1.

meaning and scope of operational research with limitations

2.Revelance of or techniques of solving business problems
3.what is operation product management
4.types of productin system and layout
5. short note on jst in tym process
nomanshamsi2003@gmail.com

(Q.2)
1. Introduction
In modern business, planning becomes an ordinary thing for every company. Managers, all
over the world, are trying to predict what will happen tomorrow or to solve different kinds of
problems which they are facing every day. If they want to be successful in their job they must
continuously work on finding new ways for dealing with problems. We can easily find
various methodologies and techniques for different kinds of decision making processes which
are solving or analyzing only a part of the problem, but it is very hard to find a structured
methodology which will explain the whole process of business problem solving. This paper
will try to make an overview on this interesting topic and offer some useful methodology for
future managers.
2. Business problem solving methodology
At the beginning of this paper I will try to answer one very important question – “Why is it
important to have a structure for problem solving?” The problem-solving process should
begin not just with facts that we get every day in our database but with flexible structure
which we can use for different cases and different situations. Structure allows managers or
consultants to pass the way from new ideas over the initial hypotheses to possible solutions. If
we try to solve a problem without any structure we can find that ideas can be lost very easily
because we didn’t analyze the problem for all angles. So, the general conclusion is that we
use structure to strengthen our thinking and get some clear and logical view on the problem.
This fact-based problem solving model consists of 8 phases:
Phase 1 - Preparation phase
Phase 2 - Ideas generating phase
Phase 3 - Forming a hypothesis
Phase 4 - Designing the analysis
Phase 5 - Finding alternative solutions
Phase 6 – Choosing the best solution
Phase 7 - Implementation of the solution
Phase 8 - Evaluation of results
2.1 Phase 1 - Preparation phase
This is the starting phase of our model. We already have the problem we will be dealing with
so our task is to collect basic information about the problem and to break the problem into its
component elements so that we can solve it faster and more accurately. This process is also
important because this way, we are collecting some basic information for the ideas generating
process. There are two useful techinques we can use in order to make this process more
efficient: Proper prior preparation (3P) and Logic tree.
Proper prior preparation (3P)
Before you start with the problem solving process, you have to know something about the
problem you’ll be working on. Proper prior preparation (3P) is a method for preparing
yourself or a group for the ideas generating phase. If you are working in a team first make
sure that everyone on the team has the same information. The best way for doing that is to
make a “fact pack”. A “fact pack” is a summary of the key points and data that you’ve
discovered in the process of research, and shared it to your team. It is important that all team
members make their “fact packs”. Once everyone on the team has read all the “fact packs”,
you’ll all have the same knowledge base when the time to generate ideas comes.
Logic tree
After we have acquired some basic knowledge about the problem we can now turn to defining
and simplifying the problem. The first step is to break the problem into its component
elements. In most cases, a complex problem can be reduced to a group of smaller, simpler
problems that can be solved individually. Separating the individual pieces of the problem will
make it easier to identify the key drivers of the problem when we come to the analysis part. A
very useful tool for breaking problems apart is the logic tree, a hierarchical listing of all the
components of a problem, starting at the “20,000-feet view” and moving progressively
downward.
Figure 1 – Information gathering logic tree
In the first figure we can see the logic tree which we used in our problem solving activity on
SAC 2006. We made a logic tree which shows how we can gather information for writing our
essays.
After we gathered some information about the problem and broke the problem apart we are
now ready for the second phase –the ideas generating phase.
2.2 Phase 2 - Ideas generating phase
This phase is the connection between preparation phase, where we acquired the needed
information and broke apart the problem we started with, and the forming of hypothesis
phase, where we should define an initial hypothesis which will guide us through research and
analysis. We suggest two techniques which could be used in this phase: Brainstorming and
Six Thinking Hats.
Brainstorming
The brainstorming method is a creative group activity. We can use it frequently in different
activities to come up with new ideas for innovation or improvement in different fields. The
leader of the group is encouraging members to put forward ideas about a problem and how it
may be solved, in order to generate as many ideas as possible, even if they are not always
usable alternatives.
These are some main points of brainstorming:
1. Put in as much ideas as you can
2. There are no bad ideas
3. There are no stupid questions
4. Know what to say and when
5. Put it down on paper
6. Summarize them at the end
Six Thinking Hats
The Six Thinking Hats technique is a model that can be used for exploring different
perspectives towards a complex situation or challenge. Observing things from different
perspectives is often a good approach if we are dealing with complex problems.
Each of the Hats is named after a color that is mnemonically descriptive of the perspective
one adopts when wearing the particular hat.
Those are typical steps in using six hats method:
step 1: present the facts of the case (white hat)
step 2: generate ideas on how the case could be handled (green hat)
step 3: evaluate the merits of the ideas - list the benefits (yellow hat), list the drawbacks
(black hat)
step 4: think about possible alternatives (red hat)
step 5: summarize the idea generating process (blue hat)
Hats Team ideas
White hat
(objective facts)
4 access internet, 7 laptops, 4 professors books, 5 additional books, a lot
of e-books
Green Hat
(possibilities
and hypotheses
how to solve)
Look for specific topic after agenda
Precious search
Abstract
Search engine in acrobat reader
Yellow Hat
(benefits)
Speed, classify, keep overview, keep energy
Black Hat
(drawbacks)
Potential loss of important information, possible mistake, burn out too fast
Red Hat
(possible
alternatives)
Broad research
Precise
Search phases
Blue Hat
(summarizing)
Classify, keep energy, search phases
On the Table 1 you can see the Six thinking hats ideas generating activity in which we tried to
solve problem of handling too much information (focusing).
This phase is also very important because sometimes in the process of generating ideas we
can find out that actually the problem which we started with is not the main problem and that
we made a wrong judgement at the beginning. In that case we should redefine the problem
and continue with our problem solving process.
2.3 Phase 3 - Forming a hypothesis
After breaking the problem apart to its essential components and finishing with the process of
ideas generating, we got some insight on the topic and we are now ready to pass on to the next
step in the business decision making process - forming a hypothesis.
Initial hypothesis
The best way for beginning the forming a hypothesis phase is to make an initial hypothesis at
the start. These are two good arguments why you should rely on an initial hypothesis from the
beginning: An initial hypothesis will save you time and an initial hypothesis will make your
decision making more effective. Forming an initial hypothesis will allow you to work through
your problem more quickly. It saves you time because it allows you to start drawing
conclusions based on limited information which, at the beginning of the problem-solving
process, is usually the only thing you have.
Table 1 – Six thinking hats – Solving problem “How
to organize information overflow”
Quick and Dirty Test (QDT)
After you have formed a hypothesis you should test it to see if it works or not. Good tool for
testing your hypothesis is Quick and Dirty Test. QDT is one very simple question which you
can ask yourself or a group about your hypothesis: what assumptions are you making that
need to be true in order for your hypothesis to be true? You should try to find as many of
these assumptions as you can. If any of these assumptions is false, then the hypothesis is false.
In that case you must try to make another hypothesis which will answers positively on all
questions. If now you have found an initial hypothesis that passed the QDT you can go on to
the next step in this phase.
Issue tree
