Internet of Things

Course Instructor: Akshaya K pati

Modules
1. Introduction & Overview of IoT
2. Sensors, Actuators & Signal Conditioning
3. Embedded Platforms & Prototyping
4. Advanced Embedded Development Platforms
5. Data Communication & Networking
6. Cloud, Analytics & UI
7. IoT Applications
 Course Outcomes

• CO1. differentiate, compare and contrast various MPU and MCU based embedded development platform for
development of IoT prototypes and select suitable network interfaces for cloud connection.
• CO2. identify application specific need of suitable sensors and actuators by analyzing the working of various
sensors. Further they can calculate the parameters related to sensors based on design requirements.
• CO3. design application specific IoT prototypes based on Arduino platform by means of hardware interfaces like
Digital IO, Analog In, PWM, UART, SPI and I2C and develop software using Arduino IDE.
• CO4. design application specific IoT prototypes based on Raspberry Pi Family development boards and develop
software using python in Linux environment.
• CO5. select suitable TCP/IP protocols and networking standards for development of IoT projects. In addition to
that they can apply the concept of addressing: MAC, IP, Socket address to program and design suitable IoT & cloud
networks.
• CO6. design IoT application based on Client Server Model, HTTP, ThingSpeak, AWS, CloudMQTT and evaluate the
design specifications and requirements from various case studies in the context of IoT product development life-
cycle
Definition of IoT:
A smart Fridge can do it
• You are leaving the home (sense user)
• There’s no milk in fridge (sense object)
• Use this information to make a decision (process)
• Inform user of decision (communicate)
Definition of IoT:

Physical object (“thing”)

+
Controller (“brain”)
+
Sensors
+
Actuators
+
Networks (Internet)
History of IoT
• The year 1999 was easily one of the most significant for the IoT history, as Kevin
Ashton coined the term “the internet of things.” A visionary technologist, Ashton
was giving a presentation for Procter & Gamble where he described IoT as a
technology that connected several devices with the help of RFID tags for supply
chain management. He specifically used the word “internet” in the title of his
presentation in order to draw the audience’s attention since the internet was just
becoming a big deal that time. While his idea of RFID-based device connectivity
differs from today’s IP based IoT, Ashton’s breakthrough played an essential role in
the internet of things history and technological development overall

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 Why IoT has high growth in today’s era
1. Growth of communication technology
2. Growth of computational infrastructure
3. Improvement of VLSI technology
4. Economical
5. Data analytics
6. Smartness

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• Formally IoT was introduced by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in
the ITU Internet report in 2005 ).
• ITU-T Definition: A global infrastructure for the information society, enabling
advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing
and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies.
• IEEE definition: A network of items – each embedded with sensors – which are
connected to the Internet.
• European Commission: The IoT is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal
states or the external environment
• Things: A real/physical or digital/virtual entity that exists and moves in space and
time and is capable of being identified. Things are commonly identified either by
assigned identification numbers, names and location addresses.
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Physical things exist in the physical world and are capable of being sensed,
actuated and connected. Examples of physical things include the surrounding
environment, industrial robots, goods and electrical equipment.
Virtual things exist in the information world and are capable of being stored,
processed and accessed. Examples of virtual things include multimedia content
and application software.

• A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor

implant, a farm animal with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has
built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pressure is low or any other
natural or man-made object that can be assigned an IP address and is able to
transfer data over a network.
• Those object capable of connecting to the Internet will fall into the “Things”
category

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Definition:
• A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based
on standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and
virtual "things" have identities, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and
use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into the information
network, often communicate data associated with users and their environments.
Characteristic of IoT
IoT Market Growth

