonnenberg, 2016):
1. Achieve peace of mind. People with character sleep well at night. They
take great pride in knowing that their intentions and actions are honorable.
2. Strengthen trust. People with character enjoy meaningful relationships

based on openness, honesty, and mutual respect. When you have a good
moral character, people know that your behavior is reliable, your heart is in the
right place, and your word is good as gold.
3. Build a solid reputation. People with character command a rock-solid

reputation. This helps them attract exciting opportunities “like a magnet”.
4. Reduce anxiety. People with character carry less baggage. They‟re

comfortable within their own skin, and they accept responsibility for their
actions. They never have to play games, waste precious time keeping their
stories straight or invent excuses to cover their behind.
5. Increase leadership effectiveness. Leaders with character are highly

effective. They have no need to pull rank or resort to command and control to
get results. Instead, they‟re effective because they‟re knowledgeable, admired,
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trusted, and respected. This helps them secure buy-in automatically, without
requiring egregious rules or strong oversight designed to force compliance.
6. Build confidence. People with character don‟t worry about

embarrassment if their actions are publicly disclosed. This alleviates the need
for damage control or the fear of potential disgrace as a result of indiscretions.
7. Become a positive role model. People with character set the standard
for excellence. They live their life as an open book, teaching others important
life lessons through their words and their deeds.
8. Live a purpose-driven life. People with character live a life they can be
proud of. They‟re driven to make a difference and to do right by others rather
than trying to impress others with extravagance.
9. Build a strong business. Doing the right thing is a good business.

Everything else being equal, talented people would rather work for – and
customers would rather buy from – companies that do right by their people,
customers, and communities. While unprincipled business tactics may provide
short-term results, it‟s NOT a long-term strategy.
Development of Moral Character
If you believe developing your character is an endeavour you want to pursue, here
are some steps to show you how:
1. Define your core values – Know what is most important to you by

determining your values for your professional and personal life. These are the
principles that are the foundation for your priorities, choices, actions, and
behaviors.
2. Practice the habits – Pick one or two of the traits of good character to
practice for several weeks. Write down the actions you want to take or the
behaviors you define that reflect this trait, and implement them in your daily life
and interactions.
3. Find people with character – Surround yourself with people who reflect
the character traits you want to embrace. They will inspire and motivate you to
build these traits in yourself. Try to avoid people who have a weak character
and make bad decisions.
4. Take some risks – Start taking small actions toward a goal or value that
involve some level of risk. When you face the possibility of failure and
challenge yourself toward success, you become mentally and emotionally
stronger and more committed to your principles.
5. Stretch yourself – Create high standards and big goals for yourself.
Expect the best of yourself and constantly work toward that, even though you
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will have setbacks and occasional failures. Every stretch builds your confidence
and knowledge that your character is getting stronger.
6. Commit to self-improvement – Realize that building your character is a

life-long endeavor. It is something that is practiced both in the minutiae and the
defining moments of your life. By remaining committed to personal growth and
learning about yourself, your character will naturally improve, even through
failures.
III. STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg‟s stages of moral development, a comprehensive stage theory of

moral development based on Jean Piaget‟s theory of moral judgment for children and
developed by Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg‟s theory focuses on the
thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong.
Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma,
not what one decides or what one actually does.
The framework of Kohlberg‟s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in

successive tiers of complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of
moral development.
Level 1: Pre-conventional Level
At the pre-conventional level, morality us externally controlled. Rules imposed by

authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
This perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or
what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation – behavior is determined by

consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation – Behavior is determined again
by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or
satisfying personal needs.
Level 2: Conventional Level
At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the

individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by
others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation – Behavior is determined by
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social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the
affection and approval of others by being a “a good person”.
Stage 4: Law and order orientation – Social rules and laws determine
behavior. The individual now takes into consideration a larger
perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes
more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual
believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth
preserving.
Level 3: Post-conventional or principled level
At the post-conventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or
her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that
apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of
all individuals.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation – Individual rights determine behavior.

