KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATAN

TINSUKIA REGION

STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL 2021-22

PHYSICS (042) FOR CLASS XII

Chief Patron
Shri S V Joglekar
Deputy Commissioner I/c
Tinsukia Region

Patron
Shri Sojan P. John
Assistant Commissioner

Co-Ordinator: Mr. Chandra Sekhar, Principal, KV Along

PREPARED BY:
1. Mr. Irfan Ahmad, PGT (Physics), KV Oil, Duliajan
2. Mrs. Ch. Kiranmala, PGT (Physics), KV No. 3Imphal
3. Mr. Sanjay Dalal, PGT (Physics), KV Dirang
4. Ms. Shama, PGT (Physics), KV NERIST

MODERATED BY:
1. Sh. P B Pandey, Principal, KV Dinjan
2. Mr. Sriram, PGT(Physics) KV Along
3. Ms. Rini C Verma, PGT(Physics) KV Rangapahat Cantt.
4. Mr. Sachin Kumar, PGT(Physics) KV Dibrugarh
 FOREWORD
Providing Support Material to students is a tradition in Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan.
The Support material prepared by the subject experts includes all the necessary changes
introduced by CBSE so as to acquaint our student with the changes in curriculum, pattern and
design of questions, topic-wise weightage of marks, MCQs, VSA, SA, LA-1, LA-2 , topic wise
common errors along with previous years' CBSE questions, CCT based questions and
questions based on Case Study .

This students’ support material is surely a meticulous work undertaken by the subject
experts of the Region with an aim to help students’ excellent learning. This comprehensive
material has been crafted in a lucid language to efface any trace of ambiguity from the learners’
minds. Each unit has been moulded scholastically keeping in mind the doubts that may arise
while a young learner deals with the concept. A variety of questions in different designs, like
Assertion-Reason Questions and Multiple-Choice Questions, have been dealt with, to prepare
the students for every possible pattern that could appear in Term II Examination. Descriptive
questions have been included for detailed reading. Important formulae and the core concept
of each chapter have been highlighted for easy revision. HOTS questions can help the students
to think outside the confines of the textbook. Mind maps will help the students to grasp the
ideas as part of a coherent structure. Inclusion of MCQ based questions is for rapid revision.
This succinct material, prepared as per latest CBSE syllabus, would help the students to
comprehend thoroughly and revise swiftly.
I hope this material will prove to be a good tool for quick revision and will serve the
purpose of enhancing students’ confidence level to help them perform better. Planned study
blended with hard work, good time management and sincerity will help the students reach the
pinnacle of success.
All teachers and students are requested to share their feedback to us.
I express my gratitude to Shri Sojan P John, Assistant Commissioner, KVS RO
Tinsukia, Principal Coordinators, teachers whoever involved in preparation and moderation of
Support Material.

Happy & Joyful Learning !

(S.V. Joglekar)
Deputy Commissioner (I/c)
KVS RO Tinsukia
PHYSICS
Class-XII
 CHAPTER -8 (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)

IMPORTANT POINTS :

*Conduction current and displacement current together have the property of continuity.
Conduction current & displacement current are precisely the same.

 Conduction current arises due to flow of electrons in the conductor. Displacement current
arises due to electric flux changing with time.

Electromagnetic wave (E M Waves) : - Electromagnetic wave is a wave in which electric and

magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.
 Properties/Characteristics of electromagnetic waves
(1) E. M. waves are produced by accelerated charged particles. For example an
oscillating charge, a charge moving in a circular orbit.
(2) E.M. waves are transverse in nature i,e, Electric & magnetic fields are oscillate
perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
(3) The amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields in free space or vacuum are
𝐸 𝐸
related with each other 𝐵 = 𝐵0 =c
0
(4) The electromagnetic waves do not require any material medium for their
propagation. These waves can propagate in vacuum as well as in a medium.
(5) All electromagnetic waves travel in free space or vacuum with a speed 3X10 8 m/s
1
and it is given by the relation c = = 3X108 m/s
μ ε
√ 0 0

(6) The EM waves are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields because these
waves are uncharged.
(7) The electric field vector is responsible for optical effects of an EM waves and is
called light vector as E0 ˃˃ B0 .
(8) In EM waves, the oscillations of electric field and magnetic field are in the same phase.
(9) The EM waves obey principle of superposition.
(10) E.M. waves carry energy, which is shared equally by electric and magnetic fields.
(11) The velocity of electromagnetic waves depends entirely on the electric and magnetic
properties the medium in which they travel and is independent of the amplitude of field
vectors.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: It is the orderly distribution/classification of electromagnetic waves

according to their wavelength or frequency.
 1 Mark questions

Q.The frequency values of, ν1and ν2, for two spectral lines of the e.m. spectrum, are found
to be 5X1020 Hz and 2.5x1011 Hz respectively. Find the ratio, λ1/λ2 of their wavelengths.

Ans. As λ= c/ν therefore λ1/λ2 = ν2/ν1 = 2.5x1011/5X1020

Q.Welders wear special goggles or face masks with glass windows to protect their eyes
from electromagnetic radiations. Name the radiations and write the range of their frequency.
 Ans. The name of electromagnetic radiation is UV radiations and their frequency range
is 8 x 1014 Hz to 3 x 1016 Hz

Q.Name the characteristics of electromagnetic waves that (i) decreases; (ii) remain constant
in the electromagnetic spectrum as one move from ultraviolet region towards radio wave
region.

Ans. (i) The frequency of the electromagnetic wave decreases. (ii) The speed of
electromagnetic waves remains constant (c= 3x108 m/s).

Q.The velocity of propagation (in vacuum) and the frequency of (i)X-rays and (ii) radio
waves are denoted by (vx,nx) and (vR,nR) respectively. How do the values of (i) vx and vR (ii)
nx and nR compare with each other?

Ans. (i) vx = vR (ii) nx ˃ nR

Q. What are the directions of electric and magnetic field vectors relative to each other and
relative to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves?

Ans. In electromagnetic waves electric & magnetic fields are oscillate perpendicular to each
other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Q. Thin ozone layer on top of stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?

Ans. The UV rays coming from the Sun are absorbed by ozone layer and prevents it from
reaching the earth and causing damage to life.

Q.Identify the electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths vary as (a) 10-12m ˂ λ ˂ 10-8m (b)
10-3m ˂ λ ˂ 10-1m

Ans. (a) X-rays (b) Microwaves

Q . Why are infrared waves sometimes referred to as heat waves/radiations?

Ans. Because they produce intensive heating effect.

Q. Draw a sketch of linearly polarized em waves propagating in the Z-direction. Indicate the
directions of the oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

Ans:…….

Q. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in order of increasing frequency: γ-rays,

microwaves, infrared rays and Ultraviolet rays

Ans. Microwaves, infrared rays, Ultraviolet rays, γ-rays

Q. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in order of decreasing frequency: x-rays,

γ-rays, microwaves, UV rays and infrared rays

Ans. γ-rays, x-rays, UV rays, infrared rays and Microwaves

Q. Arrange the following em waves in order of their increasing wavelength: γ-rays,
Microwaves, X-rays, U.V. rays and Radio waves

Ans. γ-rays< X-rays˂ UV rays < Microwaves < Radio waves

Q. Name the em radiation used for viewing object through haze and fog.

Ans: Infrared radiation.

Q.How does the speed of em wave in vacuum depends on absolute permeability and absolute
permittivity?

1
Ans: The speed of em wave in vacuum is given by the relation c = = 3X108 m/s
√μ0 ε0

Q What is an electromagnetic spectrum ?

Q Name the part of em wave which is used in radiography.

Ans: X-ray

2 mark QUESTIONS

Q. Why are microwaves found useful for the radar systems in aircraft navigation?

OR State the reason why microwaves are best suited for long distance transmission of
signals?

Ans. Due to short wavelength, microwaves have high penetrating power with respect to
atmosphere and are not diffracted by the obstacle in the path of their propagation. This
makes them suitable for long-distance communication and found useful for the radar
systems in aircraft navigation.

Q.How is food cooked in a microwave oven?

Ans: When electric field oscillates, the water molecules in food also oscillates. When the frequency
of em oscillations matches natural frequency of water molecule, resonance takes place. The
oscillating water molecules impart thermal motion to the surrounding molecules of food. Hence,
food are heated and cooked.

Q.Why are infrared used for photography in fog and at night?

Ans: Infrared radiation are used in photography at night and also in mist and fog
because they have long wavelength and low frequency. As they are having low
frequency, the energy associated with them is also low so they do not scatter much and
can penetrate appreciably through it.

Q.The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is 1.5 X 1018 Hz. Calculate wavelength in angstrom.

Soln: Here, c= 3 x 108 m/s

Frequency, f= 1.5 X 1018 Hz

And wavelength, λ =?

From relation c = λf

𝑐 3 x 108 m/s
We have, λ= 𝑓 = 1.5 X 1018 Hz = 2.0 x 10-10 m =2.0 A0

3 mark QUESTIONS

Q.Write three properties of em waves. (Or ) Q.Write three characteristics of em waves.

Q. Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength 10-2 m and

mention its two applications.
Answer:
Name of the part: Microwave
Applications :

1. It is used in radar communication.

2. It is used in microwave ovens.
3. It is also used in analysis of fine details of molecular and atomic structure.

MCQ

Q1. The Amplitude of the magnetic field of a harmonic electromagnetic wave in vacuum is
Bo = 500 μT. The amplitude of the electric field part of the wave is

(A)153 x 10 4 N/C

(B) 150 x 103 N/C

(C) 500 x 10-3 N/C

(D) 150 x 10-3 N/C

Ans: (B) 150 x 103 N/C

Q2. Which of the following waves has the maximum wavelength?

(a)X-rays

(b)Infrared rays

(c)Ultraviolet rays

(d)Radio waves

Ans: (d)Radio waves

Q3. .The wavelength of a radio wave of frequency of 1 MHz is

(a)400 m

(b)300m
(c)350m

(d)200

Ans: (b)300m

Q4 In the electromagnetic spectrum, the visible spectrum lies between

(a)radio waves and microwaves

(b)infrared and ultraviolet rays

(c)microwaves and infrared spectrum

(d)X-ray and gamma ray spectrum

Ans: (b)infrared and ultraviolet rays

Q5. The part of the spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation used to cook food is

(a)ultraviolet rays

(b)cosmic rays

(c)X-rays

(d)microwaves

Ans: (d)microwaves

Q6. Which of the following shows greenhouse effect?

(a)Ultraviolet rays

(b)Infrared rays

(c)X-rays

(d)None of the above

Ans: (b)Infrared rays

Q7. Electromagnetic waves are produced by

a) Accelerated charged particle

b) Charge at rest

c) Charge at rest

d) None of these

Ans: a) Accelerated charged particle

Q8. Light can travel in vacuum due to its

a) Transverse nature

b) Electromagnetic nature

c) Longitudinal nature

d) Both (a) and (c)

Ans: b) Electromagnetic nature

Q9. In electromagnetic waves the phase difference between magnetic and electric field
vectors is

a) Zero

b)𝜋

c) 𝜋 /2

d) 𝜋 /4

Ans: a) Zero

Q10. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum has largest penetrating power?

(A)Radio waves

(B) Gamma rays

(C) UV rays

(D)X-rays

Ans: (B) Gamma rays

Q11. Properties of EM radiation are identified by using there:

(a) colour

(b) their use

(c) speed

(d) frequency or wavelength

Ans: (d) frequency or wavelength

Q12. Source of X- rays is

(A)Radioactive decay of the nucleus

(B)Vibrations of atoms and molecules

(C)Excitation of valency electrons in atoms

(D)Excitation of inner shell electrons

Ans: (D)Excitation of inner shell electrons

ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS

Write

A if Both Assertion and reason are true and reason is correct explanation of assertion.

B if Assertion and reason both are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.

C if Assertion is true, reason is false.

D. if Assertion is false, reason is true

Q1. Assertion: Electromagnetic waves do not require medium for their propagation.

Reason: They can’t travel in a medium.

Ans :C

Q2.Assertion: A charge moving in a circular orbit can produce electromagnetic wave.

Reason: The source of electromagnetic wave should be in accelerated motion.

Ans: A

Q3.Assertion: Environmental damage has increased amount of Ozone in atmosphere.

Reason: Increase of ozone increases amount of ultraviolet radiation on earth.

Ans: D

Q4. Assertion: Microwaves are considered suitable for radar system

Reason : Microwaves are of shorter wavelength.

Ans: A

Q5. Assertion : Gamma rays are more energetic than X-rays.

Reason : Gamma rays are of nuclear origin- but X-rays are produced to sudden deceleration of high
energy electrons while falling on a metal of high atomic number

Ans: B

Q6. Assertion: Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.

Reason: The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each
other and also perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Ans: A

Q7.Assertion: X- ray can be used for cooking.

Reason: X- rays exhibit the phenomenon of diffraction and polarization.

Ans: D

Q8.Assertion: Microwaves are commonly used in radar to locate flying objects.

Reason: Microwaves have smaller wavelength than radio waves.

Ans: A

Q9. Assertion : The velocity of em wave depends on Electric and Magnetic properties of medium .

Reason: Velocity of em waves in free space is constant.

Ans: B

Q10.Assertion: Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves having the smallest wavelength.

Reason: Gamma rays are having the lowest frequency.

Ans: C

CASE BASED QUESTIONS:

Read the passage given below and answer the following questions.

1. ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation. Radiation is energy
that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and
the radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The
other types of EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, infrared
light, ultraviolet rays, X- rays and gamma rays.

1. The classification is roughly based on?

a) Wavelength and frequency of waves.

b) Production and detection of waves.

c) The way of travelling of waves.

d) Yet to be discovered.

Ans : b) Production and detection of waves.

2. Which of the following is NOT an example of EM RAYS.

a) Radiotherapy(medicine).

b) Checking fractures.

c) Sterilisation.

d) Explosives.

Ans: d) Explosives.

3. Identify the pair having highest frequency and highest wavelength EM WAVES.

a) UV rays and X- rays

b) Gamma rays and Microwaves.

c) Gamma rays and Radio waves.

d) Radio waves and UV rays

Ans: c) Gamma rays and Radio waves.

4. What physical quantity is the same for X rays of wavelength 10-10m, red light of wavelength 6800
Ao and radiowaves of wavelength 500m?

a) Speed in vacuum (c)

b) frequency (f)

c) Scattering

d) Energy (e)

Ans: a) Speed in vacuum (c)

5. which of the following is the best method for production of infrared waves

a) bombardment of metal by high energy electrons

b) radioactive decay of nucleus

c) magnetron valve

d) vibration of atoms and molecules

Ans: d) vibration of atoms and molecules

2. GAMMA RAYS IN TREATMENT OF CANCER

Gamma rays are used in radiotherapy to treat cancer. They are used to spot tumors. They kill the
living cells and damage malignant tumor.
1.What is the source of gamma rays?

(A)radioactive decay of nucleus

(B) accelerated motion of charges in conducting wire

(C) hot bodies and molecule

(D)klystron valve

Ans: A)radioactive decay of nucleus

2. Which E M Waves are used to study nuclear structure?

(A) X-ray

(B) Gamma Ray

(C) UV Ray

(D)Microwave

Ans: (B) Gamma Ray

3. Which EM Wave is used in the treatment of tumor?

(A)X rays

(B) X rays and Gamma rays

(C) UV rays

(D)IR rays

Ans: (B) X rays and Gamma rays

4. Which E M Waves are used to study Molecular structure?

(A)X rays

(B) UV rays

(C) Gamma rays

(D)Microwave

Ans: (C) Gamma rays

5. Which EM Waves has Highest penetrating Power?

(A)X ray

(B) Gamma ray

(C) UV ray

(D)Visible light

Ans: (B) Gamma ray

CHAPTER-9: RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
Refraction is the phenomenon of change in the path of light as it travels from one medium to
another (when the ray of light is incident obliquely).
It can also be defined as the phenomenon of change in speed of light from one medium to
another.
LAWS OF REFRACTION:
I Law: The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence and the
refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
II Law: For a given pair of media and for light of a given wavelength, the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. (Snell’s Law)

sin 𝑖
i.e µ = sin 𝑟

The constant μ is called refractive index of the medium, i is the angle of

incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

Absolute refactive index: Refractive index(n) of a medium is the ratio of

speed of light (c) in vacuum to the speed of light (v) in the medium .
speed of light in vacuum(c) 𝑐
i.e . n = =𝑣
speed of light in the medium (v)

Refractive index has no unit because it is a pure ratio.

The smallest value of refractive index is 1 and that is for free

space/vacuum/air

Refractive index of a medium can never be less than 1 because it is the ratio of speed of
light (c) in vacuum to the speed of light (v) in the medium and light travels with the fastest
speed in vacuum.
Relative refractive index: Relative refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1
is defined as is the ratio of speed of light (𝑣1 ) in medium 1 to the speed of light (𝑣2 ) in
𝑣 𝑛 sin 𝑖
medium. 𝑛21 = 𝑣1 = 𝑛2 =sin 𝑟
2 1

TIPS:
μ of optically rarer medium is lower and that of a denser medium is higher.
μ of denser medium w.r.t. rarer medium is more than 1 and that of rarer medium w.r.t.
denser medium is less than 1. (μair = μvacuum = 1)
In refraction, the velocity and wavelength of light change.
In refraction, the frequency and phase of light do not change.
aμm = ca / cm and aμm = λa / λm

Principle of Reversibility of Light:

𝑎 sin 𝑖
µ𝑏 =
sin 𝑟
𝑏 sin 𝑟
µ𝑎 =
sin 𝑖

Therefore,
aμb x bμa = 1 or aμ b = 1 / bμa

If a ray of light, after suffering any number of reflections and/or refractions has its path
reversed at any stage, it travels back to the source along the same path in the opposite
direction.
A natural consequence of the principle of reversibility is that the image and object positions
can be interchanged. These positions are called conjugate positions.

Refraction through a Parallel Slab:

𝑎 sin 𝑖1
µ𝑏 =
sin 𝑟1
𝑏 sin 𝑖2
µ𝑎 =
sin 𝑟2
But,
aμb x bμa = 1
sin 𝑖1 sin 𝑖2
× =1
sin 𝑟1 sin 𝑟2
It implies that i1 = r2 and i2 = r1 since i1 ≠ r1 and i2 ≠ r2.

LATERAL SHIFT:
𝑡 sin 𝛿
𝑦 =
cos 𝑟1
𝑡 sin 𝑖1 − 𝑟1
𝑦 =
cos 𝑟1
Special Case:
If i1 is very small, then r1 is also very small.
i.e. sin(i1 – r1) = i1 – r1 and cos r1 = 1
So,
y = t (i1 – r1) or y = t i1(1 – 1 /aμb)

APPARENT DEPTH OF A LIQUID:

TIPS:
If the observer is in rarer medium and the object is in denser medium then ha < hr. (To a
bird, the fish appears to be nearer than actual depth.)
If the observer is in denser medium and the object is in rarer medium then ha > hr. (To a
fish, the bird appears to be farther than actual height.)
**Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium is 90°.
Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index:

Total internal reflection :

It may be defined as the phenomenon of reflection of light that takes place when a ray of light
travelling in a denser medium gets incident at the interface of the two media at an angle
greater than the critical angle for that pair of media.