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 Applications of IoT
• Home: Smart lighting, smart home appliances, intrusion detection, gas detector
• Cities: Smart parking
• Environment: weather monitoring
• Energy: Smart grid
• Retail: Smart vending machine
• Logistic: Remote vehicle diagnostic
• Agriculture: Smart irrigation
• Industry: Air quality monitoring
• Health and life style: Fitness monitoring
Applications of IoT:
Scenario #1: IoT in your home
• Imagine you wake up at 7am every day to go to work. Your alarm clock does the job of
waking you just fine. That is, until something goes wrong. Your train’s cancelled and you
have to drive to work instead. The only problem is that it takes longer to drive, and you
would have needed to get up at 6.45am to avoid being late. Oh, and it’s pouring with rain,
so you’ll need to drive slower than usual. A connected or IoT-enabled alarm clock would
reset itself based on all these factors, to ensure you got to work on time. It could recognize
that your usual train is cancelled, calculate the driving distance and travel time for your
alternative route to work, check the weather and factor in slower travelling speed because
of heavy rain, and calculate when it needs to wake you up so you’re not late. If it’s super-
smart, if might even sync with your IoT-enabled coffee maker, to ensure your morning
caffeine’s ready to go when you get up.

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Scenario #2: IoT in transport
Having been woken by your smart alarm, you’re now driving to work. On comes the
engine light. You’d rather not head straight to the garage, but what if it’s something
urgent? In a connected car, the sensor that triggered the check engine light would
communicate with others in the car. A component called the diagnostic bus collects
data from these sensors and passes it to a gateway in the car, which sends the most
relevant information to the manufacturer’s platform. The manufacturer can use
data from the car to offer you an appointment to get the part fixed, send you
directions to the nearest dealer, and make sure the correct replacement part is
ordered so it’s ready for you when you show up.

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IoT application in Transport

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• Improve the traveler experience
• Increase safety
• Reduce congestion and energy use
• Improve operational performance

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 1. Agricultural Drones
2. Livestock Monitoring
3. Smart Greenhouses
4. Soil moisture
5. Weather stations

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IoT application in Industry
• New product and service
introductions faster
• Increasing production, quality,
uptime
• Mitigating unplanned downtime
• Protecting from cyber threats
• Worker productivity and safety

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IoT in Home

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 IOT in City

• Smart Surveillance
• Automated transportation
• Smarter energy
management system
• Water distribution
• Urban Security
• Environmental Monitoring

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IoT application electric grid

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• IoT as a technology majorly consists of four main components, over
which an architecture is framed.
• 1) Sensors
• 2) Devices
• 3) Gateway
• 4) Cloud

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Components of IoT
Thing or Devices: The sensors are sensing, collecting and transmitting the parameters
to the communication layer
These smart devices and sensors can be connected to low power wireless networks
like Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth, Z-wave, LoRAWAN etc…
• Common sensors are:
• Temperature sensors and thermostats
• Pressure sensors
• Humidity / Moisture level
• Light intensity detectors
• Moisture sensors
• Proximity detection
• RFID tags
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Gateway:
• An IoT Gateway is a solution for enabling IoT communication, usually device -to-device
communications or device-to-cloud communications. The gateway is typically a hardware
device housing application software that performs essential tasks. At its most basic level, the
gateway facilitates the connections between different data sources and destinations.
• IoT Gateway manages the bidirectional data traffic between different networks
and protocols.
• The gateway is used to translate different network protocols and make sure interoperability
of the connected devices and sensors.
• It perform pre-processing of the collected data from thousands of sensors locally before
transmitting it to the next stage.
• It acts as a middle layer between devices and cloud to protect the system from malicious
attacks and unauthorized access

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Cloud: It is a sophisticated high performance network of servers optimized to
perform high speed data processing of billions of devices, traffic management and
deliver accurate analytics. It collect, process, manage and store huge amount of
data in real time.
Analytic: Analytics is the process of converting analog data from billions of smart
devices and sensors into useful insights which can be interpreted and used for
detailed analysis.
User interface: User interfaces are the visible, tangible part of the IoT system which
can be accessible by users. Designers will have to make sure a well designed user
interface for minimum effort for users and encourage more interactions.

