AE292: Special Topics in Aerospace Engineering

Measurement and Analysis of Fluid Flows

 Lecture 1

Measurement:

Act of comparing the amount of a given quantity/parameter with a

standard of measurement.

In science and engineering we deal with measurable quantities – length,

time, mass, temperature, electric charge, velocity etc.

Measurement is at the heart of any scientific endeavor and that is what

brings it precision (as against say philosophy)

The quantity to be measured is called a measurand.

The objectivity of science lies in carrying out an “experiment” involving

measurement of different quantities whose outcome is independent of a
specific observer (at least in the classical framework)
Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

1. Defining an objective

Industrial Testing / Applied fluid mechanical research / Fundamental research

• Industrial Testing

NAL SARAS 19 Seater Turbo-Prop

• Industrial Testing

ADA-AMCA

Mazagon Dock
aircraft carrier
• Applied Aerodynamics Research
Characterization of vortex breakdown over a delta wing for AMCA
• Applied Aerodynamics Research

Characterization of pressure fluctuations on a launch vehicle model

𝜃𝜃
• Fundamental fluid dynamics Research

Origin and scaling of “coherent motions” in a turbulent boundary layer

• Fundamental fluid dynamics Research

Understanding the physical processes in roughness induced transition

• Fundamental fluid dynamics Research

Understanding the process of “entrainment” in cumulus clouds

Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

2. Determining the quantities to measure (measurands)

Force, moments, pressure, velocity, temperature, heat flux, wall shear stress,
density etc.

3. Choosing a facility for carrying out the experiment

• Wind tunnel (Type: Low speed, supersonic, hypersonic, shock tunnel,

acoustic wind tunnel, automotive wind tunnel etc.)

• Water tunnel (e.g., free-surface water channel for studying surface waves,
towing tank etc)

• Specialized experimental facilities (e.g. water tank)

Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

4. Designing and building a model for carrying out measurements over

• Need to ensure blockage considerations

• Ensure similarity between model and prototype (match relevant non-
dimensional parameters).
• Try to obtain qualitatively similar physical processes for flow over the
model, if non-dimensional parameters cannot be matched.
• For research purposes, the model should be reasonably simple to enable
detailed measurements.
Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

5. Setting up the measurement chain

• Sensor/transducer/measuring probe
• Electronic circuit for power supply and signal conditioning
(filtering/amplification)
• Analog-to-digital converter (Data Acquisition system)
• Digital computer for executing the experiment and storing data
• Traverse system for moving the probe from one location to another
• Software (Labview/Matlab) for controlling/triggering different components
of the measurement chain
• “Experimenter”
Measurement Chain

Probes

3-axis Traverse Arrangement

Measurement Chain
Tunnel Motor Controller WT Test Section

Measurement Data Acquisition

Instrumentation System

Computer for Data

Processing And Analysis
Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

6. Measurement Process

• Calibration of probes
• Positioning and traversing of probes
• Carrying out the required measurements (usually in the form of voltage)
• Apply the calibration law to retrieve the physical quantity of interest
• Estimation of the errors/measurement uncertainty (e.g. performing
repeatability measurements)

7. Data Processing and Analysis

• Basic processing of the data to make sure it is physical/sensible (perform

quick checks on broad quantities)
• Detailed analysis of the data using various analysis tools
• Ask “right questions” commensurate with the objectives and try to seek
answers to them
Fluid Flow Experiments:
Components involved-

8. Reporting and presentation of results

• Plotting the data as graphs

• Presentation of the results in conferences/symposia or to the client
• Writing a report / research paper
Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Two important tools for designing an experiment:

• Dimensional analysis
• Control volume analysis

Similarity between model and prototype

Complete similarity

• Geometric similarity
• Kinematic similarity
• Dynamic similarity
• Geometric similarity
• Geometric similarity
• Kinematic similarity

Ratios of the velocity

components should be
identical between
model and prototype –
Flow direction
identical
• Dynamic similarity

Match the non-

dimensional numbers
involving ratios of
forces
In most cases, it is not possible to achieve complete similarity

Consider this example

Airbus A320
Cruise speed ~ 250 m/s

Wing span (S) ~ 36m

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) ~ 4m
Example of A320

Suppose we want to test the half model in 14 ft x 9ft wind tunnel.