Your next step will be to test your hypothesis more thoroughly and, if necessary, redefine it.
To accomplish these goals, we should make again a kind of a logic tree - issue tree. An issue
tree is the evolved cousin of the logic tree. Where a logic tree is simply a hierarchical
grouping of elements, an issue tree is a series of questions or issues that must be addressed to
prove or disprove a hypothesis. The Issue tree allows us to determine what questions to ask in
order to form your hypothesis, and serves as a road map for your analysis in the next phase. It
also allows us to eliminate dead ends in our analysis, since the answer to any issue
immediately eliminates all the branches falsified by that answer.
If you use the steps we offered so far to create an initial hypothesis, you will be able to select
the analyses and areas of research that will allow you to reach overall conclusion in the
shortest possible time. Our next step will be to plan an analysis to prove or disprove your
hypothesis.
2.4 Phase 4 - Designing the analysis
In this phase we should lay out the analytical tasks that we must perform to prove our initial
hypothesis which we made in the previous phase. Also, we will show how to interpret the
results of those analyses in ways that will allow us to get the best ideas from them, for making
some alternative solutions. In this phase we identify six steps we can use for analyzing
different fields of potential problems in business:
1. Identify the key drivers
2. Scan your external environment
3. Scan your company
4. Scan the process
5. Scan the company's portfolio
6. Scan the products
It is important to say that the first step (Identify the key drivers) is the most important one
because when we identify the key drivers we also decide which analysis we will do to the end.
So you won’t need to use all of the techniques and methods for solving problems, just that one
which you will need to prove your hypothesis with and maybe get some new ideas for the
solution.
1. Identify the key drivers
In business your time and resources are limited, and you don’t have the luxury to examine
every single factor in detail. So you must figure out which factors affect the problem the most,
and then focus on them. Drill down to the core of the problem instead of picking apart each
and every piece. To identify key drivers correctly you can use Performance analysis
technique.
Performance analysis is a process of gathering formal and informal data to help us define and
achieve our goals. Performance analysis can give us several perspectives on a problem or
opportunity, determines any and all drivers toward, or barriers to successful performance.
Identify the key drivers step is very important because in this step we choose which analysis
we will be using in the continuance of our problem solving process and that it is why it is very
important for us to focus on this step.
After we have identified our key drivers we can start with the analysis. We offer vast range of
techniques and methods that we can use in analyzing our hypothesis.
We would like to underline once again that we don’t suggest you to use all of them (because
you might not have time for it), but only to a make wise choice which methods and techniques
you will use in the problem solving process to prove your initial hypothesis.
2. Scan your external environment
It is very important for problem solving to have an overall look on the problem of the
company. If we want to understand the problem,a good start is to first understand the external
environment in which our company is doing a business. We could get a better perspective on
this using the following analyses: PEST analysis, Porter Five Forces, Market Segmentation
and Stakeholders analysis.
PEST analysis
The PEST Analysis is a framework that we can use to scan the external macro-environment in
which a firm
operates. PEST is an acronym for the following factors:
Political factors
Economic factors
Social factors, and
Technological factors.
PEST factors play an important role in work of a firm. It is important to say that macro-
economical factors can
differ per continent, country or even region, so we should do a PEST analysis for the country in
which our firm
operates.
Porter Five Forces
Michael Porter provided a framework that models an industry as being influenced by five
forces. We can use this model to better understand the industry context in which the firm
operates.
SUPPLIER POWER
Supplier concentration
Importance of volume to supplier
Differentiation of inputs
Impact of inputs on cost or differentiation
Switching costs of firms in the industry
Presence of substitute inputs
Threat of forward integration
Cost relative to total purchases in industry
BARRIERS
TO ENTRY
Absolute cost advantages
Proprietary learning curve
Access to inputs
Government policy
Economies of scale
Capital requirements
Brand identity
Switching costs
Access to distribution
Expected retaliation
Proprietary products
THREAT OF
SUBSTITUTES
-Switching costs
-Buyer inclination to
substitute
-Price-performance
trade-off of substitutes
BUYER POWER
Bargaining leverage
Buyer volume
Buyer information
Brand identity
Price sensitivity
Threat of backward integration
Product differentiation
Buyer concentration vs. industry
Substitutes available
Buyers' incentives
DEGREE OF RIVALRY
-Exit barriers
-Industry concentration
-Fixed costs/Value added
-Industry growth
-Intermittent overcapacity
-Product differences
-Switching costs
-Brand identity
-Diversity of rivals
-Corporate stakes
Market Segmentation
Market segmentation is the segmentation of markets into homogenous groups of customers,
each of them reacting differently to promotion, communication, pricing and other variables of
the marketing mix. Market segments should be formed in a way that those differences
between buyers within each segment are as small as possible. Thus, every segment can be
addressed with an individually targeted marketing mix.
Figure 2 - Diagram of Porter's 5 Forces
http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/porter.shtml
Stakeholders analysis
The stakeholder analysis is a summary of the people who influence the management of the
protected area, and whose life and work is influenced by the management of the protected
area. In this analysis it is important to identify stakeholders and to define their interests and
priorities.
3. Scan your company
After we did some analysis of external environment we can do some analysis of our firm and
make cooperation with our competitors. We can see where are we now and where we want to
be in the future. In this stage we can use four methods: The Strategy Canvas (Competitive
Position), SWOT analysis, Value added analysis and PRIME model combined with gap
analysis.
The Strategy Canvas (Competitive Position)
The strategy canvas is both a diagnostic and
an action framework. It serves two purposes.
First, it show us the current state of play in the
known market space. This allows you to
understand where the competition is currently
to be found. It includes investigating the
factors in industry we are currently competing
with, in products, service, and delivery. We
can see which is our position on the market.
SWOT analysis
SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and its environment. It is the first stage
of planning and helps marketers to focus on key issues. SWOT stands for strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors.
Opportunities and threats are external factors.
Value added analysis
Economic Value-Added Analysis measures the amount of value a company has created for its
shareholders. It determines how much profit a company has produced after it has covered the
cost of its capital. Whereas conventional accounting methods edict interest payments on debt,
Economic Value Added Analysis also deducts the cost of equity—what shareholders would
Figure 3 - Strategy canvas example
have earned in price appreciation and dividends by investing in a portfolio of companies with
similar risk profiles. Economic Value-Added Analysis thus offers a truer picture of the return
a company delivers to its shareholders and provides a framework to assess options for
increasing it. By making the cost of capital visible, Economic Value-Added Analysis helps
companies identify whether they need to operate more efficiently, to focus investment on
projects that are in the best interests of shareholders and to work to dispose of or reduce
investment in activities that generate low returns.
PRIAM model combined with gap analysis
There is one interesting approach which is dealing with which problems to attack and how to
analyze the impact they are having on firm. The approach used is a six-step process called
PRIAM, for PRoblem Identification and Analysis Model. While the model can be used by
individuals, it is also very effective with working groups.
In this model in the first phase we are identifying three main points:
Impact on the business in terms of business metrics
Impact on business processes
Impact on worker performance.