Conditions to get Total internal reflection :

1) Light must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
2) The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle.
Applications of Total internal reflection :

*Optical fibre : It is a device which can transmit light signals from one point to another
with very little loss of light intensity.

Its working is based on the principle of Total internal reflection .

** Mirage : It is an optical illusion observed in deserts and coal- tarred roads on a hot day .

The objects such as a tree appears inverted and the observer gets the impression as if the
inverted image has been formed by a pool of water .

It is due to Total internal reflection

SPHERICAL REFRACTING SURFACES:
A spherical refracting surface is a part of a sphere of refracting material.
A refracting surface which is convex towards the rarer medium is called convex refracting
surface.
A refracting surface which is concave towards the rarer medium is called concave refracting
surface.

APCB – Principal Axis C – Centre of Curvature

P – Pole R – Radius of Curvature
Assumptions:
Object is the point object lying on the principal axis.
The incident and the refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.
The aperture (diameter of the curved surface) is small.

New Cartesian Sign Conventions:

The incident ray is taken from left to right.
All the distances are measured from the pole of the refracting surface.
The distances measured along the direction of the incident ray are taken positive and against
the incident ray are taken negative.
The vertical distances measured from principal axis in the upward direction are taken
positive and in the downward direction are taken negative.

REFRACTION AT CONVEX SURFACE:

(From Rarer Medium to Denser Medium - Real Image)

Let O be a point object placed in the rarer medium on the principal axis of a
convex refracting surface of very small aperture and I be the real image of the
point object o formed as shown in fig.
From triangle AOC
i = α + γ [exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two non-
adjacent interior angles of the triangle.]
i = tanα + tanγ [since aperture of the surface very small, α and γ are very small so
that α≈tan α and γ≈tan γ]

𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
i= 𝑀𝑂 + [as tan 𝛼 = and tan 𝛽 = ] ……..(1)
𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐼

from triangle ACI

γ = r + β or r=γ-β
or r = tanγ -tan β
𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐴
r = 𝑀𝐶 - 𝑀𝐼 ………….. (2)

sin 𝑖 μ1
According to Snell’s Law, =
sin 𝑟 μ2
𝑖 μ1
= [since aperture of the surface very small, i and r are very small so that i≈sin i and
𝑟 μ2
r≈sin r]
Or µ1i = µ2r ………..(3)
Putting equation (1) and (2) in (3), replacing M by P and rearranging we get
 µ1 µ2 µ2 − µ1
+ =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶

Applying sign conventions with values, PO = - u, PI = + v and PC = + R ,we get

µ1 µ2 µ2 − µ1
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
This is the formula for refraction of light from a spherical refracting surface.

LENS MAKER’S FORMULA:

Consider a point size object placed at the point O on the principal axis of a thin convex lens as
shown in the fig.

Since the lens is thin ,the point P1 lies very closed to the optical centre C of the lens. Therefore
,we write 𝑃1 𝑂= 𝐶𝑂, 𝑃1 𝐼1 = 𝐶𝐼1 and 𝑃1 𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶1
Therefore , For refraction at the first refracting surface LP1N,we have,
µ1 µ2 µ2 − µ1
+ = (as if the image is formed in the denser medium)
𝐶𝑂 𝐶𝐼1 𝐶𝐶 1

For refraction at the second refracting surface LP2N, point I may be considered as the real
image of the virtual object I1 placed in the material of the lens. Actually material of lens does
µ µ µ −µ
not extend beyond the surface LP2N,so,it can be deduced that −𝑃1𝐼 + 𝑃 2𝐼 = −( 𝑃1 𝐶 2)
2 1 2 2 2
Since the lens is thin,the point P2 lies very closed to the optical centre C of the lens. Therefore
,we write 𝑃2 𝐼= 𝐶𝐼, 𝑃2 𝐼1= 𝐶𝐼1 and 𝑃2 𝐶2= 𝐶𝐶2
µ2 µ1 (µ2 −µ1 )
Therefore, + = (as if the object is in the denser medium and the image is
−𝐶𝐼1 𝐶𝐼 𝐶𝐶2
formed in the rarer medium)

Combining the refractions at both the surfaces,

µ1 µ1 1 1
+ = (µ2 − µ1 ) ( + )
𝐶𝑂 𝐶𝐼 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2

Substituting the values with sign conventions we get,

 1 1 µ2 − µ1 1 1
+ = ( − )
−𝑢 𝑣 µ1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 μ 1 1
 + 𝑣 = (μ2 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) …………..(1)
−𝑢 1 1 2
When the object is kept at infinity, the image is formed at the principal focus.
i.e. u = - ∞, v = + f. Therefore,
1 μ2 1 1
= ( − 1) ( − )……………(2)
𝑓 μ1 𝑅 1 𝑅 2
This equation (2) is called ‘Lens Maker’s Formula’.
1 1 1
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we get 𝑣 - 𝑢 = 𝑓 ……….(3)

Equation (3) is called thin lens formula

Linear Magnification:
Linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the
size of the object.
𝐼 𝑣
𝑚= =
𝑂 𝑢
Magnification in terms of v and f:
𝑓−𝑣
𝑚=
𝑓
Magnification in terms of u and f:
𝑓
𝑚=
𝑓−𝑢
magnification (m) is negative for a real and inverted image and it is positive for a virtual and
erect image.

Power of a Lens:
Power of a lens is its ability to bend a ray of light falling on it. Power of a lens is equal to
the reciprocal of the focal length expressed in metre.
1
Power (P) = 𝑓(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)

SI unit of power is diopter (D). The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave
lens is negative.

Lens formula: It is the formula that gives the relationship between object distance (u)
1 1 1
,image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a spherical lens. The formula is -𝑢=
𝑣 𝑓

Combination of thin lenses in contact If a number of thin lenses are placed in contact with
each other then the combination will behaved as a single lens of net focal length (F)and
power(P) given by
1 1 1 1
=𝑓 + 𝑓 + 𝑓 … ..
𝐹 1 2 3

P= 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … … ..
PRISM : Prism is a homogeneous, transparent, refracting material (such as glass)
enclosed by two inclined plane refracting surfaces at some fixed angle called refracting
angle or angle of the prism.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH PRISM:

In quadrilateral APOQ,
A + O = 180° …….(1)
(since N1 and N2 are normal)
In triangle OPQ,
r1 + r2 + O = 180° …….(2)
From (1) and (2),
A = r1 + r2

In triangle DPQ,

δ = (i - r1) + (e - r2)

δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2) …….(3)

From (3),
δ = (i + e) – (A)
i + e = A + δ ………….(4)
Thus,Sum of angle of incidence and angle of emergence is equal to the sum of angle of
prism and angle of deviation.

Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence:

When angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases.
At a particular value of angle of incidence the angle of deviation becomes minimum and is
called ‘angle of minimum deviation’.
At δm, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say)
After minimum deviation, angle of deviation increases with angle of incidence.

Refractive Index of Material of Prism: At δm, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say)

A = r1 + r2 or A = 2r
r=A/2
Using the above conditions in equation , i + e = A + δ we get,
2 i = A + δm or i = (A + δm) / 2
According to Snell’s law,
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑖
𝜇 = =
sin 𝑟1 sin 𝑟
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
sin
𝜇= 2
𝐴
sin 2

Refraction by a Small-angled Prism for Small angle of Incidence:

sin 𝑖 sin 𝑒
At first face , 𝜇 = sin 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
1 2
If i is assumed to be small, then r1, r2 and e will also be very small. So, replacing sines of
the angles by angles themselves, we get
𝑖 𝑒
𝜇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇=
𝑟1 𝑟2
Or i= 𝜇𝑟1 and e= 𝜇𝑟2
i + e = μ (r1 + r2) = μ A
But A + δ= i + e
So, A + δ = μ A [∵i + e = μ A]
δ = A (μ – 1)

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS :
 (REFLECTING TYPETELESCOPE):

𝒇
Magnifying Power: M=𝒇𝒐
𝒆

The advantage of reflecting type of telescope are as follows:

1. Less chromatic aberration.
2. High resolving power
3. Less spherical aberration
4. The reflecting type telescopes are cheaper than any other refracting telescopes.

1 MARK QUESTIONS :
Q.Two thin lenses of power +5D and -3D are in contact. What is the focal length of the
combination?
Ans: P= P1+P2=+2D
F= 1/P=1/2 m=50cm

Q.Two thin convex lenses each of focal length 20 cm are placed in contact. Find the focal length of
the compound lens. 1
Ans: f= 10 cm
Q.When light comes from air to glass , the refracted ray is bent towards the normal.Why? 1
Ans: Because the speed of light decreases when light comes from air to glass.
Q. Where should an object be placed from a convex lens to form an image of same size? Can it
happen in case of a concave lens? 1
Ans: At centre of curvature.
No
2 mark questions :
Q.Two lenses of power 10D and -5D are in contact.
i) calculate the power of the new lens.
ii)Where should an object be held from the lens so as to obtain virtual image of magnification 2 ?
Ans: P= P1+P2=+5D
𝑣
Therefore, F= 1/P=1/5 m=20cm ; m=𝑢 = 2
 1 1 1
Now, 𝑓 = 𝑣 - 𝑢 => u=-10 cm
Q.A converging lens has a focal length of 20cm in air.it is made up of material of refractive
index 1.5 . If it is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33, what will be its new focal
length?
Ans: hint:
1 μ𝑔 1 1
= (μ − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) ………….(i)
𝑓
𝑎 𝑎 1 2
1 μ𝑔 1 1
= (μ − 1) (𝑅 − ) ………….(ii)
𝑓𝑤 𝑤 1 𝑅2

Q.Show by drawing ray diagrams, how a totally reflecting glass prism can be used to
deviate a ray of light through i) 900 ii) 1800

Q.A ray-angled crown glass prism with critical angle 410 is placed before an object PQ , in
two positions as shown in the fig(i) and (ii). Trace the paths of the rays from P and Q
passing through the prisms in the two cases.

Q.

Ans:
Q. The magnifying power of an astronomical refracting telescope in the normal adjustment
position is 100.The distance between the objective and the eye-piece is 101 cm. Calculate
the focal lengths of the objective and of the eye-piece. 2
Ans: m=100, L=101 cm, fo = ? ,fe=?
𝒇
For normal adjustment position, m=𝒇𝒐 =100 => fo= 100fe
𝒆
Also , fo+fe=101
Thus , fo= 100cm and fe= 1cm

Q.Two lenses of focal length +0.2m and -0.25 m are place d in contact. Find the total power
of the combination. 2
Ans:
F1=+0.2m .f2= -0.25m
1 1 1 1 1
Now, 𝐹 =𝑓 + 𝑓 =0.2 + −0.25 =5-4=1m-1
1 2
 F= 1m
 Power ,P=1D
Q. Draw the labelled ray diagram of refracting type Astronomical telescope for distinct
vision. 2
Q. Draw a neat labelled ray diagram showing the image formation at infinity by a compound
microscope. 2

Q. Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of a reflecting telescope of any type. 2

Q The surface of sun glasses is curved, yet their power is 0.Give reason 2
Ans:Both the surfaces of sunglasses are curved and their radii of curvature are equal.
1 1 1
The power of lens, P=𝑓 = (µ − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )= 0 [as 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 ]
1 2
Hence, the power of sunglasses(lens) is 0

3 mark questions :
Q. Three light rays red(R), green (G) and blue(B) are incident on a right angled prism abc at
face ab. The refractive indices of the material pf the prism for red, green and blue
wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47 respectively. Out of the three which colour ray will
emerge out of face ac? Justify your answer. Trace the path of these rays after passing
through face ab.
Angle of incidence at face ac for all three colours = 450

A ray will get transmitted if the angle of incidence for it is less than the critical angle
for it.
1
i.e. i< ic => sin i <sin ic= μ

1
Now, sin 450 =
√2

Therefore , 450 is the critical angle for µ=√2 =1.414.

Hence, only the red colour(with µ= 1.38 which corresponds to the critical angle more than
450) ray will get transmitted . Blue and green colour rays will undergo total internal
reflection.

[**Cauchy’s formula :According to Cauchy’s formula refractive index of a material

depends on wavelength of light as
𝐵 𝐶
µ= A +𝜆2 + 𝜆4 + ………where A,B, C are constants]

Q. Draw a neat labelled ray diagram showing the image formation at the least distance of
distinct vision by a compound microscope. Write the expression for its magnifying power
when the image is formed at infinity 2+1
Ans: 1st part……
−𝐿 𝐷
2nd part: M= 𝑓 x 𝑓
𝑜 𝑒
Q. Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope used in the normal
adjustment position and write the expression of its magnifying power.2+1
Q.The focal length of a concave mirror is f. If an object is placed at a distance x from the
principal focus away from the mirror, What is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of
the object? 3
Ans:Given:
u= -(x+f)
1 1 1
From mirror formula we get 𝑣+ 𝑢 = 𝑓
 1 1 1
 is + = [as u and f is taken –ve for a concave mirror]
𝑣 −(x+f) −𝑓
1 −𝑥 −f(x+f)
 = f(x+f) => v =
𝑣 x
𝐼 𝑣 f(x+f)
 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑂=𝑢 =x(x+f) = f:x
Q. Obtain the relation between critical angle and refractive indices of two media. 3
Q. Discuss the difference between a refracting telescope and reflecting telescope by giving
three points 3

Refracting telescope

1)The objective is a converging lens

2)It suffers from chromatic aberration and hence the image obtained is multicoloured and
blurred.

3)It also suffers from spherical aberration also.It results in a blurred image.

Reflecting telescope

1)The objective is a concave mirror.

2)As the objective is not a lens ,it is free from chromatic aberration

3)spherical aberration is less

Q Give three advantages of reflecting type of telescope over refracting type telescope.
3

Q.A converging lens has a focal length f in air.It is made up of material of refractive index
3/2 . If it is immersed in water of refractive index 4/3, what will be its new focal length?
3.

Ans:
1 μ𝑔 1 1
= (μ − 1) (𝑅 − ) ………….(i)
𝑓
𝑎 𝑎 1 𝑅2
1 μ𝑔 1 1
= (μ − 1) (𝑅 − ) ………….(ii) => 𝑓𝑤 = 4f
𝑓𝑤 𝑤 1 𝑅2

Q.Show by drawing ray diagrams, how a totally reflecting glass prism can be used to
deviate a ray of light through i) 900 ii) 1800 3

5 mark questions :
Q. Draw the ray diagram for refraction occurs from rarer to denser medium at a single
convex spherical refracting surface and derive the relation
μ1 μ μ −μ
+ 𝑣2 = 2 𝑅 1 where the symbols have their usual meaning. 1+4
−𝑢

Q What is a prism? Prove that for a prism,

𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin
2
𝜇= 𝐴 where the symbols have their usual meaning. 1+4
sin
2
Q. Prove that for a prism,
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
sin
2
𝜇= 𝐴 where the symbols have their usual meaning. 5
sin
2

Q. Derive lens maker formula in case of a double convex lens. 5

SAMPLE MCQ

1. A glass lens is immersed in water. What will be the effect on the power of lens?

(A) increase (B) decrease

(C) constant (D) not depends

Ans: (B) decrease

2. How does the magnifying power of a telescope change on increasing the linear diameter
of its

objective?

(A) Power increases on increases diameter

(B) Power decreases on decreases diameter

(C) Power remain constant on increases diameter

(D) Power doesn’t depends on diameter

Ans: (D) Power doesn’t depends on diameter

3. Which of the following colour of white light deviated most when passes through a prism?

(i) Red light (ii) Violet light

(iii) Yellow light (iv) Both (i) and (ii)

Ans: (ii) Violet light

4. Two lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and - 40cm are held in contact. If an object lies at
infinity, image

formed by the lens combination will be a

(A) infinity

(B) 20cm

(C) 40cm
(D) 60cm

Ans: (C) 40cm

5. The characteristic feature of light which remains unaffected on refraction is

(A) speed

(B) frequency

(C) wavelength

(D) velocity of light

Ans: (B) frequency

6. How does the focal length of a convex lens changes if monochromatic red light is used
instead of

violet light?

(A) Focal length is increased when red light is used

(B) Focal length is decreased when red light is used

(C) Focal length is remain same when red light is used

(D) Not depends on color of light.

Ans: (A) Focal length is increased when red light is used

7. When a convex lens placed inside a transparent medium of refracting index greater than
that of its

own material

(A) It behave as concave lens

(B) It behave as convex lens

(C) It behave as a glass slab

(D) It behave as a glass prism

Ans: (A) It behave as concave lens

8. The deviation of a ray on passing through a prism is (μ-1)A FOR

(A) All conditions

(B) small angle A

(C) ) Large angle A

(D) In minimum angle of deviation case.

Ans: (B) small angle A

9. A thin prism of 12° angle gives a deviation of 6°. The refracting index of a material of the
prism

(A) 3/2

(B) 4/3

(C) 8/9

(D)9/8

Ans: (A) 3/2

10. The radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano- convex lens ,whose focal
length Is

0.3m & the refractive index of material is 1.5 is

(A) 1.5m

(B) 0.15m

(C)0.5m

(D)1 .25m

Ans: (B) 0.15m

11. The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope in the normal adjustment position Is

100.The distance between objective & the eyepiece is 101cm.what is the focal length of

objective.

(A) 100cm

(B) 1cm

(C) 50 cm

(D) 11cm

Ans: (A) 100cm

12. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and 25 cm are placed in contact. The effective
power of the

combination is:
(A) 45 D

(B) 9 D

(C) 19 D

(D)6 D

Ans: (B) 9 D

13. The angle of deviation for a prism is greatest for:

(A) violet

(B) red.

(C) orange

(D) yellow

Ans: (A) violet

14. An astronomical refractive telescope has an objective of focal length 20 m and an
eyepiece of focal

length 2 cm. Then

(i) the magnification is 1000

(ii) the length of the telescope tube is 20.02 m

(iii) the image formed of inverted

(iv) all of these

Ans: (iv) all of these

15. A convex lens is dipped in a liquid whose refractive index is equal to the refractive
index of the lens.

Then its focal length will

(i) become zero

(ii) become infinite

(iii) become small, but non-zero

(iv) remain unchanged

ARQ

Write:
A if Both Assertion and reason are true and reason is correct explanation of assertion.

B if Assertion and reason both are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.

C if Assertion is true, reason is false.

D. if Assertion is false, reason is true

1. Assertion(A) : The height of an object is always considered positive.

Reason (R) : An object is always placed above the principal axis in the upward direction.