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Physical Design of IoT
• The "Things" in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique
identities and can perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring
capabilities.
• IoT devices can:
 Exchange data with other connected devices and applications (directly
or indirectly), or
Collect data from other devices and process the data locally or
Send the data to centralized servers or cloud-based application back-
ends for processing the data, or
Perform some tasks locally and other tasks within the IoT infrastructure,
based on temporal and space constraints

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Generic block diagram of an IoT Device
• An IoT device may consist of
several interfaces for
connections to other devices,
both wired and wireless.
• I/O interfaces for sensors
• Interfaces for Internet
connectivity
• Memory and storage interfaces
• Audio/video interfaces.

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IoT System Architecture
• Every IoT device follows a generic architecture.
• It can be considered to be a multi-technology system
encompassing electrical, electronic, communications
and software engineering techniques
• The communication network acts as a glue which
binds different sub-systems, allowing
implementation of information collection and
processing capabilities.
• IoT communication network differ from standard
industrial network as:
IoT networks need to serve a large number of
devices distributed over wide geographical areas
nodes will generally generate short bursts of
information where the information generation
pattern could be quite diverse.

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• To design the IoT following points to be considered
1. How to serve a large number of devices over large geographical areas where the
end devices are energy constrained devices.
2. How all IoT sensor information could be delivered to the destinations by
maintaining their necessary quality of service(QoS) requirements.
3. Interoperable, so that devices from different vendors can cooperate to achieve
common goals;
4. Secure so as not to allow unauthorized access.
• In an IoT network, the information generated by the source nodes will transmit the
material using appropriate protocols, communication links and network
infrastructure
• A communication node structure is determined by its hardware(dominated by
electrical and electronic design techniques) and software design (by the OSI (Open
System Interconnection)).

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• A typical node consists of seven basic modules
• The number of modules used by a node will depend
on the configuration of a node which depends on the
application requirements.
• The input module consists of a set of sensors used to
gather data from different physical environments.
• The electrical signal output of sensor module are
passed on to the signal conditioning module which
may contain different submodules such as the
amplifier, noise remover and signal conditioning
circuits.
• The conditioned signals are then fed to a
microcontroller through an A/D (analog to digital)
converter. A Generic Architecture of IoT

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• The microcontroller/processor module implements partly or full IoT algorithms which
work on the collected data to generate output data which is either stored in the
storage module or transmitted to another network entity using the wireless interface.
• An IoT node can also act as an actuator where it may receive data from another
network entity or a cloud server using the wireless interface.
• The received data is passed through the necessary algorithm using the local processor
and then passed to the signal conditioning module through a D/A (digital-to-analog)
converter
• The signal conditioning module, after applying necessary modifications, pass the signal
to the actuator module to control the connected devices.
• The energy source used in the node power all the modules.

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Reference Architecture of IOT:

Many IoT architectures have

been presented in literature, but
the most accepted one is four
layer architecture consisting of:
• sensor layer,
• gateway and network layer,
• service management layer,
• and application layer

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Sensor Layer:
• The first layer, called as sensor layer or perception layer. It consist of sensors and
actuators, that sense the environment, collect information for processing to gain useful
insights. Different kind of sensors can be deployed at this layer, like temperature, motion,
humidity, sensing events etc. At this layer heterogeneous devices are deployed in plug and
play manner.
Gateway and Network Layer:
• The gateway and network layer transfers data created through secure channels by the
sensor layer to the above layer. Various wireless technologies such as Zigbee, RFID, Wi-Fi,
etc. are used to transmit data. Furthermore, storage and processing of data needs to be
addressed at this layer. One of the possible solution for storage is cloud. Most of the data
management as well as resource management is carried out at this layer.

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Service Management Layer:
• Management or Middleware layer binds a service with its requestor. This layer provides
features that enables the IoT application programmers to work with the sensor objects
in a seamless manner, without any concern to underlying hardware. Also, this layer
processes received data, make smart d deliver the services over the network through
protocols. Various analytical solutions can be applied at this layer to provide intelligent
decisions.
Application Layer:
• The application layer provides the requested services to its users. For example, the
application layer can provide acceleration and heart beat values to the medical care
provider for its patient to continuously monitor them. This layer has ability to provide
superior services to meet the user’s need. The application layer provide services to
many sectors such as smart home, smart healthcare, smart transportation, industrial
automation and smart energy management.