In the second phase we are thinking about the situation how it should be, and in the last phase
we are trying to identify obstacles to top performance we defined in the phase before.
Figure 4- PRIAM model combined with
gap analysis example
4. Scan your process
After scanning the company we should go deeper in analysis. Next stage is scanning of the
process in our company. Two good techniques for this part of analysis are: Business Process
Reengineering and EFQM.
Business Process Reengineering
The Business Process Reengineering method (BPR) is 'the fundamental reconsideration and
the radical redesign of organizational processes, in order to achieve drastic improvement of
current performance in cost, services and speed'. These are the questions we can ask if we use
this mode:
Did we develop appropriate business vision and process objectives?
Can we identify the business processes that need to be redesigned?
Do we understand and measure the properly existing processes?
Did we identify the IT lever?
EFQM
The EFQM Model is a non-prescriptive TQM framework based on nine criteria. Five
of these are 'Enablers' and four are 'Results'. The 'Enabler' criteria are covering what an
organization does. The 'Results' criteria are covering what an organization achieves. 'Results'
are caused by 'Enablers' and feedback from 'Results' help to improve 'Enablers'.
The EFQM Model recognizes that there are many approaches to achieving sustainable
excellence in all aspects of performance. It is based on the assumption that excellent results
with respect to Performance, Customers, People and Society are achieved through Leadership
driving Policy and Strategy, that is delivered through People Partnerships and Resources, and
Processes.
EFQM is a non-prescriptive framework that recognizes that there are many approaches
to achieving sustainable excellence. Within this non-prescriptive approach there are some
fundamental concepts which underpin the EFQM Model.
5. Scan company’s portfolio
In this phase we should analyze the portfolio of our company. There are two very often used
methods for this job: BCG Matrix and McKinsey Matrix.
BCG Matrix
The BCG (Boston Consulting Group) Matrix method is the most well-known portfolio
management tool. It is based on product life cycle theory. The BCG Matrix can be used to
determine what priorities should be given in the product portfolio of a business unit. To
ensure long-term value creation, a company should have a portfolio of products that contains
both high-growth products in need of cash inputs and low-growth products that generate a lot
of cash. The Boston Consulting Group Matrix has 2 dimensions: market share and market
growth. The basic idea behind it is: if a product has a bigger market share, or if the product's
market grows faster, it is better for the company.
The McKinsey Matrix
The McKinsey Matrix is a model to perform a business portfolio analysis on the Strategic
Business Units of a corporation. A business portfolio is the collection of Strategic Business
Units that together form a corporation. The optimal business portfolio is one that fits perfectly
to the company's strengths and helps to exploit the most attractive industries or markets. A
Strategic Business Unit (SBU) can either be an entire medium size company or a division of a
large corporation as long as it formulates its own business level strategy and has separate
objectives from the parent company.
THE AIM OF PORTFOLIO ANALYSIS
1. Analyze its current business portfolio and decide which SBU's should receive more or
less investment
2. Develop growth strategies for adding new products and businesses to the portfolio
3. Decide which businesses or products should no longer be retained.
6. Scan product
The last part in the analysis phase is where we should analyze single products. The best
method for this is Product Life Cycle analysis.
Product Life Cycle
The Product Life Cycle model can help to analyze maturity stages of products and industries.
Every company is constantly seeking ways to grow future cash flows by maximizing revenue
from the sale of products and services.
We use this analysis to identify where our product is at this moment and which actions we
should do in the future.
2.5 Phase 5 – Finding alternative solutions
After we analyzed important points of our problem, and found out what is wrong – now we
should find the solution for our problem (problems). In order to solve our problem/s we
should think from different perspectives and make different approaches to finding solution. If
we want to follow this idea we should make two or three alternative solutions for our
problems and then decide which solution is the best one. Again, we can use some methods
which can help us to find good solutions for our problems. These methods are: Confrontation
matrix and Eliminate, Reduce, Rise, Create Matrix.
Confrontation matrix
Confrontation matrix or expended SWOT analysis is helpful to see what we can use from
SWOT analysis. We can intersect strengths with opportunities and see how we can use our
strengths to expand the field of opportunities or, for example, to see how we can perform
good trades with our strengths. This matrix is good for getting an idea about new strategies
from information we already have.
Eliminate, Reduce, Rise, Create (ERRC) Matrix
In this matrix we think about four main parts of every strategy – about what we can Eliminate,
Reduce, Rise, Create in that particular problem. This matrix is much better for generating new
ideas than the Confrontation matrix and we can use it for thinking out-of-box solutions.
2.6 Phase 6 – Choosing the best solution
In this part we should make some kind of an evaluation system which will help us to make the
best choice from alternatives we have gained. We can part this process in several steps so we
can understand it more easily:
Good starting point (maybe the easiest) can be just to find advantages and
disadvantages of every solution.
Next step is to try to identify who is the main obstacle in these solutions or maybe
better say, who can make it harder to achieve the goal. For this step we can use the
Force field analysis.
In the next step we should choose the criteria for making the decision making system.
After defining these criteria we should measure them and give them some weights of
importance. Next step is to compare all alternatives with this decision making system.
After this we should choose the best solution from measuring weights of criteria for
every solution and find the best one.
The last step is to think about the evaluation system which will monitor our solution.
2.7 Phase 7 – Implementation of the solution
In this phase we should think about three main things:
We must make an implementation plan
We must assign responsibilities to our team members
We must allocate our resources.
We must be very careful because managers very often make mistakes in this part. They make
some great solutions but then don’t implement them properly. In order to start this process,
some plan is very important. If you don’t have a plan it is better not to start with it at all. A
plan is like a map which will show us the way while we will go ahead. After that we must
assign responsibilities to our team members so that everybody has enough work – not too
much, not too little. If you give somebody too much work they won’t do it properly because
they won’t have enough time. Also, if you give them too little, they won’t be happy because
you underestimate their capacities. So you also must be careful about this. The last thing is
resource allocation. We must be very economic with recourses because they are not eternal.
We must use them wisely.
2.8 Phase 8 – Evaluation of results
After some period of time we must evaluate results we got with this solution. We will check
our results and evaluate them with the evaluation system we made before. After all of these
processes we will know wether our solution was good, proper or bad. If we find it good
enough we can continue to use it with small improvements, but if we find it inappropriate we
must try again to find a new one which will be suitable for our company. This is a circle
which never ends…
3. Conclusion
In this paper I tried to make an optimal model for solving problems. It was hard to collect all
these methods, to understand how they work and why managers in the modern world use it.
But in the end, my conclusion is that the model is not enough for finding good solutions. It is
very important to know and have a structure and to know how you should think, but after all,
the most important thing here is to have good people. If you have creative experienced and
well motivated people this problem solving process can help everybody to rise their abilities
and to make problem-solving activity more powerful and to get better solutions in the end.
But if the people are not like this no one model will help… So, the main conclusion is that
this model is just a tool for problem solving and the most important driving force are the
people who will use it…