(W=4.2m , H=2.7m)

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
• Geometric Similarity requires that is fixed.
𝑆𝑆/2
• Kinematic similarity requires that the half span should be less than 0.8 times
the tunnel width (for a typical WT W/H~1.5). We choose a factor of 0.75.
Example of A320

For the prototype: (𝑆𝑆⁄2)𝑝𝑝 = 18m

For the model

Kinematic similarity: (𝑆𝑆⁄2)𝑚𝑚 = 4.2 * 0.75 = 3.15m

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 4
Geometric similarity: = =
𝑆𝑆/2 𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆/2 𝑝𝑝 18

4 12.6
This gives 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚 = 3.15 ∗ = = 0.7m
18 18

So we now have model dimensions: 3.15 m half span and 0.7 m MAC

This gives the prototype-to-model scale ratio of 4/0.7 = 5.7 ~ 6

𝑈𝑈∗𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑈𝑈∗𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Match the Reynolds number: =
𝜈𝜈 𝑚𝑚 𝜈𝜈 𝑝𝑝
Example of A320

At 10 km altitude (cruise altitude) : ambient temperature is about −60𝑜𝑜 C = 213

K

Kinematic viscosity of air at −60𝑜𝑜 C : 𝜈𝜈𝑝𝑝 ~ 10−5 m^2/s

𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝 = 1.46 ∗ 10−5 kg/ms, 𝜌𝜌 = 0.4 kg/m^3, 𝑝𝑝 = 27kPa
𝝂𝝂𝒑𝒑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟓𝟓 m^2/s

Kinematic viscosity of air at 20𝑜𝑜 C :

𝜇𝜇𝑚𝑚 = 1.8 ∗ 10−5 kg/ms, 𝜌𝜌 = 1.2 kg/m^3, 𝑝𝑝 = 101.3kPa
𝝂𝝂𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟓𝟓 m^2/s

250∗4
Re𝑝𝑝 = ≈ 3 ∗ 107
3.5∗10−5

To get the same number for Re𝑚𝑚 ,

𝑈𝑈 ∗ 0.7
= 3 ∗ 107
1.5 ∗ 10−5 𝑚𝑚
This gives U𝑚𝑚 ≈ 640 m/s
Example of A320

The maximum velocity in low-speed wind tunnels is about 100 m/s

For the OCWT it is 70 m/s (after upgrade; at present 45m/s).

Thus it is not possible to match the Reynolds number.

The maximum Reynolds number achieved in the wind tunnel is

70 ∗ 0.7
≈ 3.5 ∗ 106
1.5 ∗ 10−5 𝑚𝑚
A factor of ~8 smaller

If we go for a full model testing, the WT Reynolds number will be 1.8 ∗ 106
(a factor of ~16 smaller).

This will require U𝑚𝑚 = 1280 m/s

The required WT
velocity will
increase by
another factor of
68.4
≈ 2 for
36
Boeing-747.

For full model

testing, the
required velocity
will be 2600 m/s
Example of A320
How about matching the Mach number (for the tunnel speed of 70 m/s):

Speed of sound: 𝑎𝑎 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

For the prototype : T = 213 K , 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 293 m/s

𝑈𝑈 250
(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)𝑝𝑝 = = = 0.85
𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝
293

For the model: T = 293 K (20 C) , 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 343 m/s

𝑈𝑈 70
(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)𝑚𝑚 = = = 0.2
𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚
343

• Be careful about taking into account the changes in the atmospheric

properties:

For example, if you calculate (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)𝑝𝑝 based on the ground temperature, it comes
out to be 0.73, which is misleading !
What do you do?