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IoT Architecture Layer
• In the Internet, communication is based on a layering stack of TCP/IP protocols. Similarly,
the IoT paradigm is a multilayer technology that supports meaningful communication of
billions of smart things equipped with a processor, sensor/actuator, and communicator.
• A number of IoT architectures have been proposed in the literature. These architectures
are varied not only with each other’s functionalities but also in technical terminologies.
• Such layered architectures are:
Three‐layer IoT architecture
Five‐layer IoT architecture
Six‐layer IoT architecture
Seven‐layer architecture

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Three Layer

Five Layer
Six Layer
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Three-Layer Architecture
• Perception Layer: The perception layer at the bottom of IoT architecture is responsible
for the collection of various types of information through physical sensors or
components of smart things (i.e. RFID, sensors, objects with RFID tags or sensors, etc.).
Moreover, the perception layer transmits the processed information to the upper
network layer via service interfaces
• Network Layer: The middle layer in three‐layer IoT architecture is Network (also known
as transmission) layer. The network layer accepts processed information from the
perception layer and forward the received data to distant application interface(s) by
using integrated networks, the Internet and other communication technologies.
• Application Layer: The application layer at the top of the three‐layer IoT architecture is
responsible for the provisioning of services requested by the users, e.g. temperature,
moisture, humidity, air pressure, light intensity measurements, etc. In addition to the
user‐requested services, the application layer provides data services (i.e. Data
warehousing, BigData storage, data mining, etc.) to perform semantic data analysis.

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Five-Layer Architecture
• Object (Perception), Object Abstraction (Network), Service Management (middleware),
Application, and Business are the names of the five layers in five‐layer IoT architecture
• Service Management (Middleware) Layer: The smart things in IoT implement a diverse
range of services, and each smart thing is connected and capable to communicate with
smart objects that have implemented the same type of services. The service
management layer provides pairing of services with its requesters’ applications and
enables IoT application programmers to deal with heterogeneous data created by smart
things with different hardware specifications. This layer includes the processing of
received data before transmitting to the application layer.
• Business Layer: The business layer is responsible to manage overall activities/services of
the IoT system through the creation of flowcharts, business models, and graphs on
received processed data from the application layer. In addition, based on BigData
analysis, this layer supports automatic decision‐making as well as the making of smart
business strategies

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 Six Layer Architecture
• The six‐layer architecture comprises of Focus Layer, Cognizance Layer, Transmission Layer,
Application Layer, Infrastructure Layer, and Competence Business Layer
• Focus Layer: The modules at this layer are responsible for the identification of smart
objects while focusing on the aspects of IoT systems under consideration
• Cognizance Layer:This layer consisting of sensors, actuators, and data monitoring
modules is responsible for the collection of sensing information from smart objects
(identified in the Focus layer).
• Infrastructure Layer:This deals with the availability of service‐oriented technologies, i.e.
Cloud, Big Data, data mining, etc.
• Competence Business Layer: This layer includes the analysis of business models of IoT
systems.

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Seven Layer Architecture:
Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers:
• It is a layer of perception or hardware that collects and sends information from the
physical world to the next layer. This layer includes objects and physical sensors.
Basically, this layer is intended to detect various objects and collect environmental data
such as humidity, temperature, water quality.
Layer 2: Connectivity:
• This layer is used to interact with various IoT components via interconnecting systems
such as switches, gateways as well as routers. In addition, it transfers data collected
strongly from the sensors to the top layer for processing. This layer extends to Cloud
transport services from the “intermediate” of an Edge Node device.
Layer 3: Edge Connecting:
• The next phase is Edge Computing, or more appropriately “Cloud Edge” or “Cloud
Gateway”. It requires data from the connectivity phase and makes it suitable for
archiving and higher-level processing information. The processing elements in this layer
work with a large volume of data that could transform some facts to moderate data size.
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Layer 4: Data Accumulation:
The main objective of this layer is to store the data of Phase 3. Acquire and store a large
amount of data and place them in the warehouses so that they are accessible from the
upper layers. As a result, it simply modifies event-based data in query-based processing
information for the higher layer.
Layer 5: Data Abstraction:
This layer combines data from different sources and converts the stored data to the
appropriate application format in a manageable and efficient way. A main component of
the large-scale high-performance implementation architecture is publishing/subscription
software framework or a data distribution service (DDS) to simplify data movement
between edge computing, data accumulation, application layers and processes.
Layer 6: The Application Layer:
In this layer application logic of the control plan and the data plan are performed. Some
applications as Process optimization, logistics, statistical analysis, control logic, Monitoring,
alarm management, consumption models