1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Evolution of Production and
Operations Management
1.3 Concept of Production
1.4 Production System
1.5 Production Management
1.6 Operating System

INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION
AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT

1
1.7 Operations Management
1.8 Managing Global Operations
1.9 Scope of Production and Operations
Management
• Exercises
• Skill Development
• Caselet
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Production/operations management is the process, which combines and transforms various
resources used in the production/operations subsystem of the organization into value added
product/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization. Therefore, it is
that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation of a range of inputs into
the required (products/services) having the requisite quality level.
The set of interrelated management activities, which are involved in manufacturing certain
products, is called as production management. If the same concept is extended to services
management, then the corresponding set of management activities is called as operations
management.
1.2 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
For over two centuries operations and production management has been recognised as an
important factor in a country’s economic growth.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
The traditional view of manufacturing management began in eighteenth century when Adam
Smith recognised the economic benefits of specialisation of labour. He recommended breaking
of jobs down into subtasks and recognises workers to specialised tasks in which they would
become highly skilled and efficient. In the early twentieth century, F.W. Taylor implemented
Smith’s theories and developed scientific management. From then till 1930, many techniques
were developed prevailing the traditional view. Brief information about the contributions to
manufacturing management is shown in the Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1 Historical summary of operations management
Date Contribution Contributor
1776 Specialization of labour in manufacturing Adam Smith
1799 Interchangeable parts, cost accounting Eli Whitney and others
1832 Division of labour by skill; assignment of jobs by skill;
basics of time study Charles Babbage
1900 Scientific management time study and work study
developed; dividing planning and doing of work Frederick W. Taylor
1900 Motion of study of jobs Frank B. Gilbreth
1901 Scheduling techniques for employees, machines jobs in
manufacturing Henry L. Gantt
1915 Economic lot sizes for inventory control F.W. Harris
1927 Human relations; the Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo
1931 Statistical inference applied to product quality: quality
control charts W.A. Shewart
1935 Statistical sampling applied to quality control: inspection
sampling plans H.F. Dodge & H.G. Roming
1940 Operations research applications in World War II P.M. Blacker and others.
1946 Digital computer John Mauchlly and
J.P. Eckert
1947 Linear programming G.B. Dantzig, Williams &
others
1950 Mathematical programming, on-linear and stochastic A. Charnes, W.W. Cooper
processes & others
1951 Commercial digital computer: large-scale computations
available. Sperry Univac
1960 Organizational behaviour: continued study of people
at work L. Cummings, L. Porter
1970 Integrating operations into overall strategy and policy, W. Skinner J. Orlicky and
Computer applications to manufacturing, Scheduling G. Wright
and control, Material requirement planning (MRP)
1980 Quality and productivity applications from Japan: W.E. Deming and
robotics, CAD-CAM J. Juran.
Production management becomes the acceptable term from 1930s to 1950s. As
F.W. Taylor’s works become more widely known, managers developed techniques that focussed
on economic efficiency in manufacturing. Workers were studied in great detail to eliminate
wasteful efforts and achieve greater efficiency. At the same time, psychologists, socialists and
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ __
other social scientists began to study people and human behaviour in the working environment.
In addition, economists, mathematicians, and computer socialists contributed newer, more
sophisticated analytical approaches.
With the 1970s emerges two distinct changes in our views. The most obvious of these,
reflected in the new name operations management was a shift in the service and manufacturing
sectors of the economy. As service sector became more prominent, the change from ‘production’
to ‘operations’ emphasized the broadening of our field to service organizations. The second, more
suitable change was the beginning of an emphasis on synthesis, rather than just analysis, in
management practices.
1.3 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION
Production function is that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation
of a range of inputs into the required outputs (products) having the requisite quality level.
Production is defined as “the step-by-step conversion of one form of material into
another form through chemical or mechanical process to create or enhance the utility of
the product to the user.” Thus production is a value addition process. At each stage of
processing, there will be value addition.
Edwood Buffa defines production as ‘a process by which goods and services are created’.
Some examples of production are: manufacturing custom-made products like, boilers with a
specific capacity, constructing flats, some structural fabrication works for selected customers,
etc., and manufacturing standardized products like, car, bus, motor cycle, radio, television, etc.
Fig. 1.1 Schematic production system
1.4 PRODUCTION SYSTEM
The production system of an organization is that part, which produces products of an organization.
It is that activity whereby resources, flowing within a defined system, are combined and transformed
in a controlled manner to add value in accordance with the policies communicated by management.
A simplified production system is shown above.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
The production system has the following characteristics:
1. Production is an organized activity, so every production system has an objective.
2. The system transforms the various inputs to useful outputs.
3. It does not operate in isolation from the other organization system.
4. There exists a feedback about the activities, which is essential to control and improve
system performance.
1.4.1 Classification of Production System
Production systems can be classified as Job Shop, Batch, Mass and Continuous Production
systems.
Fig. 1.2 Classification of production systems
JOB SHOP PRODUCTION
Job shop production are characterised by manufacturing of one or few quantity of products
designed and produced as per the specification of customers within prefixed time and cost. The
distinguishing feature of this is low volume and high variety of products.
A job shop comprises of general purpose machines arranged into different departments.
Each job demands unique technological requirements, demands processing on machines in a
certain sequence.
Characteristics
The Job-shop production system is followed when there is:
1. High variety of products and low volume.
2. Use of general purpose machines and facilities.
3. Highly skilled operators who can take up each job as a challenge because of uniqueness.
4. Large inventory of materials, tools, parts.
5. Detailed planning is essential for sequencing the requirements of each product, capacities
for each work centre and order priorities.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ __
Advantages
Following are the advantages of job shop production:
1. Because of general purpose machines and facilities variety of products can be produced.
2. Operators will become more skilled and competent, as each job gives them learning
opportunities.
3. Full potential of operators can be utilised.
4. Opportunity exists for creative methods and innovative ideas.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of job shop production:
1. Higher cost due to frequent set up changes.
2. Higher level of inventory at all levels and hence higher inventory cost.
3. Production planning is complicated.
4. Larger space requirements.
BATCH PRODUCTION
Batch production is defined by American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) “as
a form of manufacturing in which the job passes through the functional departments in lots