Ans: A

2. Assertion(A): Virtual images are always erect.

Reason (R) : Virtual images are formed by diverging lenses only.

Ans: C

3. Assertion(A) : Refractive index has no units.

Reason (R) : The refractive index is a ratio of two similar quantities.

Ans: A

4. Assertion (A): Air bubbles shine in water.

Reason (R): Air bubbles shine in water due to total internal reflection of light.

Ans: A

5. Assertion (A): A diamond of refractive index √6 is immersed in a liquid of refractive

index

√3 . If light travels from diamond to liquid, total internal reflection will take place when
angle

of incidence is 30°.

Reason (R): μ = 1/sin C, where μ is the refractive index of diamond with respect to the
liquid

Ans: D

6. Assertion : Assertion : The optical instruments are used to increase the size of the image

of the object.

Reason : The optical instruments are used to increase the visual angle.

Ans: D
7. Assertion:- The focal length of an equiconvex lens of radius of curvature R made of

material of refractive index μ = 1.5, is R.

Reason : The focal length of the lens will be R/2.

Ans: B

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

1. Read the following and answer any four questions from (i) to (v).

The lenses forms different types of images when object placed at different locations. When
a ray is incident

parallel to the principal axis, then after refraction, it passes through the focus or appears to
come from the

focus.

When a ray goes through the optical centre of the lens, it passes without any deviation. If the
object is placed

between focus and optical center of the convex lens, erect and magnified image is formed.

As the object is brought closer to the convex lens from infinity to focus, the image moves
away from the

convex lens from focus to infinity. Also the size of image goes on increasing and the image
is always real

and inverted.

A concave lens always gives a virtual, erect and diminished image irrespective to the
position of the object.

(i) The location of image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed at infinity is

(a) at focus

(b) at 2F

(c) at optical center

(d) between Fand 2F

Ans : (a) at focus

(ii) When the object is placed at the focus of concave lens, the image formed is

(a) real and smaller

(b) virtual and inverted

(c) virtual and smaller

(d) real and erect

Ans: (b) virtual and inverted

(iii) The size of image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed at the focus of
convex lens is

(a) small

(b) point in size

(c) highly magnified

(d) same as that of object

Ans: (c) highly magnified

(iv) When the object is placed at 2F in front of convex lens, the location of image is

(a) at F

(b) at 2 F on the other side

(c) at infinity

(d) between F and optical center

Ans: (b) at 2 F on the other side

(v) At which location of object in front of concave lens, the image is formed between focus
and optical

centre

(a) anywhere between opticalcentre and infinity

(b) at F

(c) at 2F

(d) infinity

Ans: (a) anywhere between opticalcentre and infinity

2. Nowadays optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video signals
through long
distances. Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical
fibres are

fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of a core (
Inner) and cladding

(outer).

When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable

angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally
comes out at

the other end

Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in
the intensity of the

light signal. Optical fibres are fabricated such that light reflected at one side of inner surface
strikes the other

at an angle larger than the critical angle. Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel
along its length.

Thus, an optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe.

1. Light cannot escape an optical fibre due to refraction. This is because:

a) Critical angle for core with reference to cladding is too large

b) Its critical angle for core with reference to cladding is too small

c) The core is transparent

d) Rays always enter at angle greater than critical angle.

Ans: d) Rays always enter at angle greater than critical angle.

2. For total internal reflection to take place

(a) the ray must go from rarer to denser medium.

(b) angle of incidence should be less than critical angle.

(c) the ray must go from denser to rarer medium.

(d) angle of incidence should be zero.

Ans: (c) the ray must go from denser to rarer medium.

3. In optical fibre

(a) refractive index of core is kept less than that of cladding

(b) refractive index of core is kept more than that of cladding

(c) refractive index of core is equal to that of cladding

(d) refractive index of core is 1

Ans: (b) refractive index of core is kept more than that of cladding

4. If critical angle for core with reference to cladding is 60°. The refractive index of core
with respect to

cladding will be.

(a)23

(b) 32

(c) 2

(d) 12

Ans: (a)23

5. If angle of incidence is greater than critical angle than

(a) very small amount of light refract to cladding.

(b) small amount of light gets reflected in core.

(c) total light is refracted into cladding

d) total light gets reflected in core.

Ans: d) total light gets reflected in core.

CHAPTER -10 ( WAVE OPTICS)
 IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINATIONS
A. Huygens principle B. Interference of light C. Diffraction of light

A. Huygens principal

1. Wave front 2. Huygens principle 3. Reflection on the basis of wave theory.

4.Refraction on the basis of wave theory 5. Behavior of lens prism and mirrors towards plane
wave front

Wave front-
a) Wave front is defined as a surface of constant phase.

b) Wave front is always normal to light ray.

c) Wave front does propagate in backward direction.

Depending on the shape of source of light wave front can be of three types-

(1) Spherical wave front:-

When the source of light is point source the wave front is spherical.

(2) Cylindrical wave front :-

When the source of light in linear the wave front is cylindrical.

(3) Plane wave front :-

At a large distance from the source a small portion of the sphere can be
considered as a plane wave front.

Geometrical shape of wave fronts depending on source of light

==================================================================
=

One mark questions

1.What type of wave front will emerge from a distant sources and a point source?

2. What is the shape of wave front on earth for sunlight?

==================================================================
=

*State Huygens principle of diffraction of light.

According to Huygens :-

1) Every point on primary wave front acts as a fresh source of secondary

wavelets .Secondary wavelets travel in all direction with velocity of light
(3×108 m/s).
2) A surface touching secondary wavelets tangentially in forward direction
at any instant gives secondary wave front.

F = section of
primary wave
front after time t

F2 = surface of
secondary wave
front

MCQS ON HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

1) The idea of secondary wavelets for the propagation of a wave was first given by

(a) Newton (b) Huygens (c) Maxwell (d) Fresnel

Ans (b)

2) Wavefront is the locus of all points, where the particles of the medium vibrate with
the same
(a) phase (b) amplitude (c) frequency (d) period Ans (a)
3) Light propagates rectilinearly, due to
(a) wave nature (b) wavelengths (c) velocity (d) frequency
Ans (a)

4) Which of the following is correct for light diverging from a point source?
(a) The intensity decreases in proportion for the distance squared.
(b) The wavefront is parabolic.

(c) The intensity at the wavelength does not depend on the distance.
(d) None of these. Ans (a)

*Laws of Reflection using Huygens principle

AB = incident plane wave front

EC = reflected plane wave front

If v is speed of wave front in medium and t is

time taken by wave front to advance from the point
B to C then BC = vt

The secondary wavelet from A travel the same

distance vt and reach at E in time t so AE = vt

In Δ ABC and Δ AEC

AC = AC (common)

BC = AE = vt , AB = EC

Hence Δ ABC and Δ AEC are congruent .

∴∠i=∠r This proves first law of reflection.

*Laws of refraction by Huygens principle

AB = incident plane wave front

DC = Refracted plane wave front

/BAC = i incident angle

/ACD = r refracted angle

v1 speed of light in medium 1 (rare medium)

v2 speed of light in medium 2 (denser medium)

Let t is the time taken by plane wave front to

travel from B to C in rare medium

BC =v1t
in the same time refracted wave front advance from A to D with speed v2

AD = v2t
𝐵𝐶 𝑉1 𝑡
In Δ ABC Sin i = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

𝐴𝐷 𝑉2 𝑡
In Δ ADC Sin r = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶

Thus we obtain
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑉1 𝑡 𝐴𝐶 𝑉
= × = 𝑉1 …………….. (i)
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐶 𝑉2 𝑡 2

If C represent speed of light in vacuum then-

𝐶
µ1= (For rare medium)
𝑉1

𝐶
µ2 = 𝑉 (For Denser medium)
2

When light ravel from rare to denser medium then

μ 𝐶 𝑉 𝑉
µ=μ2 =𝑉 × 𝐶1 = 𝑉1 …………………..(ii)
1 2 2

From (i) and (ii)

Note-During refraction frequency of
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
=µ=μ
μ2 wave remains constant because
sin 𝑟 1 frequency is characteristic property
This proves Snell’s law. of source.

Behaviour of lens prism and mirrors towards plane wave front

PRISM:

A prism bends wavefront towards its base after it pass through the prism.

CONVEX LENS:

When a plane wavefront passes through a convex lensit get converted into
conversing spherical wavefront.
Concave mirror:

After reflection from the concave mirror plane wavefront turns into a conversing
spherical wavefront.

MCQS

1).The phenomena which is not explained by construction of wavefront

(a) diffraction (b) reflection (c) refraction (d) origin of spectra

Ans (d)
2). A plane wave passes through a convex lens. The geometrical shape of the
wavefront that emerges is

(a) plane (b) diverging spherical (c)converging spherical

(d)none of these

Ans (c)

3 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Define the term wavefront. Using Huygens wave theory, verify the law of
reflection.

2. Define the term, "refractive index" of a medium. Verify Snell's law of refraction
when a plane wavefront is propagating from a denser to a rarer medium.

3.Define the term wavefront. State Huygen's principle. Consider a plane

wavefront incident on a thin convex lens. Draw a proper diagram to show how
the incident wavefront traverses through the lens and after refraction focusses
on the focal point of the lens, giving the shape of the emergent wavefront.

4. Use Huygens principle to show how a plane wavefront propagates from a

denser to rarer medium. Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.

5. A plane wavefront propagating in a medium of refractive index n1 is incident

on a plane surface making the angle of incidence i as shown in the figure. It
enters into a medium of refraction of refractive index 'n2' (n2 > n1). Use Huygens'
construction of secondary wavelets to trace the propagation of the refracted
wavefront. Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.

6. Use Huygen's principle to verify the laws of refraction.

7. Using Huygens' principle draw a diagram showing how a plane wave gets
refracted when it is incident on the surface separating a rarer medium from a
denser medium• Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.
 5 marks questions

1. Define a wavefront. Using Huygens’ principle verify the laws of reflection at a

plane surface.

2. Define wavefront. Use Huygens’ principle to verify the laws of refraction.

3. (a) Define a wavefront. How is it different from a ray?

(b) Depict the shape of a wavefront in each of the following cases.

(i) Light diverging from point source.

(ii) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.

(iii) Using Huygens’ construction of secondary wavelets, draw a diagram

showing the passage of a plane wavefront from a denser into a rarer medium.

4. (a) State Huygens’ principle. Using this principle draw a diagram to show how
a plane wavefront incident at the interface of the two media gets refracted when
it propagates from rare to denser medium. Hence verify Snell's law.

(b) When a light wave travels from rarer to denser medium,explain the following
with giving reasons:

(i) Does the decreases in speed imply a reduction in energy carried by the light
wave?

(ii) Is the frequency of reflected and refracted light same as the frequency of
incident light.

5. Using Huygens’ construction, draw a figure showing the propagation of a plane

wave reflecting at the interface of the two media. Show that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

All-time hit: Most important questions

1. Define the term wave front. State Huygens’ principle of diffraction of light.

2. . Define the term wavefront. Using Huygens wave theory, verify the law of
reflection.

3. Define the term, "refractive index" of a medium. Verify Snell's law of

refraction when a plane wavefront is propagating from a denser to a rarer
medium
 4. Depict the shape of a wavefront in each of the following cases.

(i) Light diverging from point source.

(ii) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its
focus.
(iii) Using Huygens’ construction of secondary wavelets, draw a diagram
showing the passage of a plane wavefront from a denser into a rarer
medium

B. INTEREFRENCE OF LIGHT

1. Superposition principle 2.Interfrence of light. 3. Coherent sources 4. Youngs ‘ double

slit experiment. 5. Conditions for maxima and minima 6. Fringe width

Superposition principle

According to super position principle at a particular point in the medium the

resultant displacement produced by number of waves is the vector sum of the
displacements produced by each of the waves.

i.e 𝑦⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦1 +𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝑦
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝑦 4 ……………
3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

For example –

1) When two waves are in same phase i.e. Crest of

one fall crest of other then resultant amplitude
is sum of two amplitude.
𝑦⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦1 +𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2
2) When crest of one fall on trough of other then
resultant amplitude is equal to the difference
of amplitude of two waves. 𝐴⃗= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦1 −𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2

Coherent source

The source of light which emit light wave of same wavelength, same frequency
and in the same phase or having constant phase difference is called coherent source.

 Condition for obtaining two coherent source of light-

1) Coherent sources of light should be obtained from a single source.
2) The two sources should give monochromatic light.
3) The path difference between light waves from two sources should be small.
 4) Initial phase difference between two sources must be constant.

How to produce coherent sources?

There are two general methods for producing coherent sources-

(a) By division of wave front :

In this method the wave front is divided into two or more parts by using
mirror lens or biprism.
(b) By division of amplitude:

In this method the amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two or more
parts by partial reflection or refraction.

Interference of light

It is the phenomenon of redistribution of light energy in a medium on account

of superposition of light wave from two coherent sources.

The point where resultant intensity is

maximum is called constructive
interference.

The point where the resultant intensity is

minimum is called distractive interference.

Problem-Why no two independent sources of light cannot be coherent?

Solution- Two independent source of light cannot be coherent because light is emitted
from individual atoms when they return to ground state after excitation. Even the
smallest source of light contains billions and billions of such atoms which obviously
cannot emit light wave in the same phase and hence are non-coherent.

Young’s double slit experiment (YDSE)

In the double slit experiment two long parallel slits illuminated by parallel
beam of monochromatic light are used as the source of light.

A series of dark and bright strips called brings are observed on the screen point on the
screen where crest fall on crest appear bright due to constructive interference and
called bright bring when crest fall on trough then distractive interference lake place
and appear as dark bring on screen

Bright and dark brings are placed alternately and they are equally spaced.

If S0 is source of white light interference fringes are coloured and their widths are
unequal
Condition for constructive and destructive interference-

Let the wave from two coherent source of light is represented by -

Y1 = a Sin ωt

Y2 = b Sin (ωt+ Φ)

Where a and b are amplitude of two waves respectively.

ω is angular frequency .

Φ is constant phase angle.

According super position principle-

Y = y1 + y2 = a Sin ωt + b Sin (ωt+ Φ)

Resultant amplitude of resultant wave will be-

R = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ

As intensity ∝ (Amplitude)2

∴ I1∝ a2 = ka2

I2 ∝ b2 = kb2

And IR = KR2

= K (a2+b2+2ab Cosϕ)

∴ IR = I1+I2+2√𝐼1 𝐼2 Cosϕ

 For constructive interference .

I should be maximum
For which cos ϕ = + 1
∴ ϕ = 0, 2π,3π,4π,5π…..
 i.e. ϕ = 2n𝜋

where n = 0,1,2, ----------

if X is path difference between the two wave reaching a point with phase difference
then
𝜆 𝜆
X= 2𝜋 ɸ = × 2𝑛𝜋 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜋

X=nλ

Hence for constructive interference the path difference should be an integral

multiple of wavelength of light used .

For distractive interference -

I should be minimum .

For which cosΦ= -1

Φ = π, 3π, 5π ---------

Φ =(2n+1)π

Where, n=0,1, 2, 3, ----------

The path difference between two wave having phase difference ɸ.

𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
X= ɸ ⇒ (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝜋 2𝜋 2

λ
∴ X= (2n+1) 2

Hence for destructive interference the path difference should be odd integral of half the
wavelength.

𝝓
Show that intensity of resultant wave in interference is given by I ∝4a2 cos2 𝟐
(V. Important)

When two wave of amplitude a and b superimpose then their resultant amplitude is
given by R = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔ɸ

Suppose the amplitudes of two interfering waves are same i.e. a=b

R = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ =√2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = √2𝑎2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ)

𝜙 𝜙
R=√2𝑎2 (1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 − 1) = √4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
Since intensity is proportional to square of amplitude ∴ I ∝R2
𝜙
I ∝ 4a2 cos2 2

Constructive and destructive interference

Constructive interference:-

The point on the screen on which intensity is maximum after interference is

called constructive interference.

For constructive interference CosΦ = +1

R = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 = (a+b)

R = Rmax = a + b

∴ Imax ∝ R2max = k (a + b)2

Destructive Interference:-

The point on the screen on which intensity is minimum after interference is

called destructive interference .

For destructive interference

Cosϕ = −1

∴ R = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠ɸ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 = (a−𝑏)

Rmin = (a – b)

∴ Imin ∝ R2min = kR 2= k (a – b) 2

Note:-

Ratio of Imax and Imin is

Imax (𝑎+𝑏)2
= (𝑎−𝑏)2
Imin

If w1 and w2 are width of two slits from which intensities of light I1&I2 emanate then -
𝑤1 𝐼1 𝑎2
= =
𝑤2 𝐼2 𝑏2

Does Interference violate law of energy conservation ?

In interference pattern intensity of light is simply being redistributed. No

energy is being created or destroyed in this process.

Let I1 Intensity of first wave.

 I2 Intensity of second wave.

Before interference -

I = I1 +I2 = k a2 + k b2

= k (a2 +b2)

After interference -

Imax = k (a + b)2

Imin = k (a - b)2
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 +𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁 𝑘(𝑎+𝑏)2 +𝑘(𝑎−𝑏)2
Iav = = = k(a2+b2)
2 2

Thus total intensity of two wave is same before and after interference

Hence law of conservation of energy is obeyed in interference process.

Expression for Fringe width in Interference

Suppose A and B are two fine slit separated by a small distance d.

Point c is equidistance from A and B and hence

intensity is maximum at C, called central
maximum.

Consider a point P at distance x from C. The

path difference between waves reaching at
P is-

Path difference = BP – AP

In Δ BPR
1
BF =(𝐵𝑅 2 + 𝑃𝑅 2 )2
1
𝑑 2 2
= {𝐷 + (𝑥 +
2
) }
2

1
𝑑 2 2
( 𝑥+ )
= D [1 + 2
]
𝐷2

Expanding binomially -
𝑑 2
1 (𝑥+ 2 )
BP = D [1 + 2 𝐷2
]
Similarly - Important point about YDSE

𝑑 2 Highest order of maximum in one

1 (𝑥− 2 ) 𝑑
AP = D [1 + 2 ] side- n =
𝐷2 𝜆

 If whole apparatus is dipped in a

𝑑 2
1 (𝑥+ 2 )
𝑑 2
1 (𝑥− 2 )
medium of refractive index μ then -
P.D. = D [1 + −1− ] β` =𝜇
β
2 𝐷2 2 𝐷2

𝑥𝑑  Angular separation b/w two

= consecutive maxima or minima
𝐷
β λ
ω= 𝐷 = 𝑑
For constructive interferences (for bright fringe)
For two different wavelength
P.D = n λ
maxima coincide at a point then-
𝑥𝑑 𝑛𝜆𝐷
=nλ ⇒ x=
𝐷 𝑑 n β longer = (n+1) β shorter
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ---------  When a slab of refractive index µ and
thickness t is introduced in of the
 For distractive interference (for Dark fringes)
path of light then shift in fringe
𝜆
P.D.= (2n+1) 2 y=
(μ−1)t
β =
(μ−1)t
D
𝜆 𝑑
𝑥𝑑 𝜆
= (2n+1) 2
𝐷

𝜆𝐷
x = (2n+1) 2𝑑 Where n= 0,1,2,3----

Fringe width -

The separation between two successive bright or dark fringes is called fringe
width.