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Layer 7: Collaboration and Processes:
• At this phase, application processing and collaboration are presented to users,
and the processed data in the lower layers are incorporated into commercial
purposes.
• It encompasses collaboration, people, businesses, and decision-making processes
based on IoT-derived information.
• This layer classifies people who can collaborate and communicate to use IoT data
proficiently.
• It delivers additional features, such as the creation of commercial graphics and
models and other data-based recoveries from the application layer.

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 Complete IoT Module

Source: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jece/2017/9324035/ School of Electronics ; KIIT Deemed to be University

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Smart Objects(SO) :
• An SO is an autonomous, physical digital object augmented with
sensing/actuating, processing, storing, and networking capabilities.
• SOs are able to sense/actuate, store, and interpret information created
within themselves and around the neighboring external world where they
are situated, act on their own, cooperate with each other, and exchange
information with other kinds of electronic devices and human users.
• Their importance resides in the capabilities they have to make physical
environments ‘‘smart’’ so as to provide novel cyber-physical services to
people.

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Components of Smart Object

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Smart Objects
• Smart objects are the fundamental blocks on which the IoT is equipped with sensors
and computing capabilities. In general, smart objects are equipped with the
following essential properties:
Communication: objects can connect to each other and to resources on the Internet
to use data and services, update their status, and cooperate to achieve common
goals;
Identification: objects must be uniquely identified
Addressability: objects can be directly reachable, i.e., addressed, to be interrogated
and/or configured remotely
Sensing and actuation: objects can collect information about the surrounding world
and manipulate it through the use of sensors and actuators
Embedded information processing: the smart objects are equipped with calculation
capabilities t o process the results of the sensors and drive the actuators
Localization: objects are aware of their physical location or can be located;
User interface: objects can communicate appropriately with users via displays or
other interfaces.
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Some of the technologies used to implement smart objects’ various
features are:

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Trends in Smart Object:

• Size is decreasing
• Power consumption is decreasing
• Processing power is increasing
• Communication capabilities are improving
• Communication is being increasingly standardized

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 Digital Computer
• The digital computers having
a microprocessor as its CPU
• The CPU combined with
memory and input/output
device form a digital
computer

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Over-view of Embedded System:
“An embedded system is also a system that has embedded software and
computer-hardware which makes a system dedicated for an application or
specific part of application or product or part of larger system”
“It is device that includes a programmable computer but it itself is not
intended to a general purpose computer”
“Embedded system are electronic system that contains microprocessor or
microcontroller, but don’t think them as computer, the computer is hidden
or embedded to the system”
“An embedded system is a microcontroller based, software driven, reliable,
real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive,
operating on diverse physical variable and diverse environment, and sold
into competitive and cost conscious market.”

21-01-2022 School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT DU, Bhubaneswar-24 60

• An embedded system is everywhere around us like remote controls, washing
machines, microwave ovens, RFID tags, sensors, actuators, and thermostats used in
various applications, networking hardware such as switches, routers, modems, mobile
phones, PDAs, etc.
• Because of their extraordinary characteristics and features such as real-time
computing, low power consumption, low maintenance, and high availability are
becoming the key enabler of IoT.
• To increase the role of embedded systems in IoT, it demands a different set of
microprocessors, drivers, peripherals, batteries, and operating systems than
conventional Embedded System utilized in general-purpose computing systems.
• Conventional Embedded Systems are not equipped well enough to deliver what the
IoT is expecting from an embedded device networked in IoT and it brings great
challenges to develop or transform the contemporary embedded systems into an IoT
enabled smart embedded system.