or batches and each lot may have a different routing.” It is characterised by the manufacture
of limited number of products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales.
Characteristics
Batch production system is used under the following circumstances:
1. When there is shorter production runs.
2. When plant and machinery are flexible.
3. When plant and machinery set up is used for the production of item in a batch and
change of set up is required for processing the next batch.
4. When manufacturing lead time and cost are lower as compared to job order production.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of batch production:
1. Better utilisation of plant and machinery.
2. Promotes functional specialisation.
3. Cost per unit is lower as compared to job order production.
4. Lower investment in plant and machinery.
5. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products.
6. Job satisfaction exists for operators.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of batch production:
1. Material handling is complex because of irregular and longer flows.
2. Production planning and control is complex.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
3. Work in process inventory is higher compared to continuous production.
4. Higher set up costs due to frequent changes in set up.
MASS PRODUCTION
Manufacture of discrete parts or assemblies using a continuous process are called mass production.
This production system is justified by very large volume of production. The machines are arranged
in a line or product layout. Product and process standardisation exists and all outputs follow the
same path.
Characteristics
Mass production is used under the following circumstances:
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Dedicated special purpose machines having higher production capacities and output rates.
3. Large volume of products.
4. Shorter cycle time of production.
5. Lower in process inventory.
6. Perfectly balanced production lines.
7. Flow of materials, components and parts is continuous and without any back tracking.
8. Production planning and control is easy.
9. Material handling can be completely automatic.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of mass production:
1. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.
2. Higher capacity utilisation due to line balancing.
3. Less skilled operators are required.
4. Low process inventory.
5. Manufacturing cost per unit is low.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of mass production:
1. Breakdown of one machine will stop an entire production line.
2. Line layout needs major change with the changes in the product design.
3. High investment in production facilities.
4. The cycle time is determined by the slowest operation.
CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION
Production facilities are arranged as per the sequence of production operations from the first
operations to the finished product. The items are made to flow through the sequence of operations
through material handling devices such as conveyors, transfer devices, etc.
Characteristics
Continuous production is used under the following circumstances:
1. Dedicated plant and equipment with zero flexibility.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ __
2. Material handling is fully automated.
3. Process follows a predetermined sequence of operations.
4. Component materials cannot be readily identified with final product.
5. Planning and scheduling is a routine action.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of continuous production:
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.
3. Higher capacity utilisation due to line balancing.
4. Manpower is not required for material handling as it is completely automatic.
5. Person with limited skills can be used on the production line.
6. Unit cost is lower due to high volume of production.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of continuous production:
1. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products does not exist.
2. Very high investment for setting flow lines.
3. Product differentiation is limited.
1.5 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Production management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities
of the production function. It combines and transforms various resources used in the production
subsystem of the organization into value added product in a controlled manner as per the policies
of the organization.
E.S. Buffa defines production management as, “Production management deals with
decision making related to production processes so that the resulting goods or services are
produced according to specifications, in the amount and by the schedule demanded and
out of minimum cost.”
1.5.1Objectives of Production Management
The objective of the production management is ‘to produce goods services of right quality and
quantity at the right time and right manufacturing cost’.
1. RIGHT QUALITY
The quality of product is established based upon the customers needs. The right quality is not
necessarily best quality. It is determined by the cost of the product and the technical characteristics
as suited to the specific requirements.
2. RIGHT QUANTITY
The manufacturing organization should produce the products in right number. If they are produced
in excess of demand the capital will block up in the form of inventory and if the quantity is
produced in short of demand, leads to shortage of products.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
3. RIGHT TIME
Timeliness of delivery is one of the important parameter to judge the effectiveness of production
department. So, the production department has to make the optimal utilization of input resources
to achieve its objective.
4. RIGHT MANUFACTURING COST
Manufacturing costs are established before the product is actually manufactured. Hence, all
attempts should be made to produce the products at pre-established cost, so as to reduce the
variation between actual and the standard (pre-established) cost.
1.6 OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating system converts inputs in order to provide outputs which are required by a customer.
It converts physical resources into outputs, the function of which is to satisfy customer wants i.e.,
to provide some utility for the customer. In some of the organization the product is a physical
good (hotels) while in others it is a service (hospitals). Bus and taxi services, tailors, hospital and
builders are the examples of an operating system.
Everett E. Adam & Ronald J. Ebert define operating system as, “An operating system
( function) of an organization is the part of an organization that produces the organization’s
physical goods and services.”
Ray Wild defines operating system as, “An operating system is a configuration of resources
combined for the provision of goods or services.”
1.6.1 Concept of Operations
An operation is defined in terms of the mission it serves for the organization, technology it employs
and the human and managerial processes it involves. Operations in an organization can be categorised
into manufacturing operations and service operations. Manufacturing operations is a conversion
process that includes manufacturing yields a tangible output: a product, whereas, a conversion process
that includes service yields an intangible output: a deed, a performance, an effort.
1.6.2Distinction between Manufacturing Operations and Service Operations
Following characteristics can be considered for distinguishing manufacturing operations with
service operations:
1. Tangible/Intangible nature of output
2. Consumption of output
3. Nature of work (job)
4. Degree of customer contact
5. Customer participation in conversion
6. Measurement of performance.
Manufacturing is characterised by tangible outputs (products), outputs that customers consume
overtime, jobs that use less labour and more equipment, little customer contact, no customer
participation in the conversion process (in production), and sophisticated methods for measuring
production activities and resource consumption as product are made.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ __
Service is characterised by intangible outputs, outputs that customers consumes immediately,
jobs that use more labour and less equipment, direct consumer contact, frequent customer
participation in the conversion process, and elementary methods for measuring conversion activities
and resource consumption. Some services are equipment based namely rail-road services, telephone