β =𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛
(𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
= −
𝑑 𝑑
Points to remember:-
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
= +𝑑 −
𝑑 𝑑
 If S is size of source , B is distance between source
=
𝜆𝐷 and slit ,𝝀 is wavelength of light ,D is distance
𝑑
between slit and source
Similarly for Bright fringes - 𝒔 𝝀
Then interference take place only when - <
𝒃 𝑫
𝛽′ = X’n+1 – X’n
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷  Angular width of a fringe is
= {2 (n + 1) + 1} 2𝑑 − (2n +1) 2𝑑
𝛃 𝝀
𝜽 = 𝑫= 𝑫
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
= (2n + 2+1) 2𝑑 − (2n +1) 2𝑑
 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
= (2n + 1) 2𝑑 + 2 2𝑑 – (2𝑛 + 1) 2𝑑 = 𝑑

𝜆𝐷
𝛽′ = 𝑑

Hence all bright and dark fringes are equal in length.

Note:-When source of white light is used then interference fringes will be coloured.

However centre of coloured fringe pattern will be white.

Condition for sustained interference of light

1) The two source of light should be coherent.

2) The two sources should be strong with least back ground.
3) The two sources should be monochromatic.
4) The coherent source must be very close to each other.
5) The two sources should be narrow.

==============================================================
=

MCQS

1. Which of the following does not show any interference pattern?

a) Soap bubble b) Excessively thin film

c) A thick film d) Wedge Shaped film

Answer: b

Explanation: An excessively thin film shows no interference pattern because in

that case, as the thickness of the film is negligible, the path difference, Δ,
between the two reflected rays turns out to be λ/2 which is the condition of
minima. Hence, the pattern is not observed.

The interference pattern is observed in the soap bubble, thick film, and wedge-
shaped film.

2. The main principle used in Interference is _____________

a) Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle b) Superposition Principle

c) Quantum Mechanics d) Fermi Principle

Answer: b
Explanation: Superposition principle is the basic principle used in the
interference of light. When the incoming light waves superimpose
constructively, the intensity increases while when they add destructively, it
decreases.

3. When Two waves of same amplitude add constructively, the intensity becomes
_____________

a) Double b) Half

c) Four Times d) One-Fourth

Answer: c

Explanation: As we know, I ∝ A2. Thus, as the two waves add constructively, their
amplitude becomes twice and hence the intensity becomes four times

4. The shape of the fringes observed in interference is ____________

a) Straight b) Circular

c) Hyperbolic d) Elliptical

Answer: c

Explanation: The fringes observed in an interference pattern are hyperbolic in

shape. When the distance between the slits and the screen is large, they appear
almost straight.

5. If instead of monochromatic light white light is used for interference of light,

what would be the change in the observation?

a) The pattern will not be visible

b) The shape of the pattern will change from hyperbolic to circular

c) Colored fringes will be observed with a white bright fringe at the center

d) The bright and dark fringes will change position

Answer: c

Explanation: When white light is used instead of monochromatic light, all the
seven constituent colours produce their interference pattern. At the centre of
the screen, all the wavelengths meet in phase and, therefore, a white bright
fringe is formed. Then the next fringe will be formed due to violet colour as the
wavelength is shortest for violet colour. This will be followed by indigo, blue till
red colour.

6. Zero order fringes can be identified using ____________

a) White light b) Yellow light

c) Achromatic light d) Monochromatic light

Answer: a

Explanation: When the white light is used, the central fringe is white in colour
while the rest are coloured. Thus, the central fringe can be identified using white
light.

7. Interference is observed only when the phase difference between the two
waves is zero.

a) True b) False

Answer: b

Explanation: For interference pattern, the phase difference between the two rays
must be constant. It is not necessary that the phase difference between the two
rays has to be zero.

8. The shape of the pattern depends on the ____________

a) Distance between the slits b) Distance between the slits and the
screen

c) Wavelength of light d) Shape of the slit

Answer: d

Explanation: The shape of the interference pattern observed depends on the

shape of the slits. If the shape of the slits changes, the shape of the fringes
changes.

9. A thin sheet of refractive index 1.5 and thickness 1 cm is placed in the path of
light. What is the path difference observed?

a) 0.003 m b) 0.004 m c) 0.005 m d) 0.006 m

Answer: c

Explanation: AS we know, the path difference introduced by the sheet = (μ – 1) t,

where t is the thickness of the sheet.

Here, μ = 1.5 and t = 0.01 m

Therefore, Δx = 0.5 X 0.01 m = 0.005 m

==============================================================
 1 MARK QUESTIONS

1. In Young's double slit experiment, the path difference between two interfering
waves at a point on the screen is 5λ/2 , λ being wavelength of the light used. The
……………..dark fringe will lie at this point.

2. If one of the slits in Young's double slit experiment is fully closed, the new
pattern has central maximum in angular size.

3. Write the conditions on path difference under which (i) constructive (ii)
destructive interference occur in Young's double slit experiment.

2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. The figure shows a modified Young's double slit experimental set-up. Here SS2 —
SSI = λ/4.

(a) Write the condition for constructive interference.

(b) Obtain an expression for the fringe width.

2. For a single slit of width 'a', the first minimum of the interference pattern
of a monochromatic light of wavelength λ occurs at an angle of λ /a . At
the same angle of λ/a we get a maximum for two narrow slits separated by a
distance 'a'. Explain.

3. (a) State two conditions required for obtaining coherent sources.

(b) In Young's arrangement to produce interference pattern, show that dark and
bright fringes appearing on the screen are equally spaced.

4. . Laser light of wavelength 640 nm incident on a pair of slits produces an

interference pattern in which the bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm.
Calculate the wavelength of another source of light which produces interference
fringes separated by 8.1 mm using same arrangement. Also find the minimum
value of the order (n) of bright fringe of shorter wavelength which coincides
with that of the longer wavelength. (Al 2012 C)

5. Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre
away. What is the fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm
is used?

6. . Laser light of wavelength 630 nm incident on a pair of slits produces an

interference pattern in which the bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm.
Calculate the wavelength of another source of laser light which produces
interference fringes separated by 8.1 mm using same pair of slits.
 3 marks questions

1. (a) If one of two identical slits producing interference in Young's

experiment is covered with glass, so that the light intensity passing
through it is reduced to 50%, find the ratio of the maximum and minimum
intensity of the fringe in the interference pattern.

(b) What kind of fringes do you expect to observe if white light is used
instead of monochromatic light?

2. Answer the following questions :

(a) In a double slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the angular
width of the fringe formed on a distant screen is 0.1 0. Find the spacing
between the two slits.

(b) Light of wavelength 500 Å propagating in air gets partly reflected from the
surface of water. How will the wavelengths and frequencies of the
reflected and refracted light be affected?

3. Why cannot two independent monochromatic sources produce

sustained interference pattern? Deduce, with the help of Young's
arrangement to produce interference pattern, an expression for the fringe
width.

4. (a) ratio of the widths of two slits in Young's double slit experiment is 4 :
1. Evaluate the ratio of intensities at maxima and minima in the
interference pattern. (b) Does the appearance of bright and dark fringes
in the interference pattern violate, in any way, conservation of energy?
Explain.

5. (a) Two monochromatic waves emanating from two coherent sources

have the

displacements represented by Y1 = a cos ωt and Y2 = a cos (ωt +ϕ) where

(ϕ) is the phase difference between the two displacements. Show that the
resultant intensity at a point due to their superposition is given by I= 4 I0
cos2 ϕ/2, where I0 = a2 (b) Hence obtain the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference.

6. In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference

pattern in a double slit experiment?

7. (a) Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a sustained

interference pattern? (b) In Young's double slit experiment using
monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the Intensity of light at a point on
 the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. Find out the intensity of
light at a point where path difference is λ/3.

8. . Describe any two characteristic features which distinguish between

interference and diffraction phenomena. Derive the expression for the
intensity at a point of the interference pattern in Young's double slit
experiment.

5 marks questions

1. In Young's double slit experiment, deduce the condition for (a)

constructive, and (b) destructive interference at a point on the screen. Draw a
graph showing variation of intensity in the interference pattern against position
'x' on the screen.

2. (a) Consider two coherent sources Sl and S2 producing monochromatic

waves to produce interference pattern. Let the displacement of the wave
produced by Sl be given by Y1 = a cos ωt and the displacement by S2 be Y2 = a
cos (ωt +ϕ)

Find out the expression for the amplitude of the resultant displacement at a
point and show that the intensity at that point will be I= 4 a2 cos2 ϕ/2 .

Hence establish the conditions for constructive and destructive interference. (b)
What is the effect on the interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment
when (i) the width of the source slit is increased ; (ii) the monochromatic source
is replaced by a source of white light?

3. (a). (i) Two independent monochromatic sources of light cannot produce a

sustained interference pattern. Give reason.

(ii) Light waves each of amplitude "a" and frequency ω, emanating from two
coherent light sources superpose at a point. If the displacements due to these
waves is given by Y1 = a cos ωt and Y2 = a cos (ωt +ϕ) where (ϕ) is the phase
difference between the two, obtain the expression for the resultant intensity at
the point.

(b). In Young's double slit experiment, using monochromatic light of

wavelength λ, the intensity of light at a point on the screen where path difference
is λ, is K units. Find out the intensity of light at a point where path difference is
λ/3. (Delhi 2014)

4. (a) In Young's double slit experiment, describe briefly how bright and dark
fringes are obtained on the screen kept in front of a double slit. Hence obtain the
expression for the fringe width.
(b). The ratio of the intensities at minima to the maxima in the Young's double
slit experiment is 9 : 25. Find the ratio of the widths of the two slits. (Al 2014)

5. (a) In Young's double slit experiment, derive the condition for (i) constructive
interference and (ii) destructive interference at a point on the screen.

(b) . A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 800 nm and 600 nm is used to
obtain the interference fringes in a Young's double slit experiment on a screen
placed 1.4 m away. If the two slits are separated by 0.28 mm, calculate the least
distance from the central bright maximum where the bright fringes of the two
wavelengths coincide. (Al 2012)

6. (a) What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young's double slit
experiment when

(i). the separation between the two slits is decreased?

(ii). the width of the source slit is increased?

(iii) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light?

Justify your answer in each case.

All Time Hit: Most important questions

1. Ratio of the widths of two slits in Young's double slit experiment is 4 :

1. Evaluate the ratio of intensities at maxima and minima in the
interference pattern.

2. In Young's double slit experiment, using monochromatic light of

wavelength λ, the intensity of light at a point on the screen where path
difference is λ, is K units. Find out the intensity of light at a point where
path difference is λ/3

3. In a double slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the

angular width of the fringe formed on a distant screen is 0.10. Find the
spacing between the two slits.

4. Write the conditions on path difference under which (i) constructive

(ii) destructive interference occur in Young's double slit experiment.

5. What kind of fringes do you expect to observe if white light is used

instead of monochromatic light?

Formula recap
 Resultant amplitude of resultant wave will be- R=
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔ɸ where a and b are amplitude of two waves and ɸ is
phase difference between two waves.

 For constructive interference the path difference should be an integral multiple

of wavelength of light used. X = n λ

 For destructive interference the path difference should be odd integral of half the
𝛌
wavelength X= (2n+1) 𝟐

 Intensity after constructive interference ∴ Imax ∝ R2max = kR 2= k (a + b) 2

 Intensity after destructive interference ∴ Imin ∝ R2min = kR 2= k (a + b) 2

𝜆𝐷
 Fring width = 𝑑
 Diffraction of light

Diffraction of light:

It is the phenomena of bending of light around the

sharp corners of an obstacle.

Single slit experiment

Suppose a parallel beam of light is incident normally on a slit of width a. A screen

is placed at the focal length of a convex lens placed just after the slit.

At the point O which is at the bisector plane of the slit, all the waves reach at O
travelling equal optical path and hence are in phase. Thus O is the point of central
maximum.

Let us consider a point P which collects the waves originating from different
points of the slit at an angle θ. The optical path difference between the waves from A
and B reaching at P will be -

BN=AB sin 𝜃= a Sin𝜃

Position of minimum:

Let point P is such that path difference BN=𝜆. If we divide slit in two halves AC
and CB then for every point in the upper half AC there is corresponding point in the
𝜆
lower half of CB for which the path difference between the waves reaching P is or
2
phase difference 𝜋 . These wavelets add up distractively to produce minimum.

Thus condition for first minimum i.e. first dark fringe -

𝑎 𝜆
∴ sinθ =
2 2

a sinθ = λ first minimum

Similarly other minimum are located at points corresponding to asin θ = 2λ, 3λ, ------nλ
 For nth minima- a sin θ = n λ

Position of maximum

If any other point P’ lies on screen (not shown in figure) is such that the path
𝟑𝝀
difference - a sin θ = then P, will be the position of first secondary maximum.
𝟐

Here it is assumed that whole wave is divided in to three equal parts so that path
𝜆
difference between first two Parts is . They will give rise to destructive interference.
2
The third part remains unused and they reinforce each other and produce first
secondary maximum.

In general for nth secondary maximum

𝜆
a sin θ = (2n + 1) 2 Where n = 1, 2, 3 ------

Width of central maximum

It is the distance between first secondary minimum on either side of central

maximum.

For first minimum on screen

a sin θ = λ

sin θ= 𝜆⁄𝑎 ------ (1)

If f is focal length of lens held close to slit then -

f = D (distance between slit and screen)

𝑥 𝑥
Sin θ ≈ θ = 𝑓 = ------ (2)
𝐷

From (1) and (2)

𝜆 𝑥 𝜆𝐷
= ⇒x=
𝑎 𝐷 𝑎

2𝜆𝐷
Width of central maximum - 2x = 𝑎

Angular width of central maximum

𝜆
Angular width=2θ , θ≈ sin θ= 𝑎

2𝜆
Hence 2θ = 𝑎

In double slit experiment what happen if we close one slit?

If one slit is closed than this will produce single slit diffraction pattern on the screen.
The centre of central bright band lie on straight line SS1 or SS2 as the case may be.

Difference between interference and diffraction of light

Interference Diffraction

1-It is due to super position of two coherent 1-It is due to superposition of secondary
waves. wavelets coming from different part of
same wave front.

2-All the fringes are of same intensity. 2-All the fringes are not of the same
intensity.

3-In interference pattern intensity of minima is 3- In diffraction intensity of minima is

zero or very small. never zero.

4-There is a good contrast between bright and 4-There is poor contrast between bright
dark fringes. and dark brings.

5-Width of interference fringes may or may not 5-Width of diffraction band is always
be equal (for white light fringes are unequal.) unequal.

Fresnel distance

The distance from the slit at which the spreading of light due to diffraction become
equal to the size of the slit is called Fresnel distance.
𝜆
First minimum is formed at angle ϴ= 𝑎

𝜆𝐷
After travelling a distance D the width acquired by the beam due to diffraction is .
𝑎

𝜆𝐷𝐹
At Fresnel distance ϴ=a, Hence a= 𝑎

𝑎2
Or DF = 𝜆

λ is the wavelength of light used.

If distance between slit and screen is less than Fresnel distance than diffraction
effect may be regarded as absent. So ray optics may be regarded as limiting case of
wave optics.

One mark questions

1. How does the angular separation between fringes in single-slit diffraction

experiment change when the distance of separation between the slit and
screen is doubled.
 2. For a given single slit, the diffraction pattern is obtained on a fixed screen,
first by using red light and then with blue light. In which case, will the
central maxima, in the observed diffraction pattern, have a larger angular
width? (Delhi 2010C)

2 marks questions

1. Draw the intensity pattern for single slit diffraction and double slit
interference. Hence, state two differences between interference and
diffraction patterns.

2. A parallel beam of light of 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the
first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre of the screen.
Calculate the width of the slit.

3. Yellow light (X = 6000 Å) illuminates a single slit of width 1 x 10-4 m.

Calculate (i) the distance between the two dark lines on either side of the
central maximum, when the diffraction pattern is viewed on a screen kept
1.5 m away from the slit; (ii) the angular spread of the first diffraction
minimum.

4. Two convex lenses of same focal length but of aperture Al and A2 (A2 < Al),
are used as the objective lenses in two astronomical telescope having
identical eyepieces. What is the ratio of their resolving power? Which
telescope will you prefer and why? Give reason.
(Delhi 2011)

5. Yellow light (X = 6000 Å) illuminates a single slit of width 1 x 10-4 m.

Calculate the distance between two dark lines on either side of the central
maximum, when the diffraction pattern is viewed on a screen kept 1.5 m
away from the slit. (Al 2011c)

3 marks questions

1. Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm and 596 nm are used, in turn to
study the diffraction taking place at a single slit of aperture 2 x 10 -4 m. The
distance between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the separation
between the positions of the first maxima of the diffraction pattern obtained
in the two cases. (2/3, Delhi 2013)

2. Use Huygen`s principle to explain the formation of diffraction pattern due to a

single slit illuminated by a monochromatic source of light.
 When the width of the slit is made double the original width, how would this
affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band? (Delhi
2012)

3. In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is reduced to half its
original width. How would this affect the size and intensity of the central
maximum?

4. (a) In a single slit diffraction pattern, how does the angular width of the
central maximum vary, when

(i) aperture of slit is increased?

(ii) distance between the slit and the screen is decreased?

(b) How is the diffraction pattern different from the interference pattern
obtained in Young's double slit experiment? (Delhi20i1C)

5 marks question

1. In the diffraction due to a single slit experiment, the aperture of the slit is 3
mm. If monochromatic light of wavelength 620 nm is incident normally on
the slit, calculate the separation between first order minima and the 3rd
order maxima on one side of the screen. The distance between the slit and
the screen is 1.5 m. (2/5, Delhi 2019)

2. (a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is made
double the original width. How does this affect the size and intensity of the
central diffraction band? Explain.

3. When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distant
source, a bright spot in seen at the centre of the obstacle. Explain why.
(3/5, 2018)

4. (a) Explain two features to distinguish between the interference pattern in

Young's double slit experiment with the diffraction pattern obtained due to
a single slit.

5. A monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a

single slit of width 0.2 mm to produce a diffraction pattern. Find the
angular width of the central maximum obtained on the screen.

6. Estimate the number of fringes obtained in Young's double slit experiment

with fringe width 0.5 mm, which can be accommodated within the region of
total angular speed of the central maximum due to single slit.
(Delhi 2017)
 7. Compare the interference pattern observed in Young's double slit
experiment with single slit diffraction pattern, pointing out three
distinguishing features.

8. (i) State the essential conditions for diffraction of light.

9. (a) Explain diffraction of light due to a narrow single slit and the formation
of pattern of fringes on the screen.