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• Embedded systems are a subset of the Internet of Things (IoT)
• IoT is an integration that can have many connectivity options and
devices; however, IoT has nothing to do with technical specifications.
• IoT includes embedded technology, network technology, and
information technology.
• Embedded systems can become part of the IoT infrastructure when you
connect them to network technology and information technology
infrastructure.
• IoT can be constantly programmatically updated according to the
environment.
• Embedded systems do not introduce privacy and security concerns into
devices because they are not able to transmit data on their own.

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• The Internet of Things products can be used for home automation, and the
embedded systems are within the products networked together to automate and
control air conditioning, heating, etc. So the embedded system as any electronic
device that assists to solve a specific problem:
• mobile phones
• microwaves
• coffee machines
• fridges
• air conditioning
• traffic lights
• remote controls
• Embedded systems are usually small software programs with few functions,
embedded into the item, and that can not be changed once the item leaves the
factory. An embedded system can be linked to the Internet of Things if it has been
programmed to connect to the internet.

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Features of Embedded System:
 Dependability
 Single-functioned (dedicated System)
 Executes a single program, repeatedly
 Tightly-constrained (Efficient)
 Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc.
 Reactive and real-time
 Continually reacts to changes in the system’s environment
 Must compute certain results in real-time without delay

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• A typical embedded system that includes a microcontroller, inputs/outputs,
and communication interfaces.

Microcontroller: It is brain of an embedded system, which performs

all the operations. A microcontroller is a computer processor with
memory and all input/output peripherals on it.

Inputs: An embedded system interacts with the outside world

through its inputs and outputs. Inputs can be digital inputs or
analog inputs. Inputs are typically used for reading data from
sensors (temperature sensor, light sensor, ultrasound sensor, etc.)
or other types of input devices (keys, buttons, etc.).
A Typical Embedded System
Communication Interface: An embedded system communicates
with other devices using communication interfaces, which includes
Ethernet, USB (Universal Serial Bus), CAN (Controller Area
Network), Infrared, ZigBee, WiFi and Bluetooth
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Microcontrollers and Microprocessors
• The heart of embedded systems are microcontrollers. Although there are embedded
systems built on microprocessors, modern embedded systems are largely based on
microcontrollers.
• A typical microcontroller contains a central processing unit (CPU), interrupts,
timer/counter, memory, and other peripherals, all in a single integrated circuit (IC).
• A microcontroller is a true computer on a chip or system‐on‐a‐chip (SoC).

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• Microcontrollers are designed for control applications and are generally used in
embedded systems.
• They have relatively low computational capacity and can perform single or very
few tasks.
• Microcontrollers have relatively low clock frequency, usually in the order of
megahertz.
• Microcontrollers consume less power and have no need for a cooling system.

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Embedded processors (MicroControllers )
• Programmed once by manufacturer of system
• Executes a single program (or a limited suite) with few parameters
• Task-specific
• can be optimized for specific application
• Interacts with environment in many ways
• direct sensing and control of signal wires
• communication protocols to environment and other devices
• real-time interactions and constraints
Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller
• A microprocessor is a single IC with only a central processing unit (CPU) on it. In order
to make it functional, you will need to add external memory and other peripheral
devices.
• Microprocessors are mainly used in general‐purpose systems like personal computers.
They have relatively high computational capacity and can perform numerous tasks.
• Microprocessors have relatively high clock frequency, usually in the order of gigahertz.
It generally consume more power and often require external cooling system.

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Difference between IOT and Embedded System

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System on Chip
• It is typically applied to more complex chips. Smartphone processors are a
classic example of an SoC but complex platforms are built for a range of
applications, including multimedia and automotive.
• The NXP S32V234 is an SoC—a vision processor for automotive
applications. It includes four ARM Cortex-A53 CPUs with SIMD
instructions, two ARM Cortex-M4 CPUs, a vision accelerator, GPU, image
sensor processor, image sensor interfaces, and support for safety and
security.