services and some are people based namely tax consultant services, hair styling.
1.7 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
1.7.1 A Framework for Managing Operations
Managing operations can be enclosed in a frame of general management function as shown in
Fig. 1.3. Operation managers are concerned with planning, organizing, and controlling the activities
which affect human behaviour through models.
PLANNING
Activities that establishes a course of action and guide future decision-making is planning.
The operations manager defines the objectives for the operations subsystem of the organization,
and the policies, and procedures for achieving the objectives. This stage includes clarifying the
role and focus of operations in the organization’s overall strategy. It also involves product
planning, facility designing and using the conversion process.
ORGANIZING
Activities that establishes a structure of tasks and authority. Operation managers establish a
structure of roles and the flow of information within the operations subsystem. They determine
the activities required to achieve the goals and assign authority and responsibility for carrying
them out.
CONTROLLING
Activities that assure the actual performance in accordance with planned performance. To
ensure that the plans for the operations subsystems are accomplished, the operations manager
must exercise control by measuring actual outputs and comparing them to planned operations
management. Controlling costs, quality, and schedules are the important functions here.
BEHAVIOUR
Operation managers are concerned with how their efforts to plan, organize, and control affect
human behaviour. They also want to know how the behaviour of subordinates can affect
management’s planning, organizing, and controlling actions. Their interest lies in decision-making
behaviour.
MODELS
As operation managers plan, organise, and control the conversion process, they encounter many
problems and must make many decisions. They can simplify their difficulties using models like
aggregate planning models for examining how best to use existing capacity in short-term,
break even analysis to identify break even volumes, linear programming and computer
simulation for capacity utilisation, decision tree analysis for long-term capacity problem of
facility expansion, simple median model for determining best locations of facilities etc.
_________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
Fig. 1.3 General model for managing operations
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
1.7.2 Objectives of Operations Management
Objectives of operations management can be categorised into customer service and resource
utilisation.
CUSTOMER SERVICE
The first objective of operating systems is the customer serivce to the satisfaction of customer
wants. Therefore, customer service is a key objective of operations management. The operating
system must provide something to a specification which can satisfy the customer in terms of cost
and timing. Thus, primary objective can be satisfied by providing the ‘right thing at a right price
at the right time’.
These aspects of customer service—specification, cost and timing—are described for four
functions in Table 1.2. They are the principal sources of customer satisfaction and must, therefore,
be the principal dimension of the customer service objective for operations managers.
TABLE 1.2 Aspects of customer service
Principal Principal customer wants
function Primary considerations Other considerations
Manufacture Goods of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., purchase price or cost of obtaining
goods.
acceptable specification Timing, i.e., delivery delay from order or request
to receipt of goods.
Transport Management of a given, requested Cost, i.e., cost of movements. Timing, i.e.,
or acceptable specification 1. Duration or time to move.
2. Wait or delay from requesting to its commencement.
Supply Goods of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., purchase price or cost of obtaining
acceptable specification goods.
Timing, i.e., delivery delay from order or request
to receipt of goods.
Service Treatment of a given, requested or Cost, i.e., cost of movements.
acceptable specification Timing, i.e.,
1. Duration or time required for treatment.
2. Wait or delay from requesting treatment to
its commencement.
Generally an organization will aim reliably and consistently to achieve certain standards and
operations manager will be influential in attempting to achieve these standards. Hence, this
objective will influence the operations manager’s decisions to achieve the required customer
service.
RESOURCE UTILISATION
Another major objective of operating systems is to utilise resources for the satisfaction of
customer wants effectively, i.e., customer service must be provided with the achievement of
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
effective operations through efficient use of resources. Inefficient use of resources or inadequate
customer service leads to commercial failure of an operating system.
Operations management is concerned essentially with the utilisation of resources, i.e., obtaining
maximum effect from resources or minimising their loss, under utilisation or waste. The extent
of the utilisation of the resources’ potential might be expressed in terms of the proportion of
available time used or occupied, space utilisation, levels of activity, etc. Each measure indicates
the extent to which the potential or capacity of such resources is utilised. This is referred as the
objective of resource utilisation.
Operations management is also concerned with the achievement of both satisfactory customer
service and resource utilisation. An improvement in one will often give rise to deterioration in the
other. Often both cannot be maximised, and hence a satisfactory performance must be achieved
on both objectives. All the activities of operations management must be tackled with these two
objectives in mind, and many of the problems will be faced by operations managers because of
this conflict. Hence, operations managers must attempt to balance these basic objectives.
Table 1.3 summarises the twin objectives of operations management. The type of balance
established both between and within these basic objectives will be influenced by market
considerations, competitions, the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, etc. Hence, the
operations managers should make a contribution when these objectives are set.
TABLE 1.3 The twin objectives of operations management
1.8 MANAGING GLOBAL OPERATIONS
The term ‘globalization’ describes businesses’ deployment of facilities and operations around the
world. Globalization can be defined as a process in which geographic distance becomes a factor
of diminishing importance in the establishment and maintenance of cross border economic, political
and socio-cultural relations. It can also be defined as worldwide drive toward a globalized
economic system dominated by supranational corporate trade and banking institutions that are not
accountable to democratic processes or national governments.
There are four developments, which have spurred the trend toward globalization. These are:
1. Improved transportation and communication technologies;
2. Opened financial systems;
3. Increased demand for imports; and
4. Reduced import quotas and other trade barriers.
When a firm sets up facilities abroad it involve some added complexities in its operation.
Global markets impose new standards on quality and time. Managers should not think about
domestic markets first and then global markets later, rather it could be think globally and act
The customer service objective.
To provide agreed/adequate levels of customer
service (and hence customer satisfaction) by
providing goods or services with the right
specification, at the right cost and at the right time.
The resource utilisation objective. To achieve
adequate levels of resource utilisation (or
productivity) e.g., to achieve agreed levels of
utilisation of materials, machines and labour.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _ _
locally. Also, they must have a good understanding of their competitors. Some other important
challenges of managing multinational operations include other languages and customs, different
management style, unfamiliar laws and regulations, and different costs.
Managing global operations would focus on the following key issues:
_ To acquire and properly utilize the following concepts and those related to global operations,