Reynolds number scaling or extrapolation necessary

Reynolds number scaling can be tricky

Form Drag on a circular cylinder / sphere

 Reynolds number scaling can be tricky

Skin friction for BL over a flat plate

Use a trip to cause an early transition to turbulence
Reynolds number scaling can be tricky
This is the case even when the objective is to carry out fundamental research
Superstructures

Large Scale Motions

Wind Tunnels

An apparatus in which a stream of air is generated under controlled conditions.

Let us look at the early history of wind tunnels

Father of Wind Tunnel

Francis Wenham in England 1870s

Wright Brothers Wind Tunnel 1901

• 6 ft long
• 16inch cross section
• Blower type (fan
driven 1-hp
engine)
• Maximum Speed
30mph = 13 m/s
Wind Tunnels – early history

Wind Tunnels at National Physical Laboratory, England

Thomas Stanton at NPL

1903: 2-ft diameter test section,

maximum speed 20mph = 9 m/s

1910: 4ft x 4ft cross section

Maximum speed 30mph = 13 m/s

Crocco’s Wind Tunnel in Rome1903

1m x 1m in cross section, maximum speed 65mph = 30 m/s

Fastest among the tunnels built during the first decade

Wind Tunnels – early history

Wind Tunnels at National Physical Laboratory, England

Closed-jet type test section in contrast to Open-jet used by Eiffel

Came to be known as NPL-type test section
Wind Tunnels – early history

Gustave Eiffel Wind Tunnel 1909, 1912 Paris

Experimental
Open jet type test section – Eiffel type Chamber
2m in diameter Max speed 40m/s

First wind tunnel to employ diffuser

i.e. diverging section after the test section and also
perhaps the contraction (in his 1909 tunnel)
Wind Tunnels – early history

Eiffel made significant contributions to experimental aerodynamics

1. Eiffel’s wind tunnel introduced many new features.

• Contraction
• Diffuser
• Hermetically sealed open jet test section.

He recognized the Pitot-tube principle:

1
𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 − 𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 2
2

2. Eiffel was the first person to firmly establish the utility of Wind
Tunnels
• Principle of Galilean invariance had been in use but the WT
results were still doubted.
• Eiffel compared force measurements from WT with those
from drop tests
Wind Tunnels – early history

3. Eiffel made detailed measurements of pressure distributions over

the wing surfaces
• Until then only total force was measured using a force balance
• He plotted detailed contour plots of pressure.
• This showed how the pressure gradients changed over the
surface
Wind Tunnels – early history

4. Eiffel showed that the total force is equal to the integrated effect of
the pressure distribution
• Did measurements using force balance
• Showed that this matches with the forces derived from pressure
distribution measurement

5. Eiffel showed that lift on a wing is derived primarily from the “vacuum”
(suction) created on the suction surface
• The presence of vacuum was not unknown at the time.
• Eiffel showed how it is distributed and how much it contributes to
the total lift.
• For a flat plate: 4/5 of total lift from the vacuum.
• For a circular arc aerofoil: 2/3 of the total lift from the vacuum.
Wind Tunnels – early history
Wind Tunnels – early history

6. Eiffel Conducted first WT studies on full aircraft model.

• He measured L/D ratios on the monoplane and biplane
aircrafts of that time.
• Showed that the WT results could be applied to the actual
flight.
• Did not however make use of dynamical similarity (Reynolds
number) while comparing the results.

7. Eiffel coined two terms used in aerodynamics

• “Wind Tunnel”
Wenham used “Artificial Current”
Wright brothers called “the apparatus”
Stanton at NPL called it a “channel”

• “Polar Diagram”
Plot of Lift coefficient v/s drag coefficient now called as “drag polar”
Wind Tunnels – early history

Ludwig Prandtl Wind Tunnel 1908, 1916 Gottingen

1908: 2m x 2m Cross section
1916: 2.2m x 2.2m Cross section
Maximum speed 116 mph ~ 50 m/s