The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving
human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are
exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with individual
rights and the interests of the majority, it does not bring about good
for people and alternatives should be considered.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation – According to Kohlberg,
this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the
appropriate action is determined by one‟s self-chosen ethical
principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and
universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the
perspective of every person or group that could potentially be
affected by the decision.
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Stage 1 Stage 2
Level 1 Obedience and Individual interest:
Pre-conventional punishment: behavior behavior driven by self-
morality driven by avoiding interest and rewards
punishment
Stage 3 Stage 4
Level 2 Interpersonal: behavior Authority: behavior driven
Conventional driven by social approval by obeying authority and
morality conforming to social order
Stage 5 Stage 6
Level 2 Social contract: behavior Universal ethics: behavior
Post-conventional driven by balance of driven by internal moral
morality social order and principles
individual rights
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional,

and postconventional: Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of
moral development.
Learning Activities
Activity 1: Identify five (5) universal human values according to the concept of
Schwartz and explain each.
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5.___________________________________________________________________
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Activity 2: Identify five (5) basic universal human values and explain each.
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5.___________________________________________________________________
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Assessment
Essay: What is human dignity? Discuss why human dignity is important.
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APPLICATION
 Conduct a research on the level of moral development of a group of millennials of your
choice. Base your tool on Kohlbergs stages of moral development. Share/Present your
findings in class through Powerpoint presentation/slides. This could be your Course
Final Requirement of this subject.
GE-E: ETHICS
RUBRIC:
https://www.google.com/search?q=research+powerpoint+presentation+rubrics&client=ms-
COURSE POST-ASSESSMENT
Direction: Multiple Choice Test. Select the letter of the correct answer.
1. A written statement of policies and principles that guides the behaviour of all
employees is called
a. code of ethics
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b. word of ethics
c. ethical dilemma
d. work standards
2. An empirical inquiry into the actual rules or standards of a particular group is

a. normative justice
b. descriptive justice
c. interpersonal justice
d. Metaethics
3. The HR policy which is based on the philosophy of the utmost good for the greatest
number of people is covered under the
a. utilitarian approach
b. approach based on rights
c. approach based on justice
d. None of the above
4. Which of the following is not usually the objective of a code of ethics?

a. to create an ethical workplace
b. to evaluate the ethical components of the proposed actions of the employees
c. to improve the public image of the company
d. to enhance the profits of the business continuously
5. Which of the following is not a core principle of the Society for Human Resource
Management’s Code of Ethics?
a. professional responsibility
b. fairness and justice
c. professional development
d. None of the above
6. Which of the following factors shapes the ethical behaviour of the members of an
organization?
a. The supervisor’s behaviour
b. organizational culture
c. code of ethics
d. All of the above
7. According to Kant, what is the main problem with the golden rule?
a. It makes morality depend on a person's desires
b. It makes morality depend solely on the consequences of one's actions.
c. It fails to give us any guidance whatsoever.
d. It allows lying, which is never permissible.
8. What does Kant mean by a maxim?

a. A bit of folksy wisdom.
b. An objective moral law.
c. A misleading moral command.
d. A principle of action that one gives to oneself.
9. What is the fundamental principle of morality, according to Kant?
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a. Never lie.
b. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
c. Act only on maxims that are universalizable.
d. Always maximize happiness.
10. Which of the following best characterizes Kant's moral theory?

a. It is a version of utilitarianism.
b. It is a version of consequentialism, but it is not utilitarian.
c. It is neutral on the issue of whether consequentialism is true.
d. It is inconsistent with consequentialism
11. What did Kant believe is the relationship between rationality and morality?
a. Morality and rationality are fundamentally opposed.
b. Rationality requires us to be moral.
c. Morality and rationality are completely independent.
d. Rationality might sometimes require immorality but not often.
12. What is a categorical imperative, according to Kant?

a. A command of reason that depends on our desires.
b. A command of reason that does not depend on our desires.
c. A principle of action that one gives to oneself.
d. A principle of action that one gives to others.
13. What is a hypothetical imperative, according to Kant?

a. A command of reason that depends on our desires.
b. A command of reason that does not depend on our desires.
c. A principle of action that one gives to oneself.
d. A principle of action that one gives to others.
14. Which of the following did Kant believe to be the central moral virtue?
a. Integrity.
b. Benevolence.
c. Compassion.
d. None of the above.
15. When did Kant believe that it is permissible to lie?
a. Whenever doing so brings about more good than harm.
b. Whenever doing so is necessary to avoid a catastrophe.
c. Whenever the subject matter is insignificant.
d. Never.
16. According to the text, what is wrong with the principle of universalizability?
a. It fails to explain what's wrong with lying.
b. It permits the actions of principled fanatics.
c. It falsely claims that the central moral virtue is benevolence.
d. It makes the morality of actions solely a matter of their consequences.
17. A(n) ______ is a set of principles that people hold themselves to or that are held
by organizations or groups.
a. code of ethics
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b. code of honor
c. ethical perspective
d. persuasive tactic
18. ________ are beliefs and attitudes we have that can actually conflict with our
ethical decisions.
a. Morals
b. Principles
c. Virtues
d. Values
19. ________ is the degree to which others can depend on us. Like reputation, it can
take a lifetime to build and only seconds to destroy.
a. Likability
b. Persuasiveness
c. Reliability
d. Eloquence
20. ________ are the true reasons for our actions when we have something to lose or
gain as a result.
a. Motives
b. Schemes
c. Plans
d. Ruses
e.
21. A very brief way to sum up Rawls' approach to justice is the phrase:
a. Justice as fairness
b. Fairness as reward
c. Justice as freedom
d. Justice as virtue
22. To what domain did Rawls direct his views of justice?
a. The political domain