supply chain, logistics, etc.

_ To associate global historical events to key drivers in global operations from different

perspectives.
_ To develop criteria for conceptualization and evaluation of different global operations.

_ To associate success and failure cases of global operations to political, social, economical

and technological environments.

_ To envision trends in global operations.

_ To develop an understanding of the world vision regardless of their country of origin,

residence or studies in a respectful way of perspectives of people from different races,

studies, preferences, religion, politic affiliation, place of origin, etc.
1.9 SCOPE OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Production and operations management concern with the conversion of inputs into outputs, using
physical resources, so as to provide the desired utilities to the customer while meeting the other
organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adoptability. It distinguishes itself from
other functions such as personnel, marketing, finance, etc., by its primary concern for ‘conversion
by using physical resources.’ Following are the activities which are listed under production and
operations management functions:
1. Location of facilities
2. Plant layouts and material handling
3. Product design
4. Process design
5. Production and planning control
6. Quality control
7. Materials management
8. Maintenance management.
LOCATION OF FACILITIES
Location of facilities for operations is a long-term capacity decision which involves a long term
commitment about the geographically static factors that affect a business organization. It is an
important strategic level decision-making for an organization. It deals with the questions such as
‘where our main operations should be based?’
The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in building plant and
machinery. An improper location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in plant
and machinery equipments. Hence, location of plant should be based on the company’s expansion
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing sources of raw materials and many
other factors. The purpose of the location study is to find the optimal location that will results
in the greatest advantage to the organization.
PLANT LAYOUT AND MATERIAL HANDLING
Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of facilities. It is the configuration of departments,
work centres and equipment in the conversion process. The overall objective of the plant layout
is to design a physical arrangement that meets the required output quality and quantity most
economically.
According to James Moore, “Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of
facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling
equipments and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure
to contain all these facilities”.
‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the machine
and from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also defined as the
‘art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’. It is a specialised
activity for a modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the cost of production. This cost
can be reduced by proper section, operation and maintenance of material handling devices.
Material handling devices increases the output, improves quality, speeds up the deliveries and
decreases the cost of production. Hence, material handling is a prime consideration in the
designing new plant and several existing plants.
PRODUCT DESIGN
Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organization have to
design, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy. Developing the
new products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge faced by the organizations.
The entire process of need identification to physical manufactures of product involves three
functions: marketing, product development, manufacturing. Product development translates the
needs of customers given by marketing into technical specifications and designing the various
features into the product to these specifications. Manufacturing has the responsibility of selecting
the processes by which the product can be manufactured. Product design and development
provides link between marketing, customer needs and expectations and the activities required to
manufacture the product.
PROCESS DESIGN
Process design is a macroscopic decision-making of an overall process route for converting the
raw material into finished goods. These decisions encompass the selection of a process, choice
of technology, process flow analysis and layout of the facilities. Hence, the important decisions
in process design are to analyse the workflow for converting raw material into finished product
and to select the workstation for each included in the workflow.
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL
Production planning and control can be defined as the process of planning the production in advance,
setting the exact route of each item, fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item, to give
production orders to shops and to follow up the progress of products according to orders.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _ _
The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First Plan Your Work
and then Work on Your Plan’. Main functions of production planning and control includes
planning, routing, scheduling, dispatching and follow-up.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do
it. Planning bridges the gap from where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible
for things to occur which would not otherwise happen.
Routing may be defined as the selection of path which each part of the product will follow,
which being transformed from raw material to finished products. Routing determines the most
advantageous path to be followed from department to department and machine to machine till
raw material gets its final shape.
Scheduling determines the programme for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as
‘the fixation of time and date for each operation’ as well as it determines the sequence of
operations to be followed.
Fig. 1.4 Scope of production and operations management
Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so
as to start a particular work, which has already been planned under ‘Routing’ and ‘Scheduling’.
Therefore, dispatching is ‘release of orders and instruction for the starting of production for any
item in acceptance with the route sheet and schedule charts’.
The function of follow-up is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a prescribed
proforma and to investigate the causes of deviations from the planned performance.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality Control (QC) may be defined as ‘a system that is used to maintain a desired level of
quality in a product or service’. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality
of the product. Quality control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on effective
feed back system and corrective action procedure.
Quality control can also be defined as ‘that industrial management technique by means of which
product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured’. It is the entire collection of activities which
ensures that the operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost.
The main objectives of quality control are:
_ To improve the companies income by making the production more acceptable to the

customers i.e., by providing long life, greater usefulness, maintainability, etc.

_ To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.

_ To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large scale production.

_ To produce optimal quality at reduced price.

_ To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high quality level, to

build customer goodwill, confidence and reputation of manufacturer.

_ To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.

_ To check the variation during manufacturing.

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Materials management is that aspect of management function which is primarily concerned with
the acquisition, control and use of materials needed and flow of goods and services connected
with the production process having some predetermined objectives in view.
The main objectives of materials management are:
_ To minimise material cost.

_ To purchase, receive, transport and store materials efficiently and to reduce the related cost.

_ To cut down costs through simplification, standardisation, value analysis, import substitution, etc.

_ To trace new sources of supply and to develop cordial relations with them in order to

ensure continuous supply at reasonable rates.

_ To reduce investment tied in the inventories for use in other productive purposes and to

develop high inventory turnover ratios.