First closed-return type wind tunnel – inspiration behind many of

the modern wind tunnels
Wind Tunnels – early history

Variable Density Wind Tunnel 1922 NACA USA

• Use of pressurized air (20 atm) to increase

the air density and therefore the
Reynolds number

• Entire wind tunnel inside a pressure vessel

• Annular return duct

Classification of Wind Tunnels

Open Circuit Wind Tunnel

Classification of Wind Tunnels

Closed Circuit Wind Tunnel

Several of the modern tunnels are closed test section (NPL type)
Different Types of Wind Tunnel • Aeronautical Wind Tunnels
NASA Ames 80ft x 120ft Wind Tunnel High Re-number

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇

Max Speed ~ 50 m/s

Different Types of Wind Tunnel
NASA Ames 80ft x 120ft Wind Tunnel

Full scale F18 Fighter jet

in the test section
Different Types of Wind Tunnel

NPL Compressed-air Wind Tunnel

• Similar to VDT of NACA

• Uses open-jet test section (although in NPL !)
Different Types of Wind Tunnel Uses heavy gas to increase Re
NASA Transonic Dynamics Tunnel

Helicopter model

F18 model for

aeroelastic studies
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Cryogenic WT - NASA National Transonic Facility

• World’s largest Pressurized Cryogenic WT

• Provides the largest range of Re number testing
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Cryogenic WT - NASA National Transonic Facility
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Spin or Vertical Tunnel
To study the free-flight spin
Characteristics of an aircraft

NASA Langley
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Spin or Vertical Tunnel
Different Types of Wind Tunnel

Cascade Wind Tunnel

Moving Cascade Arrangement

Different Types of Wind Tunnel

Cascade Wind Tunnel

Different Types of Wind Tunnel

• Icing Tunnel

NASA 6 x 9 ft Icing Tunnel at Lewis Centre

Temperature -40 C
Atomizers spray water droplets that freeze
Used for testing aircrafts flaying at low or medium altitudes in cold
conditions

• Smoke Tunnel

Used for flow visualizations

Different Types of Wind Tunnel

Smoke Tunnel
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Automotive Wind Tunnel BMT Teddington UK
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Automotive Wind Tunnel BMT Teddington UK
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Environmental Wind Tunnels

Boundary layer wind tunnel at BMT Teddington UK

Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Environmental Wind Tunnels

• Urban planning and Development

• Measuring wind loads on buildings and new cities to be founded
• Atmospheric boundary layer simulated in the tunnel
Different Types of Wind Tunnel
Environmental Wind Tunnels

• Testing of Bridge Models

Water Tunnel/Channel
Towing Tank
Cavitation Tunnel
Soap Film Tunnel

To study
• 2-D Turbulence
• Vortex shedding past bodies
Aero-acoustic wind
tunnel
General Layout of the wind tunnels

Closed circuit wind tunnel

General Layout of the wind tunnels

Closed circuit wind tunnel

General Layout of the wind tunnels

Closed circuit wind tunnel

General Layout of the wind tunnels

Open circuit wind tunnel

General Layout of the wind tunnels

Need for flow conditioning

• Sources of “unsteadiness”:

1. Turbulence in the boundary layers, corner vanes etc.

2. Flow separation due to poorly designed corner vanes, diffusers etc.
3. Fan performance degradation due to increased blockage in the test section.

• Sources of acoustic noise:

1. Motor shaft vibration

2. Non-uniform flow past fan blades – blade passing frequency
3. Wind tunnel panels and vanes excited by turbulent boundary layers

• Sources of non-uniformity:

1. Flow asymmetry at the corner vanes

2. Boundary layer growth, especially in the return circuit
3. Swirl introduced by the fan
4. Model wake for high blockage model
General Layout of the wind tunnels

Honeycomb

Screens
General Layout of the wind tunnels

Honeycomb:

Flow straightener

Damps out cross-

stream components of
velocity and promotes
the streamwise
component
General Layout of the wind tunnels

Screen:

Pressure drop proportional

to the oncoming dynamic
head

Higher the pressure drop,

lower the velocity in the
wake.
(there is also acceleration
of flow through the
openings)

Improves uniformity of the

flow
General Layout of the wind tunnels

Contraction:

• Improves flow uniformity

• Reduces the unsteadiness in

the oncoming stream

• Reduces the turbulence

level associated with the
streamwise component.