(b). Find the relation for width of central maximum in terms of wavelength
'X' width of slit 'a' and separation between slit and screen 'D'.

(c). If the width of the slit is made double the original width, how does it
affect the size and intensity of the central band? (Foreign 2016)

10. (a) Using Huygens' construction of secondary wavelets explain how a

diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen due to a narrow slit on which a
monochromatic beam of light is incident normally.

(b). Show that the angular width of the first diffraction fringe is half that of
the central fringe.

11. (a) Describe briefly how a diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen due to a
single narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Hence
obtain the conditions for the angular width of secondary maxima and
secondary minima.

(b) Two wavelengths of sodium light of 590 nm and 596 nm are used in
turn to study the diffraction taking place at a single slit of aperture 2 x 10-6
m. The distance between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the
separation between the positions of first maxima of the diffraction pattern
obtained in the two cases.

12 . (a) Write three characteristic features to distinguish between the

interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment and the diffraction
pattern obtained due to a narrow single slit.

(b) A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and
the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen I m away. It is
observed that the first minimum is a distance of 2.5 mm away from the
centre. Find the width of the slit.

13. (a) A monochromatic source of light of wavelength illuminates a narrow slit of

width d to produce a diffraction pattern 8] on the screen. Obtain the
 conditions when secondary wavelets originating from the slit interfere to
produce maxima and minima on the screen.

(b) How would the diffraction pattern be affected when

(i) the width of the slit is decreased?

(ii). the monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light?

(Foreign 2013)

14. (a) Obtain the conditions for the bright and dark fringes in diffraction
pattern due to a single narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic source.

15. Explain clearly why the secondary maxima go on becoming weaker with
increasing n. (b) When the width of the slit is made double, how would this
affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band ? Justify.
(Foreign 2012)
 practice TEST

OPTICS (RAY AND WAVE)

Section -A (1 mark questions)

1. (a) A lens behave conversing in air and diverging in water (µ=4/3). What will be the value of
refractive index of the material of the lens. (b) if lens disappear in water then what is the
value of refractive index of lens material.
2. (a )How does power of a lens vary if incident red light is replaced with violet light? (b) What
is dispersion of light due to?
3. A biconvex lens has focal length equal to radius of curvature of either surface. What is the
refractive index of the lens material?
4. What are two necessary conditions for the formation of rainbow?
5. A ray of light incident on an equilateral glass prism µ= √3 moves parallel to the base. Find
the angle of incidence for this ray.
6. A ray of light travel from rare to denser medium. How does its frequency change?
7. Relation between real depth and apparent depth is ……………………………………………
8. Write the principle on which optical fibre works.
9. Why oil immersed objective of compound microscope is preferred?
10. What do you mean by chromatic and spherical aberration?
11. How does the angular separation between fringes in single slit diffraction changes when the
distance between slit and screen is doubled?
12. Name the source of plane wavefront and spherical wavefront.
OR
What is the shape of wavefront on the earth for sunlight.
13. A small circular disc is placed in the path of light from a distant source. Will the centre of
shadow be bright or dark?
14. Why does blue color predominant in clear sky?
15. The ratio of intensities of two waves is 9:16. Ratio of amplitudes of the waves is
……………………..
16. If monochromatic light is replaced by white light in young’s double slit experiment then how
fringes are affected?
.
Section B (2 marks questions.)
17. A laser light of wavelength 630 nm incident on a pair of slits produce an interference pattern
in which bright fringes are separated by 7.2 nm. Calculate wavelength of another source of
laser light which produce interference fringes separated by 8.1nm using same pair of slits.
18. (i)What is the relation between critical angle and refractive index of a medium? (ii) Does
critical angle depend on the color of light? Explain.
OR
What is total internal reflection? Write its essential condition to take place.
19. Draw a labeled ray diagram of a reflecting telescope. Mention its two advantages
over the refracting telescope.
OR
 Draw a schematic ray diagram of a compound microscope when image is formed
at distance of distinct Vision .Write the expression for resolving power of a
compound microscope. How can the resolving power of a microscope be
increased
20. Derive Lens Maker’s Formula by using suitable diagram.
21. You are given three lenses L1, L2 and L3 each of focal
length 10 cm. An object is kept at 15 cm in front of L1
as shown. The final real image is formed t the focus I
of L3. Find the separation between L1, L2 and L3.
22. Define wave front. State huygen,s principal.
23. What are coherent source of light? Why two independent source can be coherent?
Section C (3 marks questions)
24. Define wavefront. Using huygen principle prove laws of reflection.
μ2 μ1 μ2 −μ1
25. For a spherical reflecting surface prove the relation − = where symbols
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
have their usual meaning.
1 1
26. For the combination of two thin lenses of focal length f 1 and f2 prove that 𝑓 = +
𝑓1
1
.
𝑓2
27. For a prism at minimum deviation derive relation between its refractive index, angle
of prism and angle of minimum deviation.
28. A fish is below the height H from the water surface. Find the minimum area which is
visible to fish out the water.
29. In young double slit experiment intensity of central bright band is K. Find the
𝜆
intensity at the point (in term of K) where path difference is .
3
OR
A beam of light consisting two wavelength 520nm and 650nm is used to obtain
interference pattern in double slit experiment. What is the least distance from the
central maximum where the bright fringes due to both wavelengths coincide?
Section D (5 marks question)
30. (a) In young’s double slit experiment discuss the condition of constrictive and
destructive interference. (b) Differentiate between interference and diffraction
pattern.
31. Draw a labeled ray diagram to obtain the real image formed by an astronomical
telescope in normal adjustment position and derive relation for its magnifying
power. (b) You are given three lenses of power 0.5 D, 4D and 10D to design a
telescope. (i)Which lenses should he used as objective and eyepiece? Justify
your answer. (ii) Why is the aperture of the objective preferred to be large?
32. State essential condition for diffraction to take place. Use huygen principle to
explain diffraction of light due to a narrow slit and the formation of pattern of
fringes obtained on the screen.
OR
Draw wave front due to a line source and a point source. Using Huygens principle
prove Snell’s law.
 . Unit – 7 (5 Marks) .

CHAPTER -10 ( Dual nature of matter and Radiation )

===============================================================
 Wave theory of electromagnetic radiations explained the phenomenon of interference,
diffraction and polarization. On the other hand, quantum theory of e.m. radiations
successfully explained the photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black body radiations, X-
ray spectra, etc. Thus, radiations have dual nature. i.e. wave and particle nature.
In some case light behave as a wave and in some case it behave as particle. This
nature of light is called dual nature of light.

Note:
In no experiment, matter exists both as a particle and as a wave simultaneously. It is
either the one or the other aspect. i.e. The two aspects are complementary to each other.

Electron emission and it’s type

The phenomena of emission of electron from the surface of metal are called
electron emission.

Type of electron emission: -

i) Thermionic emission: -
This is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
metal surface when metal surface is heated sufficiently.
ii) Field emission: -
It is the phenomenon of emission of electron from metal surface
under the application of strong electric field.
iii) Secondary emission: -
It is the phenomenon of emission of electron from metal surface
when fast moving electron strike the metal surface.
iv) Photo electric emission: -
It is the phenomenon of emission of electron from the surface of
metal when radiations of suitable frequency fall on metal surface.
The emitted electrons are called photoelectron and current so produced is
called photoelectric current.
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz.

Particle nature of light :The Photon

Photons are the packets of energy emitted by a source of radiation. One quantum
of light radiation is called a photon.

Important properties of photon: -

i. Energy of photon is given by E = h υ.

ℎ
ii. Momentum of photon is given by P = 𝜆 .
iii. Photon travel in space with speed of light .
iv. The velocity of photon is different in different media.
 v. Photon are electrical neutral .
vi. Rest mass of photon is zero.

Photoelectric effect:

The phenomena of emission of electrons from metal surface when electromagnetic

radiation of suitable frequency are incident on it, is called photoelectric effect.

The photo generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

Hertz’s arrangement for study of photoelectric effect:

Observation by Hertz

(i) No photo electrons are ejected if incident

radiations have frequency less than certain
minimum frequency, called threshold frequency
After threshold frequency , no. of photoelectrons
increases and hence current , on increasing
intensity of incident radiation.

(ii) The Maximum kinetic energy increases with

increase in the frequency of light. With a higher
frequency of light the stopping potential becomes
more negative which implies that the kinetic
energy of electrons also increases with increase
in potential.

(iii) The process of photoelectric effect takes place instantaneously

Law of Photo electric emission: -

i. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation the no. of electrons emitted
per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light .
OR
For a given metal photocurrent is directly proportional to intensity of incident
radiation.
ii. For a given metal below threshold frequency no emission of photo electron takes
place.
iii. Above threshold frequency maximum K.E of emitted photo electron is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
iv. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. It takes place in less
than 10-9 second.

Work function: -

Work function of a metal is the minimum energy required by an electron to just

escape from the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining forces at the surface.

Threshold frequency: -
The certain minimum frequency of incident light below which no photo electron
ejects out from the given metal surface is called threshold frequency.
Stopping potential or cut off potential (Vo):
It is the minimum –ve potential V0 given to collector plate w.r.t. emitter
plate at which the photoelectric current becomes zero.
𝟏
At stopping potential KE= 𝟐 mv2 = eVo

Stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency of incident radiation. It is

independent on the intensity of incident radiation.

Graphs related to photo electric effect

i) Frequency (υ) v/s stopping potential V0

eV0 = hυ – Φ0
ℎ𝑣 Φ0
V0 = −
𝑒 𝑒
Φ0
For a given metal is constant Hence V0 ∝ υ
𝑒
𝒉
Slope of the graph gives 𝒆

ii) Frequency (υ) v/s maximum kinetic energy

Kmax = hυ – Φ0
For a given metal Φ0 is constant.
Hence Kmax ∝ υ

iii) Frequency (υ) v/s photoelectric current I

 At constant intensity photoelectric
current is independent to frequency
of incident radiation

iv)Intensity
v/s stopping potential (V0)
At constant frequency magnitude of stopping
potential is independent on the intensity of
incident radiation.
v) Time v/s photo electric current (I)

The photo electric current get saturation

value in 10-9 second.

===============================================================
Photoelectric Effect

1 mark questions

1. Define the term "threshold frequency", in the context of photoelectric emission.

(Delhi 2019)

2. Define the term "Intensity" in photon picture of electromagnetic radiation. (Delhi

2019)

===================================================================

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

1 mark questions

1. The figure shows the variation of stopping potential Vo with the frequency t) of
the incident radiations for two photosensitive metals P and Q. Which metal has
smaller threshold wavelength ? Justify your answer. (Al 2019)

2. Draw graphs showing variation of photoelectric current with applied voltage for
two incident radiations of equal frequency and different intensities. Mark the
graph for the radiation of higher intensity. (AI 2018)

3. Show on a plot the nature of variation of photoelectric current with the intensity
of radiation incident on a photosensitive surface. (Delhi 2013C)

4. Why is photoelectric emission not possible at all frequencies? (Al 2012c) 9.

Define the term 'stopping potential' in relation to photoelectric effect. (Al 2011)
 5. Define the term 'threshold frequency' in relation to photoelectric effect.
(Foreign 2011)

6. For a given photosensitive material and with a source of constant frequency of

incident radiation, how does the photocurrent vary with the intensity of incident
light? (Al 2011c)

7. (a) Define the terms, (i) threshold frequency and (ii) stopping potential in
photoelectric effect.

(b) Plot a graph of photocurrent versus anode potential for a radiation of

frequency
8. (i) Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 x 10 14 Hz is produced by a laser. The
power emitted is 2.0 x 10-3 W. Estimate the number of photons emitted per
second on an average by the source.

(ii) Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current versus the
intensity of incident radiation on a given photosensitive surface. (Delhi
2014) 14. Two monochromatic radiations of frequencies and > 02) and having
the same intensity are in turn, incident on a photosensitive surface to cause
photoelectric emission. Explain, giving reason, in which case (i) more number of
electrons will be emitted and (ii) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons will be more.
9. Sketch the graphs showing variation of stopping potential with frequency of
incident radiations for two photosensitive materials A and B having threshold
frequencies > DB. (i) In which case is the stopping potential more and why?

10. (ii) Does the slope of the graph depend on the nature of the material used ?
Explain. (Al 2016)

11. Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current with intensity of
light. The work function for the following metals is given. Na : 2.75 ev and Mo
4.175 ev. Which of these will not give photoelectron emission from a
radiation Of wavelength 3300 Å from a laser beam? What happens the source of
laser beam is brought closer? (Foreign 2016)

12. Define the term "cut off frequency„ in photoelectric emission. Threshold
frequency of a metal is f. When the light of frequency 2f is incident on the metal
plate' the maximum velocity of photo-electron is v1 When the frequency of the
incident radiation is increased to 5f, the maximum velocity photoelectrons is v2.
Find the ratio of v1 :v2

===================================================================

Einstein’s photo electric equation ; energy quantum of radiations-

According to Planck’s Quantum theory energy of the photon is given by -
 E = hυ

Where ν is frequency of incident radiation and h is Planck’s constant

When photon strikes on metal surface then its energy is spent in two ways

i) A part of energy equal to work function of metal is used in liberating the electron
from the metal surface.
ii) Rest part of energy is used in imparting the maximum K.E to the emitted photo
electron.

∴ E = Φo + K.E
1
hυ = Φo + 2 mv2

This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

If incident photon is of threshold frequency then-

h υ0 = Φ0
1 1
∴ h υ = h υ0 + 2 mv2 ⇒ mv2max = h (υ – υ0)
2

Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission based on Einstein’s Photoelectric

Equation:

(i) If ν < ν0, then ½ mv 2 max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for
photoelectric emission to take place ν > ν0 .

(ii) Since one photon emits one electron, so the number photoelectrons emitted per
second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
𝟏
(iii) It is clear that 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ ν as h and ν0 are constant. This shows that K.E. of the
𝟐
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light.

(iv) Photoelectric emission is due to collision between a photon and an electron. As

such there cannot be any significant time lag between the incidence of photon
and emission of photoelectron. i.e. the process is instantaneous. It is found that
delay is only 10-9 seconds.

Relation between cut off Potential, frequency of incident radiation and threshold
frequency

Maximum K.E of ejected photo electron is given by -

K.Emax = h υ –Φ0

At cut off potential KEmax = eV0

 ∴ eV0 = hυ– Φ0

eV0= h υ – h υ0 [Φ0 = hυ0]

eVo = h (υ – υ0) This is the required result.

Application of photo electricity

Important application of photo electricity are-

(i) In the reproduction of sound in cinema film.

(ii) In television transmission.
(iii) In astronomy.
(iv) In light meter and exposure meter.
(v) In temperature control.
(vi) In solar batteries.
(vii) In automatic fire alarm.
(viii) In automatic street light.
(ix) In thickness control of paper.
(x) In locating minor fault and holes in finished goods.

Failure of wave theory of light to explain photoelectric effect

(i) According to wave theory, the free electron in the metal surface of the metal
should continuous absorb the incident energy. Show greater the intensity of
incident light, greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron .Thus
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron should increase with increase in
intensity of incident light. This contradicts experimental observation that
maximum KE is independent on intensity of incident light.

(ii) According to wave theory a sufficient instance beam of light should able to
impart enough energy to electron for their ejection. So threshold energy
should not exist. This contradicts the experimental observation.

(iii) In wave picture absorption of energy by electron takes place slowly and
electron takes much time to eject out. This contradicts experimental
observation that emission of electron is a instantaneous process.

De- Broglie Dualistic Hypothesis

According to De-Broglie a moving particle some time behave as a wave and some
time as a particle.

The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave or De-Broglie wave
ℎ
λ = 𝑚𝑣

According to Planck’s quantum theory -

 ℎ𝑐
E=hυ= ------ (i)
𝜆

According to Einstein’s mass energy equivalence -

Points to remember
E = mc2 --------- (ii)
 Matter waves can travel in
From equation (I) and (ii)
vacuum and hence they are
ℎ𝑐
= mc2 ⇒ mc = 𝜆
ℎ not mechanical waves.
𝜆

ℎ ℎ
 Matter waves are not
λ = 𝑚𝑐 ⇒ λ=𝑝 electromagnetic waves
because they are not
In case of material particle moving with speed v- produced by accelerated
ℎ ℎ charges.
P=mv ∴ λ=𝑝= 𝑚𝑣

Relation between De-Broglie wave length and temperature

According to De-Broglie -
ℎ
λ= 𝑝 ------- (i)

From Kinetic theory of gas-

3
K.E = 2 KT where K is Boltzman’s constant. (3×10-12 J/k)

If m is the mass of moving particle then -

1 1 𝑚2 𝑣 2
K.E = 2 mv2 ⇒ 2 𝑚

𝑝2
K.E = 2𝑚 [P = m v]

P2 = 2 m. K.E

P = √2𝑚𝐾. 𝐸

3 3
P = √2𝑚 × 2 𝐾𝑇 [K.E = 2 KT]

P = √3𝑚𝐾𝑇 ------------( ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)

𝒉
λ=
√𝟑𝒎𝑲𝑻

De-Broglie wave length of electron

When an electron accelerate in potential difference of V volt then -
1
K.E = 2 mv2 = e v

2𝑒𝑉
v= √ 𝑚

If λ is De-Broglie wave length then -

ℎ ℎ
λ = 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚√
𝑚

ℎ
λ=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Putting standard values of h = 6.6×10-34 Js

m = 9.1×10-31kg , e = 1.6×10-19 C
12.27
We get - λ= ×10-10m
√𝑉

12.27
= 𝐴0 [1A0 = 10-10m]
√𝑉

2 marks question

1. An α-particle and a proton are accelerated through the same potential

difference, Find the ratio of their de Broglie wavelengths. (Delhi 2017)

2. The wavelength of a photon and the dc Broglie wavelength of an electron Ivave

the same value. Show that energy of a photon is (2k mc/h) times the kinetic
energy of electron, where m, c and h have their usual meaning. (Foreign 2016)

3. A proton and and α-particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength. Determine the
ratio of

(i) their accelerating potentials (ii) their speeds. (Delhi 2015)

4. A proton and a deuteron are accelerated through the same accelerating
potential. Which one of the two has (a) greater value of de-Broglie
wavelength associated with it, and (b) less momentum? Give reasons to justify
your answer. (Delhi 2014)

5. X-rays fall on a photosensitive surface to cause photoelectric emission. Assuming

that the work function of the surface can be neglected, find the relation between
the de-Broglie wavelength (λ) of the electrons emitted and the energy (Ev) of the
incident photons. Draw the nature of the graph for λ as a function of Ev.
 6. An a-particle and a proton are accelerated from rest by the same potential. Find
the ratio of their de Broglie wa€elengths.(Al 2010)

3 marks question

1. An electron and a proton are accelerated through the same potential. Which one
of the two has (i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it,
and (ii) lesser momentum? Justify your answer in each case.