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
In modern industry, equipment and machinery are a very important part of the total productive
effort. Therefore, their idleness or downtime becomes are very expensive. Hence, it is very
important that the plant machinery should be properly maintained.
The main objectives of maintenance management are:
1. To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at the
lowest possible cost.
2. To keep the machines and other facilities in such a condition that permits them to be used
at their optimal capacity without interruption.
3. To ensure the availability of the machines, buildings and services required by other sections
of the factory for the performance of their functions at optimal return on investment.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _ _
EXERCISES
Section A
1. What do you mean by ‘Production’?
2. What do you mean by production system?
3. Mention the different types of production systems.
4. What is job shop production?
5. What is batch production?
6. What is mass production?
7. What is continuous production?
8. Mention any four advantages of job shop production.
9. Mention any four limitations of job shop production.
10. Mention any four advantages of batch production.
11. Mention any four limitations of batch production.
12. Mention any four advantages of mass production.
13. Mention any four limitations of mass production.
14. Mention any four advantages of continuous production.
15. Mention any four limitations of continuous production.
16. Define production management.
17. Mention any four objectives of production management.
18. Define operating system.
19. How do you manage operations?
20. What do you mean by operations?
21. What do you mean by manufacturing operations?
22. What do you mean by service operations?
23. What do you mean by ‘globalization’?
Section B
1. Briefly explain the production system and its characteristics.
2. What is job shop production? What are its characteristics, advantages and limitations?
3. What is batch production? What are its characteristics, advantages and limitations?
4. What is batch production? What are its characteristics, advantages and limitations?
5. What is mass production? What are its characteristics, advantages and limitations?
6. What is continuous production? What are its characteristics, advantages and limitations?
7. Explain in brief the objectives of production management.
8. Explain in brief the objectives of operations management.
9. Distinguish between manufacturing operations and service operations.
10. Explain the key issues to be considered for managing global operations.
Section C
1. Explain the different types of production systems.
2. Explain the framework of managing operations.
3. Explain the scope of production and operations management.
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
Skill Development
Visit a fast food restaurant like Pizza hut, Pizza corner to understand the concept of this
chapter by getting the information for the following questions.
1. Identify the type of production system followed.
2. Check how production system is managed.
3. Find out utilisation of the resources namely manpower, capacity and material.
4. How the customer services is rendered [feedback system exist or not]
CASELET
SHEENA
Sheena had worked for the same Fortune 500 Company for most 15 years. Although the
company had gone through some tough times, things were starting to turn around. Customer
orders were up, and quality and productivity had improved dramatically from what they had been
only a few years earlier due company wide quality improvement program. So, it comes as a real
shock to Sheena and about 400 of her co-workers when they were suddenly terminated following
the new CEO’s decision to downsize the company.
After recovering from the initial shock, Sheena tried to find employment elsewhere. Despite
her efforts, after eight months of searching she was no closer to finding a job than the day she
started. Her funds were being depleted and she was getting more discouraged. There was one
bright spot, though: She was able to bring in a little money by mowing lawns for her neighbors.
She got involved quite by chance when she heard one neighbor remark that now that his children
were on their own, nobody was around to cut the grass. Almost jokingly, Sheena asked him how
much he’d be willing to pay. Soon Sheena was mowing the lawns of five neighbors. Other
neighbors wanted her to work on their lawns, but she didn’t feel that she could spare any more
time from her job search.
However, as the rejection letters began to pile up, Sheena knew she had to make an
important decision in her life. On a rainy Tuesday morning, she decided to go into business for
herself taking care of neighborhood lawns. She was relieved to give up the stress of job hunting,
and she was excited about the prospects of being her own boss. But she was also fearful of being
completely on her own. Nevertheless, Sheena was determined to make a go of it.
At first, business was a little slow, but once people realized Sheena was available, many
asked her to take care of their lawns. Some people were simply glad to turn - the work over
to her; others switched from professional lawn care services. By the end of her first year in
business, Sheena knew she could earn a living this way. She also performed other services such
as fertilizing lawns, weeding gardens, and trimming shrubbery. Business became so good that
Sheena hired two part-time workers to assist her and, even then, she believed she could expand
further if she wanted to.
Questions
1. In what ways are Sheena’s customers most likely to judge the quality of her lawn care services?
2. Sheena is the operations manager of her business. Among her responsibilities are forecasting,
inventory management, scheduling, quality assurance, and maintenance.
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _ _
(a) What kinds of things would likely require forecasts?
(b) What inventory items does Sheena probably have? Name one inventory decision she has
to make periodically.
(c) What scheduling must she do? What things might occur to disrupt schedules and cause
Sheena to reschedule?
(d) How important is quality assurance to Sheena’s business? Explain.
(e) What kinds of maintenance must be performed?
3. What are some of the trade-offs that Sheena probably considered relative to:
(a) Working for a company instead of for herself?
(b) Expanding the business?
4. The town is considering an ordinance that would prohibit putting grass clippings at the curb for
pickup because local landfills cannot handle the volume. What options might Sheena consider
if the ordinance is passed? Name two advantages and two drawbacks of each option.
[Source: Production/Operations Management by William J.Stevenson, Irwin/McGraw-Hill]
WEGMANS FOOD MARKETS
Wegmans Food Markets, Inc., is one of the premier grocery chains in the United States.
Headquartered in Rochester, NY, Wegmans operates over 70 stores. The company employs over
23,000 people, and has annual sales of over Rs. 2.0 billion.
Wegmans has a strong reputation for offering its customers high product quality and excellent
service. Through a combination of market research, trial and error, and listening to its customers,
Wegmans has evolved into a very successful organization. In fact, Wegmans is so good at what
it does that grocery chains all over the country send representatives to Wegmans for a firsthand
look at operations.
SUPERSTORES
Many of the company’s stores are giant 100,000 square foot superstores, double or triple the size
of average supermarkets. A superstore typically employs from 500 to 600 people.
Individual stores differ somewhat in terms of actual size and some special features. Aside
from the features normally found in supermarkets, they generally have a large bakery Section
(each store bakes its own bread, rolls, cakes, pies, and pastries), and extra large produce
sections. They also offer film processing a complete pharmacy, a card shop and video rentals.
In-store floral shops range in size up to 800 square feet of space, and offer a wide variety of
fresh-cut flowers, flower arrangements, varies and plants. In-store card shops covers over 1000
square feet of floor of floor space. The bulk foods department provides customers with the
opportunity to select what quantities they desire from a vast array of foodstuffs and some
nonfood items.
Each store is a little different. Among the special features in some stores are a dry cleaning
department, a wokery, and a salad bar. Some feature a Market Cafe that has different food
stations, each devoted to preparing and serving a certain type of food. For example, one station
has pizza and other Italian specialties, and another oriental food. There are also being a sandwich
bar, a salad bar and a dessert station. Customers often wander among stations as they decide
_ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ _
what to order. In several affluent locations, customers can stop in on their way home from work
and choose from a selection of freshly prepared dinner entrees. Some stores have a coffee shop
section with tables and chairs where shoppers can enjoy regular or specialty coffees and variety
of tempting pastries.
PRODUCE DEPARTMENT
The company prides itself on fresh produce. Produce is replenished as often as 12 times a day.
The larger stores have produce sections that are four to five times the size of a produce section
of an average supermarket. Wegmans offers locally grown produce a season. Wegmans uses
a ’farm to market’ system whereby some local growers deliver their produce directly to individual
stores, bypassing the main warehouse. That reduces the company’s inventory holding costs and
gets the produce into the stores as quickly as possible. Growers may use specially designed
containers that go right onto the store floor instead of large bins. This avoids the bruising that
often occurs when fruits and vegetables are transferred from bins to display shelves and the need
to devote labor to transfer the produce to shelves.
MEAT DEPARTMENT
In addition to large display cases of both fresh and frozen meat products, many stores have a
full-service butcher shop that offers a variety of fresh meat products and where butchers are
available to provide customized cuts of meat for customers.
ORDERING
Each department handles its own ordering. Although sales records are available from records of
items scanned at the checkouts, they are not used directly for replenishing stock. Other factors,
such as pricing, special promotions, local circumstances must all be taken into account. However,
for seasonal periods, such as holidays, managers often check scanner records to learn what past
demand was during a comparable period.
The superstores typically receive one truckload of goods per day from the main warehouse.
During peak periods, a store may receive two truckloads from the main warehouse. The short
lead-time greatly reduce the length of the time an item might be out of stock, unless the main
warehouse is also out of stock.
The company exercises strict control over suppliers, insisting on product quality and on-time
deliveries.
EMPLOYEES
The company recognises the value of good employees. It typically invests an average of Rs.7000
to train each new employee. In addition to learning about stores operations, new employees learn
the importance of good customer service and how to provide it. The employees are helpful,
cheerfully answering customer questions or handling complaints. Employees are motivated through
a combination of compensation, profit sharing, and benefits.
QUALITY
Quality and Customer satisfaction are utmost in the minds of Wegmans management and its
employees. Private label food items as well as name brands are regularly evaluated in test
kitchens, along with the potential new products. Managers are responsible for checking and
_ _________ __ _________ _ _ ________ __ _____ __
maintaining products and service quality in their departments. Moreover, employees are encouraged
to report problems to their managers.
If a customer is dissatisfied with an item and returns it, or even a portion of the item, the
customer is offered a choice of a replacement or a refund. If the item is a Wegmans brand food
item, it is then sent to the test kitchen to determine the cause of the problem. If the cause can
be determined, corrective action is taken.
Questions
1. How do customers judge the quality of a supermarket?
2. Indicate how and why each of these factors is important to the successful operation of a
supermarket:
(a) Customer satisfaction.
(b) Forecasting.
(c) Capacity planning.
(d) Location
(e) Inventory management.
(f) Layout of the store.
(g) Scheduling.
[Source: Production/Operations Management by William J.Stevenson, Irwin/McGraw-Hill]