• Cross-stream components
are slightly enhanced.
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc

Turbulence
Intensity
𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝑈𝑈

Instantaneous
Velocity 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Low-Speed
Tunnels at
AE, IISc
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section
(especially for industrial testing)

• It is implicitly understood that the Re-number similarity is generally not

possible to realize.
• Two effects associated with low Reynolds numbers: State of the boundary
layer (laminar/transitional/turbulent), Flow separation.
• The device used to ensure physical processes are reproduced : BL trip

• Flow separation:
Minimum Reynolds number for the WT testing should be such that it should
be possible to remove laminar separation by tripping the boundary layer
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section

Consider the example of a finite wing

(aerofoil section).

• Preston’s rule:

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 =
𝑈𝑈𝜃𝜃
= 320 at least, at peak x
𝜈𝜈
suction to avoid laminar separation,
i.e. to cause BL transition.

𝜃𝜃: Momentum thickness

∞
𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
• For a ZPG BL (Blasius) 𝜃𝜃 = � 1− 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 = 0.664 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 0

⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 ~2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 2 ~2 ∗ 105

The Design of Low-speed Wind

Tunnels by Bradshaw and Pankhurst
Prog. Aerosp. Sci
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section

• For an FPG BL, it takes harder to make it transitional, so consider the

minimum Reynolds number to be 3 ∗ 105

𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• That is = 3 ∗ 105
𝜈𝜈

• Consider 𝑈𝑈 = 50 m/s,
𝜈𝜈 = 1.5 ∗ 10−5 m^2/s

This gives 𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.09m ~ 0.1 m

𝒙𝒙𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
• Assume the aerofoil chord to be c =
4 ∗ 𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

This gives c ~ 0.4 m, which fixes the 𝒄𝒄

aerofoil chord.
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section

• Suppose we want to test the full model of aircraft.

𝑠𝑠
• For a typical aircraft, the aspect ratio = 8 − 10. Consider 9.
𝑐𝑐

• To obtain the same aspect ratio for the WT model, the span s ~ 3.6 m

• From the point of view of side-wall interference,

span (width) of model ≤ 0.8 * the WT width (for a particular H/W)

• This sets the tunnel width W = 4.5m

Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section
• For deciding on the tunnel height, one may invoke the blockage considerations.

blockage = frontal area of the model / cross-sectional area of the test section
Ideally blockage should be as small as possible <10%
Thumb rule is <5%

Returning to our example of A320,

The model scale comes out to be 1:10.

Wing span (S) ~ 36m Calculate the projected area of prototype and
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) ~ 4m divide by 100.
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section

• Normally the height of the wind tunnel is determined based on other

considerations,

e.g., the aspect ratio for which the tunnel wall interference is minimal is
W/H= 1.5-2. Thumb rule is 1.5

Other considerations involve

space constraint and cost of
construction.

• For W/H = 1.5 and W = 4.5

m, we get H = 3 m

Thus the cross-section size of the

test section (WxH) = 4.5m x 3m

For 14ft x 9ft OCWT at IISc: (WxH)

= 4.2m x 2.7m 𝜆𝜆=H/W
Typical considerations for sizing the wind tunnel test section

• Cross-sectional shape can be rectangular, circular or Octagonal

OCWT: Octagonal (to minimize corner effects, ease of model mounting)

• Length of test section < 3 * tunnel height to avoid excessive BL growth

OCWT: test-section length = 6m.

• For smaller wind tunnels, the test section wall diverge to accommodate
for the BL growth. Typical half angles of divergence < 0.5𝑜𝑜

• For the 0.5m x 0.5m test section tunnel,

the taper given to the side walls is 1 in 500, which is 0.002 radians
which is equal to 0.12𝑜𝑜

• Not all wind tunnels are equipped with wall divergence.

For example, the 0.6m x 0.6m tunnel does not have any divergence.
< 0.5𝑜𝑜
Analog-to-digital conversion - Aliasing
Analog-to-digital conversion - Aliasing