(b) How is the momentum of a particle related with its de-Broglie wavelength?
Show the variation on a graph. (Al 2019)
2. An electron microscope uses electrons accelerated by a voltage of 50 KV
Determine the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons. Taking other
factors, such as numerical aperture etc. to be same, how does the resolving
power of an electron microscope compare with that of an optical microscope
which uses yellow light?

3. 77. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength 1.00 nm. Find (i) their
momenta, (ii) the energy of the photon and (iii) the kinetic energy of electron.

FORMULA RECAP

𝒉𝑪
1. Energy of photon, E = h υ = 𝝀
𝒉𝝂 𝒉
2. Momentum of photon, P = mc = =𝝀.
𝒄
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
3. Number of photon emitted per second, N = 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑬 𝒉𝝂
4. Equivalent mass, m = 𝑪𝟐 = 𝑪𝟐
𝟏
5. At stopping potential KE= 𝟐 mv2 = eVo

6. Energy of incident photon, E = Φo (work function) + K.E

𝟏
7. Kinetic energy of photoelectron is given by KEmax = 𝟐 mv2max = h (υ – υ0)
𝟑
8. From Kinetic theory of gas, K.E = 𝟐 KT (K is Boltzmann’s constant=3x10-12 J/k)

9. Momentum, P = √𝟐𝒎 𝑲𝑬 = √𝟑𝒎𝑲𝑻

𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
10. De-Broglie wavelength, λ = =
√𝟐𝒎𝑲𝑬 √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽 √𝟑𝒎𝑲𝑻
11. De-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated in potential difference V, 𝝀 =
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
𝑨𝟎
√𝑽
 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
12. Intensity of radiation= 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂×𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
13. Power = No. Of photon× Energy

Practice numerical problems

1. Work function of sodium is 2.3 eV. Does it show photoelectric emission for orange
light (λ=6800 A0)
2. Find maximum frequency and minimum wavelength of X-ray produced by 30kev
electrons.
3. The cut-off potential in certain experiment is 1.5 V. Calculate maximum KE of emitted
electrons.
4. Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power
emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W. (a) what is the energy of a photon in the light beam? (b) How
many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the source?
5. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (a) the threshold frequency for
caesium, and (b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought to
zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V
6. What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with (a) an electron moving with a
speed of 5.4×106 m/s, and (b) a ball of mass 150 g travelling at 30.0 m/s ?
(Ans. (a) λ = 0.135 nm, (b) λ ’= 1.47 ×10–34 m )
7. An electron, an α-particle, and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which of these
particles has the shortest de Broglie wavelength? ( Ans. α-particle)
8. A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de Broglie
wavelength of the particle to that of the electron is 1.813 × 10–4. Calculate the
particle’s mass and identify the particle. (Ans. m = 1.675 × 10–27 kg. The
particle, with this mass could be a proton or neutron )
9. What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, accelerated through a
potential difference of 100 volts? (Ans. 0.123nm)
10. Let an electron requires 5×10 joule energy to just escape from the irradiated
-19

metal. If photoelectron is emitted after 10-9 s of the incident light, calculate the rate
of absorption of energy. If this process is considered classically, the light energy is
assumed to be continuously distributed over the wave front. Now, the electron can
only absorb the light incident within a small area, say 10-19 m2 . Find the intensity of
illumination in order to see the photoelectric effect. (Ans. 5x10-9 Js-1m-2)
11. A beam of photons of intensity 2.5 W m-2 each of energy 10.6eV is incident on
1.0×10-4 m2 area of the surface having work function 5.2eV. If 0.5% of incident
photons emit photo-electrons, find the number of photons emitted in 1s. Find the
minimum and maximum energy of photo-electrons. (Ans 7.35×1011 )
12. The wavelength of a photon and de-Broglie wavelength of an electron have the
2𝜆𝑚𝑐
same value. Show that energy of photon is times the KE of electron.
ℎ
13. Draw a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with frequency of the
incident radiation. What does the slope of line with frequency axis indicate?
14. U.V light of wavelength 200nm is incident on polished surface of Fe. Work function
of Fe is 4.5eV Find

i) Stopping potential. (Ans. 1.71 V)

ii) maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons. (Ans. 2.736x10-19 J )
iii) Maximum speed of photoelectrons. (Ans. 7.75x105 m/s)

NCERT EXERCISES

1. Find the (a) maximum frequency, and (b) minimum wavelength of X-rays produced
by 30 kV electrons.
2. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 ×1014Hz is
incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the (a)
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, (b) Stopping potential, and (c)
maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons?
3. The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V. What is the
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted?
4. Monochromatic light of wavelength 632.8 nm is produced by a helium-neon laser.
The power emitted is 9.42 mW. (a) Find the energy and momentum of each photon
in the light beam, (b) How many photons per second, on the average, arrive at a
target irradiated by this beam? (Assume the beam to have uniform cross-section
which is less than the target area ), and (c) How fast does a hydrogen atom have to
travel in order to have the same momentum as that of the photon?
5. The energy flux of sunlight reaching the surface of the earth is 1.388 × 103 W/m2 .
How many photons (nearly) per square metre are incident on the Earth per second?
Assume that the photons in the sunlight have an average wavelength of 550 nm.
6. In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut-off voltage versus
frequency of incident light is found to be 4.12 × 10–15 Vs. Calculate the value of
Planck’s constant.
7. A 100W sodium lamp radiates energy uniformly in all directions. The lamp is
located at the centre of a large sphere that absorbs all the sodium light which is
incident on it. The wavelength of the sodium light is 589 nm. (a) What is the energy
per photon associated with the sodium light? (b) At what rate are the photons
delivered to the sphere?
8. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 × 1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2
× 1014 Hz is incident on the metal, predict the cut off voltage for the photoelectric
emission.
9. The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give photoelectric
emission for incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?
10. Light of frequency 7.21 × 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with a
maximum speed of 6.0 × 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold
frequency for photoemission of electrons?
11. Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is used in the
photoelectric effect. When light from this spectral line is incident on the emitter, the
stopping (cut-off) potential of photoelectrons is 0.38 V. Find the work function of the
material from which the emitter is made.
12. Calculate the (a) momentum, and (b) de Broglie wavelength of the electrons
accelerated through a potential difference of 56 V.
13. What is the (a) momentum, (b) speed, and (c) de Broglie wavelength of an electron
with kinetic energy of 120 eV.
14. The wavelength of light from the spectral emission line of sodium is 589 nm. Find
the kinetic energy at which (a) an electron, and (b) a neutron, would have the same
de Broglie wavelength.
15. What is the de Broglie wavelength of (a) a bullet of mass 0.040 kg travelling at the
speed of 1.0 km/s, (b) a ball of mass 0.060 kg moving at a speed of 1.0 m/s, and (c) a
dust particle of mass 1.0 × 10–9 kg drifting with a speed of 2.2 m/s?
16. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 1.00 nm. Find (a) their
momentum, (b) the energy of the photon, and (c) the kinetic energy of electron.
17. (a) For what kinetic energy of a neutron will the associated de Broglie wavelength
be 1.40 × 10–10m? (b) Also find the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron, in thermal
equilibrium with matter, having an average kinetic energy of (3/2) k T at 300 K.
18. Show that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the de Broglie
wavelength of its quantum (photon).

What is the de Broglie wavelength of a nitrogen molecule in air at 300 K? Assume that
the molecule is moving with the root-mean square speed of molecules at this
temperature. (Atomic mass of nitrogen = 14.0076 u)
CHAPTER -12 (ATOMS)
 GIST of the chapter
Thomson’s model of atom- Every atom consists of fuels Its drawbacks: couldn’t explain large angle
charged sphere in which electrons are embedded like scattering & the origin of spectral series.
seeds in water melon.

Rutherford’s model of atom- i) Every atom consists of a

tiny central core, called the atomic nucleus, in which the Limitations: couldn’t explain the stability of the
entire positive charge and almost entire mass of the nucleus & the emission of line spectra of fixed
atom are concentrated. frequencies.

ii) The size of nucleus is of the order of 10-15m , which is

very small as compared to the size of the atom which is
of the order of 10-10m.

iii)The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number

of electrons. As atom on the whole is electrically neutral,
the total negative charge of electrons surrounding the
nucleus is equal to total positive charge on the nucleus.

iv)These electrons revolve around the nucleus in various

circular orbits as do the planets around the sun. The
centripetal force required by electron for revolution is
provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between
the electrons and the nucleus.

r0=2kZe2
Distance of closest approach of the alpha particle in the
1/2mv2
α particle scattering experiment

b=kZe2cotθ/2
Impact parameter of the alpha particle
1/2mv2
Limitations-applicable only for hydrogen like
atoms & couldn’t explain the splitting of spectral
Bohr’s model of atom lines. (not consider electro static force among
the electrons)

Orbit radius of the electron around the nucleus r=e2/4πЄ0mv2, v=2πke2 / nh, r=n2h2mke2

Energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom En= -me4/8Є02n2h2 = -13.6/n2 eV
E=-2.18x10-18 J / n2
• Angular momentum of electron in any orbit is L = mvr = nh/2π, n=1,2,3,…
integral multiple of h/2π

1/λ = R(1/n12 – 1/n22)

• Wave number ν
R=1.097 x 10+7m-1
  LIST OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE
2 𝐾 𝑍𝑒 2
 Distance of closest approach 𝑟0 = 1
𝑚𝑣 2
2
2 𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 𝑚𝑒 4 13.6
 Energy of electron in nth orbit 𝐸𝑛 = − = − =− 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2 ℎ 2 8𝑛2 𝜀02 ℎ2 𝑛2
1 1
 Rydberg Formula 𝜈 = 𝑅[ 2 − ]
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖2

Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment (Geiger-Marsden scattering

experiment)
In this experiment 83𝐵𝑖214 was used as the source of α- particle. The beam of α-particle
is collimated into a narrow beam by passing through lead bricks. The collimated beam
was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1×10-7 m. The scattered α
-particle was observed through fluorescent screen.
OBSERVATION:-
i. Most of α - particles passes through Gold

foil.
ii. Only about 0.14% of incident α-particles
Scatters by more than one degree.
iii. About one α-particle in every 8000
α-particles deflects by 1800.
iv. The number of particles scattered at an angle
ϴ is such that

Conclusion:-
i. Most part of the atom is empty.
ii. Entire charge and mass of atom is concentrated in a tiny core called nucleus.

Rutherford’s model of atom:

i. Every atom consists of a central core, called nucleus in which entire +ve charge and
mass of an atom is concentrated.
ii. Size of nucleus is of the order 10-15 meter.
iii. As atom is electrically neutral, the total –ve charge of electrons surrounding
nucleus is equal to total +ve charge on the nucleus.
iv. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular path.
Success of Rutherford atom model:
The classification of elements in the periodic table on the basis of their atomic
number, instead of their atomic weight, was justified.
Limitations of Rutherford’s model of atom:
According to Rutherford’s model of atom an electron is revolving around the nucleus and
has an accelerated motion. According to classical electromagnetic wave theory the
accelerated electron must radiate energy therefore radius of the circular path of revolving
electron should go on decreasing. The electron should then ultimately fall into the nucleus
resulting atom to collapse. But atom is stable and we cannot expect the atom to collapse.
Hence Rutherford atom model failed.
Another limitation of this model was that according to this model atom should emit
continuous spectrum but experimentally it was noted that spectrum of atom is line
spectrum.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--
Q 1. Why is the classical (Rutherford) model for an atom—of electron orbiting around the
nucleus—not able to explain the atomic structure
Ans. As the revolving electron loses energy continuously, it must spiral inwards and eventually
fall into the nucleus. So, it was not able to explain the atomic structure.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--
Distance of closest approach (r0)–
The minimum distance between α- particle and nucleus at which α-particle turn
back at 1800 is called distance of closest approach.
At distance of closest approach entire KE change into
electric potential energy.
If Z is atomic number of materials of the foil and +2e is
charge on α-particle then-

Impact parameter:
It is defined as the perpendicular distance of velocity
vector of the alpha –
particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is far
away from the atom.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 1. What is the distance of closest approach when a 5Mev proton approaches a gold nucleus (Z=79)
(1)
-14
Ans r0 = 2.3 x 10 m.

Q 2. Which has greater ionizing power: alpha or beta particle? (1)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Electron orbit (Radius of orbit)

For a dynamically stable orbit in H-atom centripetal force required to keep
electron revolving in orbit = Electrostatics force of attraction between the revolving
electron and nucleus

Total energy of electron in an orbit

E = KE + PE

-ve sign indicate that e is bound to nucleus

 Bohr model of Hydrogen atom

1. The main postulate of Bohr’s model is Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron
in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbit without emission of radiant
energy.
2. According to Bohr’s second postulate electron can revolve around the nucleus
only in certain non- radiation orbits for which the angular momentum of electron
is integral multiple of h/2π
 mvr = n (h/2π)
where n is principle quantum number
3. The energy is radiated when an electron jumps from higher to lower energy state
and absorbed when it jumps from lower to higher energy state .
E = hν = Ei - Ef

Radius of Bohr’s stationary orbit

Velocity of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit

v = 2π kze2/nh
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 1. The radius of innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10-11 m. What is the
radius of orbit in the second excited state?
Ans. 4.77 x 10-10 m

 Total energy of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit

Total energy of electron in an orbit is

the sum of two energies
i.e. E = KE + PE
KE of electron. KE =(1/2)mv2

Potential energy of electron = potential × charge

So total energy =

Substituting value of r we get

Putting the standard values for H-atom we get

-ve sign indicate that electron is bound to the nucleus and is not free to move.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 1. In Bohr’s theory of model of a Hydrogen atom, name the physical quantity which equals to an
integral multiple of h/2π? (1)
Ans: Angular momentum

Q 2. What is the relation between ‘n’ & radius ‘r’ of the orbit of electron in a Hydrogen atom according
to Bohr’s theory? (1)
Ans: r α n2
Q 3. The size of the nucleus can be estimated by the scattering of which particles (1)
Ans :α particles

Q 4. For an electron in the second orbit of hydrogen, what is the moment of linear momentum as per
the Bohr’s model? (1)
Ans: L=2(h/2π) =h/π (moment of linear momentum is angular momentum)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Spectral series of H-atom

 When electrons jump to1st orbit from any outer orbit.

i.e., nf = 1 and ni = 2, 3, 4------, We obtain Lymen series.
This series exist in ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
 When electron jump to 2nd orbit from any outer orbit i.e., nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, ----,
We obtain Balmer series. This series exist in visible region of the spectrum.
 When electron jump to 3rd orbit from any out orbit i.e., nf = 3 and ni = 4, 5, 6----
We obtain Paschen series. This series exist in infra-red region of the spectrum.
 When nf = 4 and ni = 5, 6, 7-----, We obtain Brackett series.
 When nf =5 and ni = 6, 7, 8----, We obtain P fund series.

 Energy level Diagram

Excitation Potential: -
The minimum accelerating potential which provides electron energy sufficient to
jump from inner orbit to outer orbit is called excitation potential.
Ionization potential: -
The minimum accelerating potential required to remove an 𝑒̅ from outer most shell
of an atom is called ionization potential.

Ionization Energy: -
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from outer most shell of atom
to make it an +vely charged species is called ionization energy.
Ionization energy of H-atom 𝐸∞ − 𝐸0 = 0 − (−13.6) = 13.6𝑒𝑉

Limitations of Bohr’s Theory

i. This theory is applicable on H-atom only.
ii. This theory does not explain existence of elliptical orbit.
iii. This theory does not explain spectral series of atom.
iv. This theory does not take into account the wave properties of electron.
v. This theory does not say anything about the relative intensities of spectral lines.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 1. What is the shortest wavelength present in the Paschen series of hydrogen spectrum? (2)
Ans: n1=3, n2=infinity, λ=9/R=8204Ǻ
Q 2. Calculate the frequency of the photon which can excite an electron to -3.4 eV from -13.6 eV.
Ans: 2.5x1015Hz (2)

Q 3. The wavelength of the first member of Balmer series in the hydrogen spectrum is 6563Å.Calculate
the wavelength of the first member of Lyman series in the same spectrum.
Ans: 1215.4Å (2)

Q 4. The energy of the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. (2)
a) What does the negative sign signify?
b) How much energy if required to take an electron in this atom from the ground state to the first
excited state?
Ans : a) The electron is bound to the nucleus by electrostatic force of attraction.
b) Ground state E1=-13.6 eV
First excited state E2 = -13.6/22 = -3.4 eV
Required energy ΔE = E2-E1
= -3.4 + 13.6 = 10.2 eV
Q 5. Find the ratio of maximum wavelength of Lyman series in hydrogen spectrum to the maximum
wavelength in Paschen Series? (2)
Ans: 7:108

Q 6. The energy levels of an atom are as shown below. a) Which of them will result in the transition of
a photon of wavelength 275 nm? b) Which transition corresponds to the emission of radiation
maximum wavelength?
(3)
0eV A
-2eV B C

-4.5eV
D

-10eV

Ans: E=hc/λ=4.5eV, transition B Eα1/λ, transition A

Q 7. The spectrum of a star in the visible & the ultraviolet region was observed and the wavelength of
some of the lines that could be identified were found to be 824Å,970Å,1120Å,2504Å,5173Å
&6100Å.Which of these lines cannot belong to hydrogen spectrum? (3)
Ans: 970Å
(3)
Q 9. What is the energy possessed by an ē for n= ?
Ans E=0 (1)
Q 10. Calculate the ratio of wavelength of photon emitted due to transition of electrons of hydrogen
atom from
i) Second permitted level to first level
ii) Highest permitted level to second level (3)
-11
Q 11. The radius of inner most electron orbit of H2 atom is 5.3 x 10 m. What are radii for n=2, 3, 4?
Ans: rn = n2 r1 (3)

Questions From Previous Year Exams

1. Define ionisation energy. What is its value for a hydrogen atom?

2. Find the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of an electron of hydrogen
atom from its:
(i) second permitted energy level to the first level, and
(ii) the highest permitted energy level to the first permitted level.
3. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is - 13·6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential
energies of electron in this state.
 4. In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, calculate the distance of closest approach to the nucleus of
Z = 80, When an alpha particle of 8 MeV energy impinges on it before it comes momentarily
to rest and reverses its direction.
How will the distance of closest approach be affected when the kinetic energy of the
alpha particle is doubled?
OR
The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. If an electron makes a transition
from energy level - 0.85 eV to - 3.4 eV,calculate the wavelength of the spectral line emitted.
To which series of hydrogen spectrum does this wavelength belong?
5. Using Bohr's postulates, derive the expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when
electron in hydrogen atom undergoes transition from higher energy state (quantum number
n i)to the lower state, (n f)'.
When electron in hydrogen atom jumps from energy state n i= 4 to n f =3,2, 1, identify the
spectral series to which the emission lines belong.
6. Using Rutherford model of the atom. Derive the expression for the total energy of the electron
in hydrogen atom. What is the significance of total negative energy possessed by the
electron?
OR
Using Bohr's postulates of the atomic model, derive the expression for radius of nth electron
orbit. Hence obtain the expression for Bohr's radius.