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Advantage and Disadvantages of ES
• Advantages:
• Smaller Size
• Smaller Weight
• Lower Power Consumption
• Lower Electromagnetic Interference
• Lower Price
• Disadvantages:
• Lower Mean Time Between Failure
• Repair and Maintenance is not possible
• Faster Obsolesce
• Unmanageable Heat Loss
• Difficult to Design

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 OSI Layer
• The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, be it a
large-scale or a small-scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-
specific layers. Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional
layered network models are the open systems interconnection developed by
the International Organization of Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
and the Internet protocol suite.
• OSI Reference Model - internationally standardised network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open systems, i.e. systems
open for communications with other systems.
• The model is based on proposal developed by ISO
• The OSI model describes the method of receiving and transmitting
information in a network
• This model has 7 layers.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to
communications technology.
Layer 6 Presentation Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to user
Layer 5 Session Layer applications.
Layer 4 Transport Layer

Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary

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 Layer 7: Application Layer
• It is directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application program
• interfaces) and terminals.
• Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and other
such operations are initiated from this layer.
• The application layer deals with user authentication, identification of
communication hosts, quality of service, and privacy.
• It represents services that directly support software applications for file
transfers, database access, and electronic mail etc.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model.
• It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks such that the
syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network, for which it is also
referred to as the syntax layer.
• Translates different data representations from the Application layer into uniform
standard format
• It solves compatibility issues in the communication between the application and the
network.
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer.
• It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of
communication between networked hosts.
• The session layer sees full utilization during operations such as
remote procedure calls and remote sessions.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as
data.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
• The transport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow control to
achieve a transparent transfer of data between hosts.
• This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-length
data transfer between hosts.
• In case of loss of data, or when no acknowledgment is received, the transport layer
ensures that the particular erroneous data segment is re-sent to the receiving host.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a segment or
datagram.
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model.
• It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to different networks
through logical paths called virtual circuits.
• These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before
reaching the actual destination host.
• The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing of packets, congestion
control, error handling, and Internetworking.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model.
• The data link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and termination of the
connection between two hosts, and the detection and correction of errors during
communication between two or more connected hosts.
• IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers: Medium access control
(MAC) and logical link control (LLC).
• MAC is responsible for access control and permissions for connecting networked
devices; whereas LLC is mainly tasked with error checking, flow control, and frame
synchronization.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.
 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the OSI model.
• The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical
operations of the host at the actual physical level.
• These operations include or deal with issues relating to signal generation, signal
transfer, voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances, and
signal loss.
• This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh, bus, or
ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and bit rate control
operations.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a symbol.
 PDU: Protocol Data Unit
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TCP/IP Layer
• The Internet protocol (IP)lsuite predates the OSI model and provides
only four levels of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport
layer, and 4) application layer.
• Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the
network interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and
data link layer of the OSI model. It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over
the physical medium.
• According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in use,
frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of
technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM).

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Internet Layer:
• Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to the
network layer of the OSI model.
• It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking
operations.
• Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution
protocol (ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol
(ICMP), and Internet group management protocol (IGMP).
• Traditionally, this layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to
IPv6, enabling the accommodation of a much more significant number of
addresses and security measures.

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• Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally
synonymous with the transport layer of the OSI model.
• This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control,
congestion control, segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end
manner; it is also independent of the underlying network.
• Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are
the core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it to
have the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services
between two or more hosts or networked devices.

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Application Layer:
• The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the TCP/IP protocol
suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the OSI model’s
session, presentation, and application layers.
• This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying
layers and defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
• Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple
mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing
information protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol
(SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated with this layer.

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Internet Protocols vs OSI

Application
• Explicit
Presentation and
Presentation Application session layers
missing in Internet
Session Protocols
Transport TCP • Data Link and
IP Network Layers
Network
redesigned
Data Link Network Interface

Physical Hardware