b. The medical domain
c. The financial domain
d. The private domain
23. Which of the following is the best way to sum up the focus of Rawls' principles of
justice?
a. Equal basic rights and fair opportunities
b. Punishment for the rich and reward for the poor
c. Greater access to resources for those who have proven their worthiness to
make the most of them
d. Equal distribution of property
e.
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24. Conformity to social rules remains important to the individual.
a. Pre-conventional
b. Post-conventional
c. Conventional
25. This is the stage where individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.
a. Instrumental purpose orientation
b. Social contract orientation
c. Law and order orientation
REFERENCES:
Web Pages:
Association for Practical and Professional Ethics: http://php.indiana.edu/~appe
Australian Institute for Computer Ethics:
http://www.businessit.bf.rmit.edu.au/aice/index.html
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Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility:
http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/index.html
Donald Gotterbarn’s “Ethics Articles” Page:
http://www-cs.etsu.edu/gotterbarn/articles.htm
Electronic Privacy Information Centre: http://www.epic.org
ISWORLD Pages on Computer Ethics: http://cyberethics.cbi.msstate.edu
ISWORLD Pages on Professional Ethics:
http://www.is.cityu.edu.hk/Research/Resources/isworld/ethics/index.htm
Security, Viruses and Hoaxes:
http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk/resources/privacy/virus.html
Book(s):
Agapay, Ramon B., Ethics and the Filipino, Mandaluyong, National Bookstore, 2008
Bookstore.
Reyes, R. (2000 Ground and norm of morality: ethics for college students. Quezon
City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
-----END OF THE MODULE -----
GE-E: ETHICS

Ethics Module (Lesson 1 To 6)

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Ethics Module (Lesson 1 To 6)

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Biliran Province State University

General Education Objectives

Lesson 1: Preliminary Notions

3-5 Lesson 2: Virtue Ethics

c. The Essence and Varieties of Law

9-11 Lesson 4: Deontology

16-17 Lesson 6: Universal Values

Suggested Readings and References:

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain what ethics is;

Besides aesthetics, there is another way we can value judgment on the

Activity 1: Recognizing Ethical Problems

Can a law be a source of authority in ethics? On the surface, we can easily

Now, can religion be a source of authority in ethics? In religion, it talks about

Quiz 1: Keywords to remember and contrast.

2. What is the difference between ethics and morals?

3. Differentiate ethics from aesthetics, etiquette, and technique.

Do you remember the last part of Lesson 1? It discussed the source

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

2. differentiate virtuous acts from non-virtuous acts;

3. use the principles of virtue ethics in real-life situations.

Activity 1: Recalling Terms

Activity 2: Filipino Virtues

Pagmamalabis Birtud Pagkukulang

Lesson 3: NATURAL LAW THEORY

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. define what is a law and its kinds;

1. What is the law?

2. What is Eternal law?

3. What is Divine law?

4. What is Human law?

picking one’s nose (pangungulangot)

mixed martial arts (combat sports)

eating raw beef

IUD (intra-uterine device)

male on male sex

male infidelity (pambababae)

According to Thomas Aquinas:

The Natural Law

ORDER OF THE PRECEPTS OF NATURAL LAW

According to Thomas Aquinas, God created the world according to natural

The second basic good is reproduction. It is a desire to do sexual intercourse.

This Lesson tackles deontology of Immanuel Kant. It shows how Kant

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, you should:

1. discuss Kant's ethical system based on pure reason,

According to Immanuel Kant to determine what is good we need to use reason. He

FORMULATIONS OF CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Categorical imperative is best understood through various formulations. We will

The formulation of universalizability principle focuses on two important terms, maxim

Another man finds himself urged by need to borrow money. He well

How would it be if my maxim became a universal law? I then see at

[...] For, the universality of a law that everyone, when he

1. borrow money without intending to pay [false promises]

2. “When I need money, I shall borrow it from someone without intending to

3. Suppose everyone were obligated to follow this maxim, as if it were a

What then is the resulting duty?

4. Therefore, do not borrow money without intending to pay.

1. Consistency from step 0 to 3.

You are going to perform universalizability test of the following:

1. stealing someone’s valuables

2. lying about credentials on curriculum vitae (CV)

3. refusing to give a bribe, taking a ticket