MCQ
1. The Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum lies in the region

(a) Infrared (b) Visible

(c) Ultraviolet (d) Of X  rays
Ans . (c)
2. The size of an atom is of the order of
(a) 10 8 m (b) 10 10 m

(c) 10 12 m (d) 10 14 m

Ans . (b)
3. Which one of the series of hydrogen spectrum is in the visible region
(a) Lyman series (b) Balmer series
(c) Paschen series (d) Bracket series
Ans . (b)
4. The Rutherford -particle experiment shows that most of the -particles pass through almost
unscattered while some are scattered through large angles. What information does it give about
the structure of the atom
(a) Atom is hollow
(b) The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in a small centre called nucleus
(c) Nucleus is positively charged
(d) All the above
Ans . (d)
5. If the wavelength of the first line of the Balmer series of hydrogen is 6561 Å , the wavelength of
the second line of the series should be
(a) 13122 Å (b) 3280 Å
(c) 4860 Å (d) 2187 Å
Ans . (c)
6. In any Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom, the ratio of kinetic energy to potential energy of the
electron is
(a) 1/2 (b) 2
(c) 1 / 2 (d) – 2
Ans . (c)
7. The radius of electron's second stationary orbit in Bohr's atom is R. The radius of the third orbit
will be

(a) 3 R (b) 2.25 R

(c) 9 R (d) R
3
Ans . (b)
8. In terms of Rydberg's constant R, the wave number of the first Balmer line is
(a) R (b) 3R
5R 8R
(c) (d)
36 9

Ans . (c)
9. The minimum energy required to excite a hydrogen atom from its ground state is

(a) 13.6 eV (b) 13 .6 eV

(c) 3.4 eV (d) 10.2 eV
Ans . (d)
10. According to Bohr's model, the radius of the second orbit of helium atom is
(a) 0.53 Å (b) 1.06 Å
(c) 2.12 Å (d) 0.265 Å
Ans . (c)

ASSERTION AND REASON BASED MCQs

Directions: In the following questions, A statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
Reason (R). Mark the correct choice as.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false and R is true
Q. 1. Assertion (A): Bohr postulated that the electrons in stationary orbits around the nucleus do not
radiate.
Reason (R): According to classical Physics, all moving electrons radiate.
Ans. Option (B) is correct.
Q. 2. Assertion (A): According to Rutherford, atomic model, the path of electron is parabolic.
Reason (R): Rutherford could not explain the stability of atom.
Ans. Option (D) is correct.
Q. 3. Assertion (A): In the α-particle scattering experiment, most of the α-particles pass undeviated.
Reason (R): Most of the space in the atom is empty.
Ans. Option (A) is correct. Q. 4. Assertion (A): Bohr model is not applicable for multi-electron
model.
Reason (R): Bohr model cannot account for sublevel (s, p, d, f) orbitals and electron spin.
Ans. Option (A) is correct.
Q. 4. Assertion (A): Bohr model is not applicable for multi-electron model.
Reason (R): Bohr model cannot account for sublevel (s, p, d, f) orbitals and electron spin.
Ans. Option (A) is correct.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

Everything around us which has mass and occupies space is matter. An atom is the basic unit of matter.
It cannot be broken down further using any chemical means because it is the basic building block of
an element. Every state of matter solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of either atom either it is
neutral (un-ionized), or ionized atoms. An atom is made up of three particles known as protons,
neutrons, and electrons. And these particles are also made up from sub-particles. Among these three
particles, protons have a positive charge while electrons carry a negative charge and the third particle
neutrons have no electrical charge. And the charge of atoms depends on the number of protons and
electrons, i.e an atom is electrically neutral if the number of protons and electrons are equal. If an
atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge,
respectively. These atoms are extremely small or you can say their typical sizes are around 100
picometers. So the dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom is known
as the atomic nucleus of an atom. Every atom is composed of such nucleus and some elections will be
surrounding it. Studying these atoms and Nuclei will help us to have a thorough understanding of
matter. Studying about the nucleus and its reactions will help us to understand more about nuclear
energy, which is a very useful renewable energy. That's why it is very important to study about Atoms
and Nuclei.
Q1. What is the basic unit of matter?
a) Atom
b) Electron
c) Proton
d) Neutron
Q2. Which particle is responsible for the ionization of the atom?

a) Positron
b) Electron
c) Proton
d) Neutron

Q3. If number of protons in an atom is equal to (number of electrons + 2). Then the atom is said to be
a) Single ionized positive ion
b) Single ionized positive atom
c) Double ionized positive ion
d) Double ionized positive atom
Q4. Which is the most dense part of an atom?
a) The exact central part of the atom.
b) The region at the center of atom containing neutrons and protons.
c) Outer edge of the atom
d) None of the above

Answer: Q1 – a; Q2 – b; Q3 – c; Q4 – b

Bohr’s Atomic Model

To study about atom various scientists perform various experiments and suggest various models of an
atom with some explanation. For example, Thomson gives the "plum pudding" model in which he said
the atom consists of a positive material known as "pudding" with some negative materials ("plums")
distributed throughout. Later, famous scientist, Rutherford gives Rutherford's model of the atom after
performing an Alpha Particle scattering experiment.
This model is a modification of the earlier Rutherford Model. According to this model, an atom consists
of a small, positively-charged nucleus and negatively-charged electrons orbiting around it in an orbital.
These orbital can have different sizes, energy, etc. And the energy of the orbit is also related to its size,
I.e The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit. So if the electron is orbiting in nth orbit then we
will study about its Velocity in nth orbital, Radius of nth orbital, Energy of electron in nth orbit, etc.
Energy is also emitted due to the transition of electrons from one orbit to another orbit. This energy
is emitted in the form of photons with different wavelengths. This wavelength is given by the Rydberg
formula. When electrons make transitions between two energy levels in an atom various spectral lines
are obtained. The emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom has been divided into various spectral
series like Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series Etc.

Q1. The formula which gives the wavelength of emitted photon when electron jumps from higher
nergy state to lower was given by
a) Balmer
b) Paschen
c) Lymen
d) Rydberg
Q2. What is true about Bohr’s atomic Model
a) His model was unique totally different from other
b) His model is a modification of Rutherford atomic model.
c) His model is a modification of Thomson atomic model.
d) None of the above

Q3. Bohr’s atomic model is applicable for

a) All types of atoms
b) Only for hydrogen atom
c) For hydrogen like atoms
d) For H2 gas

Q4. The cause of rejection of Rutherford atomic model was

a) It was totally wrong
b) It could not justify its stability
c) Rutherford was unable to explain it
d) None of the above.
Answer : Q1 – d; Q2 – b; Q3 – c; Q4 – b
CHAPTER -13 (nucleI)
 GIST of the chapter
No of protons in a nucleus
Atomic Number (Z)
No. of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in a
Mass Number (A)
nucleus
Number of neutrons
A-Z
Packing Fraction Δm/A , Mass defect per nucleon of the nucleus.
Rate at which the nuclei of atoms in the sample
Activity of Radioactive Substance
disintegrate.
R=R0 A1/3
Nuclear radius
Ρ= 3m/4πR03
Nuclear density
Same Z & different A
Isotopes
Ex, 1H2,1H3,1h1, & C12,C14,C16
Same A & different Z
Isobars
[ 18Ar40,20Co40] & (1H3, 2H3)
Isotones Same no. of neutrons
Map defect m Mass of neutrons – 1H3, 2He4
E= m x c2 ( m= mass of reactants – mass of
Binding energy Eb products)
1 a.m.u.= 931.5 Mev
dN/dt=-λN
Radioactive decay law
-dW/dt= R= Activity unit Bq.
N =N0e-λt
OR
No: of nuclei remaining un-decayed at any
instant of time N=N0( ½)n , n = t/t1/2

t1/2=0.693
Half life
λ
Mean life τ= 1/λ
Alpha,beta,gamma
3 types of radiations
Splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter
elements.This process is made use of in Nuclear
reactor & Atom bomb
Nuclear Reactor is based upon controlled
nuclear chain reaction and has

1) Nuclear fuel
2) modulator
Nuclear fission
3) control rods
4) coolant
5) shielding
 Fusing of lighter nuclei to form a heavy
nucleus.This process takes place in Stars &
Hydrogen bomb.
Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion In a fusion reactor-

a) high particle density is required

b) high plasma temperature of 109K

a long confinement time is required

 LIST OF IMPORTANT TOPICS/FORMULAE

Composition and size of nucleus
Nuclear force
Mass-energy relation
Mass defect
Nuclear fission & nuclear fusion
Radioactive decay law N =N0e-λt
0.693
Relation between half-life and decay constant 𝑇1/2 =
𝜆
 CONCEPT MAP
Nuclear energy
Atomic mass unit:-
It is defined as 1/12 th of mass of the carbon (c – 12) atom.

1amu = 1.66 ×10 -27 kg

Atomic masses are conventionally expressed in atomic mass unit. Atomic mass unit is
measured by Bain Bridge mass spectrograph.
Electron volt:-
One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a
potential difference of one volt .
i.e. 1eV = 1.6×10-19 C ×1V
=1.6×10-19 CV = 1.6×10-19 J [1cV = 1J]

Relation between amu and MeV

1amu ≈ 931.25 MeV

Atomic number:-
It is the no. of electrons or protons present in the atom. It is Rep. by Z .
Atomic mass number:-
It is the total number of proton and neutron present in the nucleus. It is
represented by A.
Nuclear size:-
Experimentally it was observed that volume of nucleus zXA is proportional to
its mass number.

Nuclear Density:-
Density of nuclear matter =𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠/𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
= 1.2×10-15 m
This density of nuclear matter is the same for all elements
Isotopes:-
Atoms of the same element having sane atomic number but different mass
number are called isotopes .
Isotopes differ from one another in number of neutrons.
Isobar:-
Atoms of the different element which have the same atomic weight but different
atomic number are called isobar.
Einstein’s Mass Energy Equivalence:-
Acc. to Einstein mass and energy are interrelated by relation E = mc2.
Where c is the speed of light.
Nuclear Binding Energy:-
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy with which nucleons are bounded in the
nucleus.
It is measured by the work done to separate the nucleons an infinite distance apart from
the nucleus so that they may not interact with each other .
Consider a nucleus ZXA Where A is atomic mass , Z is atomic number
Let - mp- mass of proton , mn – mass of neutron , MN - mass of nucleus
Mass defect ( Δm) = Mass of nucleon – Mass of nucleus
i.e. Δm = Zmp + (A-Z) mn – MN
Acc. to Einstein’s mass energy equivalence
E = ΔmC2
E = [Zmp + (A-Z) mn – MN] C2
Mass Defect:-
The difference between total mass of nucleus and mass of nucleus is called mass defect.
Mass defect ( Δm) = Mass of nucleon – Mass of nucleus
Mathematically - Δm = Zmp + (A-Z) mn – MN
Packing fraction:-
Packing fraction of nucleus is defined as the mass excess per nucleon.
Packing fraction =���� ������/���� ������ = �−�/�
Binding Energy per Nucleon :-
It is the ratio of the B.E of a
nucleus to the number of nucleons
=��/�
The BE per nucleon is a function of
mass number
Nuclear Force:-
Nuclear forces are strong forces of attraction which hold nucleons in the tiny
nucleus of an atom.
Properties of nuclear forces -
i) These forces are independent of charge.
ii) These are strongest forces in nature.
iii) These are short range forces.
iv) These forces are dependent on spin or angular momentum of nuclei.
v) These forces are non central forces.
vi) These are non-conservation forces.
vii) These forces do not obey inverse square law.
Nuclear forces arise on account of continuous exchange of particles between the
nucleons.

Nuclear Reaction :-
Nuclear reaction represents the transformation
of one stable nucleus into another nucleus .
In nuclear reaction all the following conservation laws are obeyed -
i. Conservation of linear momentum
ii. Conservation of total energy
iii. Conservation of charge
iv. Conservation of number of nucleons
Nuclear Energy:-
Energy obtained from the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear energy.
Two distinct ways of obtaining energy form nucleus are-
1) Nuclear fission . 2) Nuclear fusion .
Nuclear fission -
It is the phenomena of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more light nuclei
In nuclear fission reaction energy is +ve i.e. energy is released so it is also called
exothermic.
A thermal neutron can split a heavy nucleus of uranium (U-235) in to Ba-141 and Kr-92
Nuclear fusion -
It is the phenomena of fusing two or more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy
nucleus .
e.g. H + H → 1H2 + -1e2 + v + 0.42Me V
The essential condition for carrying out nuclear fusion is that the temperature of
material should be very high so that particle of material has enough energy to penetrate
the coulomb barrier.
As energy is supplied in nuclear fusion reaction so it is also called endothermic
reaction.
Nuclear Holocaust -
It refer to misuse of nuclear energy by nuclear weapons or other means the first
nuclear holocaust occurred on 6 Aug. 1945 in Hiroshima in Japan during Second World
War .
Thermal Neutrons:-
Slow moving neutrons or low energy neutrons are called thermal neutron .
Their energy ≈1/40 eV and velocity ≈ 2.2 km/s
Nuclear Reactor -
It is a devised which is used to produce nuclear energy for construction purpose .
Principle:- It’s principle is based on the controlled nuclear chain reaction .
Construction:-
Main parts of nuclear reactor are-
1) Nuclear fuel:-commonly used fuel in nuclear reactor are U-233, U-235, Pu-239
2) Moderator:-those materials which slow down fast moving neutrons are called
moderator usually D2O, graphite, deuterium and paraffin are used as moderator.
3) Control Rods:-They have ability to capture the slow neutrons Boron or
cadmium rods are used as control rods
4) Safety Rods:-These are made of materials which has high tendency to absorb
neutron. These rods reduce neutron reproduction factor to less than unity
5) Coolant:-Liquid which has high specific heat is used as coolant. It remove heat
from reactor core. Generally at low temp. Water and heavy water (D2O) serve as
coolant. At higher temp. liquid sodium is used as coolant .
6) Shielding:-The wholes reactor is covered with steel chamber which further
covered by concrete walls of width 2 to 2.5m.So that harmful radiation may not leak .
Working:-
When a slow neutron is made to fall on fuel then nuclear fission reaction starts.
The excess neutrons produced during the reaction are absorbed by control rods and
heat energy is removed by coolant.
To stop nuclear reaction cadmium rods are inserted.
Controlled nuclear chain reaction take place in nuclear reactor and energy thus
produced is used for constructive purpose.
In Bart nuclear reactor working is Apsara, Zerlina, CIR and Dhruva Fast Breeder
Reactor:-
This nuclear reactor use thorium or natural uranium as fuel. In this reactor fast moving
neutrons can cause nuclear fission reaction.
Hence moderator are not used in this reactor .
Nuclear chain reaction
When a thermal neutron strike with U – 235, it undergo nuclear fission reaction.
U -235 + 0n1→56 Ba141 +36 Kr92 + 3 0n1 +Q
The three neutrons produced during this reaction may bring about the fission of three
more u -235 nucleus which produce 9 neutron which again bring nuclear fission of 9
more uranium nuclear and this process continue. This continuous process is called
nuclear chain reaction.
Huge amount of energy is produced during this process.
An atom bomb work in the principle of uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction.

Critical Size: For chain reaction to occur, the size of the fissionable material must be
above the minimum size called ‘critical size’.
If the size of the material is less than the critical size, then all the neutrons are lost.
If the size is equal to the critical size, then the no. of neutrons produced is equal to
the no. of neutrons lost.
If the size is greater than the critical size, then the reproduction ratio of neutrons
is greater than 1 and chain reaction can occur.
Condition for self propagating nuclear chain reaction
i) Secondary neutrons should leak from system
ii) Fuel should be free from impurely where may absorb neutron
iii) The size of nuclear fuel (U-235) should be of certain minimum value such that
no. of neutron product is always larger than neutron absorbed.
Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion
If temperature of material is raised such that particle have enough energy due to
their thermal motion and they can penetrate the coulomb’s barrier this is called
Thermonuclear fusion.
Controlled thermonuclear fusion is the basis of fusion reactor which is source of
unlimited and pollution free energy
1H2 + 1H2 → 1H3 + 1H1 + 4.03 Mev

1H2 + 1H3 → 2He4 + 0n1 + 17.59 Mev

Source of nuclear fusion (Deuterium) is present in unlimited quantity in sea water .
Requirements for Nuclear fusion reactor
1) The density of deuteron should be high in the sample.
2) The temperature should be very i.e. of order 109 K so that interacting particles
can penetrate the coulomb barrier and fuse together.
3) The hot plasma must be maintained at sufficiently high density and temperature
for long time.
Difference b/w electron and 𝜷-particle –
Basically there is no difference b/w electron and 𝛽-particle. 𝛽-particle is the name
given to an electron emitted from nucleus .
.
Proton- proton cycle
The thermonuclear reactions in proton-proton cycle take place in the following
sequence:

Thus four proton combine to form one Helium nucleolus.

.
Problem :- Lighter element is better moderator for nucleon reactor
than Healer. Why?
Solution : - A good moderator has two properties -
1) It slows down neutrons by elastic collision
2) It does not remove neutron from the cave by absorbing them. Both the above
properties meet in lighter element. That is why lighter elements are better
moderator
PROBLEM:- What is pair production?
Solution :- It is the phenomena of production of a pair of particle when γ-rays pass
close to the nucleus. Thus energy is converted into matter by this phenomena.
PROBLEM:- Why Y-rays are called E.M. Waves ?
SOLUTION:-Y-rays are photons of short wave length they travel with speed of E.M.
waves and passes properties of E.M. waves
PROBLEM:-What is critical mass in nuclear chain reaction?
SOLUTION:- It is the minimum mass of fissionable material that would sustain the
nuclear chain reaction at steady rate. At critical mass reproduction factor (K) is
just equal to the rate of loss of neutron i.e. equal to one .
PROBLEM:- Why heavy stable nucleus contains more neutrons than proton?
SOLUTION:- Coulomb forces b/w protons are repulsive and nuclear forces are
attractive for a nucleus to be stable nuclear forces must dominate the repulsive
forces. Therefore number of neutrons must be greater than protons

COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS
1. What is the relation between the radius of the atom & the mass number? (1)
1/3
Ans: size α A
2. What is the ratio of the nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers in the ratio 1:4?
Ans: 1:1 (1)
3. How many electrons, protons & neutrons are there in an element of atomic number (Z) 11& mass
number (A) 24? (1)
Hint: ne = np =11, nn = (A – Z) = 24 -11 = 13
4. Select the pairs of isotopes & isotones from the following: (2)
i. 13C6 ii.14N7 iii.30P15iv.31P15
Ans: isotopes-iii &iv,isotones-i& ii
5. By what factor must the mass number change for the nuclear radius to become twice? (2)
1
3 2 or 2 3 timeA

NUCLEAR REACTIONS
1. Why heavy water is often used in a nuclear reactor as a moderator? (1)
2. Why is neutron very effective as a bombarding particle in a nuclear reaction? (1)
Ans: Being neutral it won’t experience any electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion.
3. Why is the control rods made of cadmium? (1)
Ans: They have a very high affinity on neutrons.
4. Name the phenomenon by which the energy is produced in stars. (1)
Ans: Uncontrolled Nuclear fusion
5. Name the physical quantities that remain conserved in a nuclear reaction? (1)
6. What is neutron multiplication factor? For what value of this, a nuclear reactor is said to be critical?
Ans: K=1 (2)
7. 4 nuclei of an element fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. If the process is accompanied by
release of energy, which of the two: the parent or the daughter nuclei would have higher binding
energy per nucleon. Justify your answer. (2)
235
8. If 200MeV energy is released in the fission of single nucleus of 92𝑈, how much fission must occur
to produce a power of 1 kW. (3)
Questions From Previous Year Exams

7. Write any two characteristic properties of nuclear force.

8. Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Mark
the region where the nuclear force is (i) attractive and (ii) repulsive. Write any two
characteristic features of nuclear forces.

MCQ

1. Which of the following particles are constituents of the nucleus

(a) Protons and electrons (b)Protons and neutrons
(c) Neutrons and electrons (d)Neutrons and positrons
Ans . (b)

2. The particles which can be added to the nucleus of an atom without changing its chemical
properties are called
 (a) Electrons (b) Protons
(c) Neutrons (d) None of the above
Ans . (c)
3. The neutron was discovered by

(a) Marie Curie (b) Pierre Curie

(c) James Chadwick (d) Rutherford
Ans . (c)

4. The mass number of a nucleus is

(a) Always less than its atomic number
(b) Always more than its atomic number
(c) Always equal to its atomic number
(d) Sometimes more than and sometimes equal to its atomic number
Ans . (d)

5. The energy equivalent of 1 kilogram of matter is about

(a) 10 15 J (b) 1 J

12
(c) 10 J (d) 10 17 J
Ans . (d)

6. Which of the following has the mass closest in value to that of the positron

(a) Proton (b) Electron

(c) Photon (d) Neutrino
(1 a.m.u  931 MeV )

Ans . (b)

7. Size of nucleus is of the order of

(a) 10 10 m (b) 10 15 m

(c) 10 12 m (d) 10 19 m

Ans . (b)

8. For effective nuclear forces, the distance should be

(a) 10 10 m (b) 10 13 m

(c) 10 15 m (d) 10 20 m

Ans . (c)
9. Which of the following pairs is an isobar
(a) 1H
1
and 1 H 2 (b) 1 H 2 and 1 H 3
(c) 6C
12
and 6 C 13 (d) 15 P 30 and 14 Si
30

Ans . (d)

10. Nuclear forces are

(a) Short ranged attractive and charge independent

(b) Short ranged attractive and charge dependent
(c) Long ranged repulsive and charge independent
(d) Long ranged repulsive and charge dependent
Ans . (b)

ASSERTION AND REASON BASED MCQs

Directions: In the following questions, A statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
Reason (R). Mark the correct choice as.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false and R is true
1. Assertion : Fragments produced in the fission of U 235 are radioactive.
Reason : The fragments have abnormally high proton to neutron ratio.
Ans. Option (C) is correct.
2. Assertion : The mass of a nucleus can be either less than or more than the sum of the masses
of nucleons present in it.
Reason : The whole mass of the atom is considered in the nucleus.
Ans. Option (D) is correct.
3. Assertion : Neutrons penetrate matter more readily as compared to protons.
Reason : Neutrons are slightly more massive than protons.
Ans. Option (B) is correct.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

Rutherford was the pioneer who postulated and established the existence of the atomic nucleus.
At Rutherford’s suggestion, Geiger and Marsden performed their classic experiment: on the
scattering of α-particles from thin gold foils. Their experiments revealed that the distance of
closest approach to a gold nucleus of an α-particle of kinetic energy 5.5 MeV is about 4.0 × 10–14
m. The scattering of α-particle by the gold sheet could be understood by Rutherford by assuming
that the coulomb repulsive force was solely responsible for scattering. Since the positive charge
is confined to the nucleus, the actual size of the nucleus has to be less than 4.0 × 10 –14 m. If we
use α-particles of higher energies than 5.5 MeV, the distance of closest approach to the gold
nucleus will be smaller and at some point the scattering will begin to be affected by the short
range nuclear forces, and differ from Rutherford’s calculations. Rutherford’s calculations are
based on pure coulomb repulsion between the positive charges of the α particle and the gold
nucleus. From the distance at which deviations set in, nuclear sizes can be inferred. By performing
scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead of α-particles, are projectiles that bombard
targets made up of various elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately
measured. It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A has a radius R = R0 A1/3, where R0 =
1.2 × 10–15 m. This means the volume of the nucleus, which is proportional to R3 is proportional to
A. Thus the density of nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei. Different nuclei are
likes drop of liquid of constant density. The density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3 × 10 17
kgm–3. This density is very large compared to ordinary matter, say water, which is 103 kg m–3. This
is understandable, as we have already seen that most of the atom is empty. Ordinary matter
consisting of atoms has a large amount of empty space.

Q1. Relative density of nucleus with respect to water is

a) 2.3 × 1017 kgm–3
b) 2.3 × 1014 kgm–3
c) 23 × 1017 kgm–3
d) .23 × 1017 kgm–3

Q2. From R = R0 A1/3how can we conclude that density of almost all the nucleus is same
a) Volume being proportional to square of R density becomes independent of mass number A
b) Volume being proportional to cube of R density becomes independent of mass number A
c) Volume being proportional to R density becomes independent of mass number A
d) Density has no relation with R

Q3. What is the kinetic energy of α-particles bombarded towards the gold nucleus in Geiger and
Marsden classic experiment?
a) 8.8x10-13 Joule
b) 8.8x10-15 Joule
c) 8.8x10-13 Joule
d)8.1 x 10-13 Joule
e) 8.5x10-13 Joule

Q4. What is the range of volume of hydrogen nucleus?

a) 10-45m.
b) 10-30m.
c) 10-15m.
d) 10-60m.

Answer : Q1 – b; Q2 – b; Q3 – a; Q4 – a
Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

MIND MAP FOR THE CHAPTER

 Important Formulae

1. For intrinsic semiconductor:

ne=nh=ni
ne : number density of electrons in conduction band
nh : number density of holes in valence band
ni : number density of intrinsic carriers in a pure semiconductor
2. For extrinsic semiconductors
For n-type semiconductor:
ne>>nh
For p-type semiconductor
nh>>ne
3. ni2= nenh
4. Electric current,I=eA(neve+nhvh)
5. Conductivity of a semiconductor=σ=e(neμe+ nhμh)
μeandμhare the mobilities of the electrons and holes, respectively.
6. The minimum energy required to create an electron-hole pair,
hc
Eg=
λ
7. Dynamic resistance of a p-n junction diode, Rd= ΔV/ΔI
eV
8. Reverse saturation current = i= i0[exp( )-1]
kT
i0is the reverse saturation current.
9. Half wave rectifier
Io Vo
Iav= and Vav=
π π
Io Vo
Irms= and Vrms=
2 2
V0 is the peak voltage and I0 is the peak current.
10.Full wave rectifier
2Io 2Vo
Iav= and Vav=
π π
Io Vo
Irms= and Vrms=
√2 √2
V0 is the peak voltage and I0 is the peak current.
 Energy bands in solids
1. Energy bands:
Inside crystal, each electron has unique position so that no two electrons see exactly
the same pattern of surrounding charges. Each electron thus has a different energy
level. The collection of these closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.
These bands are formed due to the continuous energy variation in different energy
levels.
2. Valence band:
The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called
valence band.
3. Conduction band:
The energy band above the valence band is called conduction band. At room
temperature, this band is either empty or partially filled with electrons.
4. Energy Band Gap:
The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction
band is called energy band gap (Eg). It can be zero, small or large depending upon the
material.
5. Energy bands in conductors:
In metals, the conduction band and valence band partly overlap each other and there
is no forbidden energy gap.
6. Energy bands in insulators:
In insulators, the conduction band is empty and valence band is completely filled and
forbidden gap is quite large. No electron from valence band can cross over to
conduction band at room temperature, even if electric field is applied. Hence there is
no conductivity of the insulators.
7. Energy bands in semiconductors:
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and valence band is totally filled.
But the forbidden gap between conduction band and valence band is quite small,
which is about 1 eV. At absolute zero temperature, all states in valence band are full
and all states in conduction band are empty. An applied electric field cannot give so
much energy to the valence electrons that they could cross the gap and enter the
conduction band. Hence, at low temperatures, pure semiconductors are insulators.
At room temperature, some electrons in the valence band acquire thermal energy
greater than energy gap of 1 eV and jump over to the conduction band where they are
free to move under the influence of even a small electric field. Due to this, the
semiconductor acquires small conductivity at room temperature.
 8. Difference between Conductor, insulator and semiconductors on the basis of
energy
bands:

S.No. Conductors Insulator Semiconductor

1. There is no energy gap The valence band is The valence band is totally
between the conduction completely filled and thefilled and the conduction band
band and valence band. conduction band is empty.is empty but the energy gap
The conduction band and There is large energy gap.
between the conduction band
the valence band overlap. and the valence band, unlike
insulators is very small.
2. Electrons from below the Electrons are bound to At room temperature, some
Fermi level can shift to valence band. So, they are electrons from valence band
higher energy levels above not free to move. Electron acquire thermal energy which
Fermi level in conduction conduction is not possible. is enough to cross energy band
band. So, they behave as gap and jump over to
free electrons. conduction band, where they
are free to move even under a
small electric field and acquire
some conductivity.

9. Types of Semiconductors:

Semiconductors can be classified into following categories:

1. Intrinsic or pure semiconductors

 These are also called undoped or i-type semiconductors.

 At absolute zero temperature (0 K) there are no free electrons in them.
 At room temperature, the electron-hole pair in sufficient number are produced.
 The number of excited electrons is equal to number of holes.
 Electric conduction takes place via both electrons and holes.
 The drift velocities of electrons and holes are different.
 The total current is sum of electron current(Ie) and hole current ( Ih).
Itotal= Ie + Ih
 2. Extrinsic or doped semiconductors

 Some impurity atoms are embedded in these semiconductors.

The process in which some desirable impurity is added to intrinsic
semiconductors deliberately is called doping and the impurities are called
dopants.

 On the basis of types of dopants, extrinsic semiconductors are divided

into n-type and p-type semiconductors.

S. No. n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors

1. Pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic,
Antimony, Phosphorous etc. is added to
Si or Ge.
2. Impurity atoms provide extra electrons in
the structure and are called donor atoms.
3. The electrons are majority carriers and
the holes are minor carriers.
4. The electron density (ne) is much greater
than hole density (nh).
ne >>>nh
5. The donor energy level is close to the
conduction band and far away from the
valence band.
6. The Fermi energy level lies in between
the donor energy level and conduction
band.
7.
Trivalent impurity such as Indium, Boron,
Aluminium etc. is added to Si or Ge.
Impurity atoms added create holes(vacancies of
electrons) in the structure and are called
acceptor atoms.
The holes are majority carriers and the electrons
are minority carriers.
The hole density (nh) is much greater than
electron density (ne).
nh>>> ne
The acceptor energy level is close to the valence
band and is far away from the conduction band.
The Fermi energy level lies in between the
acceptor energy and valence band.

***************************************************************************
Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The conductivity of semiconductors increases with increase in temperature, because:

 (a) Number density of free current carriers increases
(b) Relaxation time increases
(c) Both number density of carriers and relaxation time increases
(d) Number density of carriers increases, relaxation time decreases but effect of
decrease in relaxation time is much less than increase in number density.

Ans: (d)

2. Correct order of relative values of electrical conductivity σ for different types of solid
is:
(a) σ semiconductor > σ insulator> σ metal
(b) σ metal> σ semiconductor > σ insulator
(c) σ semiconductor >σ metal > σ insulator
(d) σ insulator> σ semiconductor >σmetal

Ans : (b)

3. Which of the following correctly represents the hole in semiconductors?

(a) An anti-particle of electron
(b) A vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond
(c) Absence of free electrons
(d) An artificially created particle

Ans: (b)

4. The example of a p-type semiconductor is:

(a) Pure germanium
(b) Pure silicon
(c) Germanium doped with arsenic
(d) Germanium doped with boron

Ans : (d)

5. When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor,

(a) Electrons move from lower energy level to higher energy level in the conduction
band
(b) Electrons move from higher energy level to lower energy level in the conduction
band
(c) Holes in the valence band move from lower energy to higher energy level
(d) None of the above

Ans : (a)

6. The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands of a substance is 6 eV. The
substance is a:
(a) Conductor
(b) Semiconductor
 (c) Insulator
(d) Superconductor

Ans : ©

7. The substance which is doped in an intrinsic semiconductor to make p-type

semiconductor is:
(a) Phosphorous
(b) Antimony
(c) Aluminium
(d) Arsenic

Ans : ©

8. When trivalent impurity is mixed in a pure semiconductor, the conductor is mainly

due to:
(a) electrons
(b) holes
(c) Protons
(d) Positive ions

Ans : (b)

***************************************************************************

Assertion- Reason Questions:

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.
1. Assertion: The forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction bands is greater
in silicon than in germanium.
Reason: Thermal energy produces fewer minority carriers in silicon than in
germanium.
Ans : (b)
2. Assertion: When the temperature of a semiconductor is increased, then its resistance
decreases.
Reason: The energy gap between valence and conduction bands is very small for
semiconductors.
Ans: (a)
3. Assertion: A p-type semiconductor has net positive charge on it.
 Reason: p-type impurity atom has positive charge carriers (holes) in it.
Ans: (d)
4. Assertion: The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is greater
in silicon than in germanium.
Reason: Thermal energy produces fewer minority carriers in silicon than in
germanium.
Ans: (b)

***************************************************************************

Fill in the blanks:

1. The semiconductors available in natural form are called ______________.

2. The maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at absolute
zero temperature is equal to _______________.
3. In energy band diagram, the energy gap for carbon (diamond) is ____________.
4. In ______ semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in he energy gap , very close to
conduction band.
5. In ______ semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in energy gap, very close to valence
band.

Answers:

1. Elemental semiconductors
2. Fermi energy
3. 5.4 eV
4. N-type
5. P-type

Important Questions for slow bloomers:

1 Mark questions:

1. Name two intrinsic semiconductors.

Germanium, silicon
2. Name charge carriers in p-type semiconductors.
Holes
3. At what temperature would an intrinsic semiconductor behave like a perfect insulator?
An intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at temperature 0 K.
4. Why are elemental dopants for silicon or germanium usually chosen from group 13 or
group 15?
The size of dopant atoms should be such as not to distort the pure semiconductor
lattice structure and yet easily contribute a charge carrier on forming covalent bonds
with Si or Ge.
5. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases when electromagnetic
radiation of wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it. What is the band gap
in (eV) for the semiconductor ?
 Ans: 5 eV
6. How does one understand the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor ?
Ans: When temperature increases, covalent bonds of neighbouringatoms break and
charge carriers become free to cause conduction
7. What is the order of energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor?
(Refer to the conceptual part.)
8. What type of semiconductor we get when Ge is doped with indium and when Si is doped
with bismuth?

2 Mark questions:

1. Distinguish between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy

band gap.
(Refer to the conceptual part.)
2. Write two characteristic features to distinguish between n-type and p-type
semiconductors?
(Refer to the conceptual part.)
3. Draw energy band diagrams o dab n-type and p-type semiconductor at temperature T>
0K. Mark the donor and acceptor energy level with their energies.
(Refer to the conceptual part.)
4. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
(Refer to the conceptual part.)

3 Mark questions:

1. Draw the necessary energy band diagrams to distinguish between conductors,

semiconductors and insulators. How does the change in temperature affect the
behavior of these materials?
(Refer to the conceptual part.)

Numericals:

1. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 2X108 m-3. On doping
with a certain impurity, the hole concentration increases to 4X1010 m-3.
(i) What type of semiconductor is obtained on doping?
(ii) Calculate the new electron hole concentration of the semiconductor.
(iii) How does the energy gap vary with doping?

Ans: (i) p-type semiconductor

(ii) 106 m-3 (iii) Energy gap decreases with doping.

2. Suppose a pure Si-crystal has 5x1028 atoms/m3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of

pentavalent As. Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni=1.5x1016
m-3.
Ans: ne=5x1022 m-3 nh= 4.5x109 m-3
Case Based Study Question:

Answers:

(i)c (ii)b (iii)a (iv)a (v)b

PN Junction

The device formed by fabricating atomically a wafer of P-type semiconductor to the wafer
of N-type semiconductor is known as P-N junction.

Symbolic Representation
Conduction of current in P_N Junction:

(i) In P-N junction the majority cotters in P-region and majority electrons in N-region start
diffusing due to concentration gradient and thermal disturbance towards N-region and P-
region respectively and combine respectively with electrons and cotters and become neutral.
(ii) In this process of neutralization there occurs deficiency of free current carriers near the
junction and layers of positive ions in N-region and negative ions in P-region are formed.
These ions are immobile. Due to this an imaginary battery or internal electric field is formed
at the junction which is directed from N to P.
(iii) Depletion layer:
(a) The region on both sides of P-N junction in which there is deficiency of free current
carriers, is known as the depletion layer.
(b) Its thickness is o –6)
(c) On two sides of it, there are ions of opposite nature. i.e. donor ion (+ve) on N-side and
acceptor ions (– ve) on P-side.
(d) This stops the free current carriers to crossover the junction and consequently a potential barrier
is formed at the junction.
(e) The potential difference between the ends of this layer is defined as the contact potential or
potential barrier (VB).
(f) The value of VB is from 0.1 to 0.7 volt which depends on the temperature of the junction. It also
depends on the nature of semiconductor and the doping concentration. For germanium and silicon
its values are 0.3 V and 0.7 V respectively.

**Biasing in P-N junction diode:

Biasing in p-n junction diode is defined as the application of external voltage to the junction
diode in a certain direction.This can be done in two ways:
(i) Forwarding Biasing
A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p region of diode is
maintained at a higher potential with respect to the n region. In forward bias,
majority charge carriers in both the regions are pushed through the junction. The
depletion region’s width decreases and junction offers low resistance.

(ii) Reverse Biasing

A p-n junction is said to be in reverse bias when n region of diode is maintained
at higher potential with respect to the p region. In reverse bias, majority charge
carriers are pushed away from the junction.The depletion region’s width increases.
The minority charge carriers are pushed through the junction thereby causing a
little current.
**I-V Characteristics of a p-n junction diode:

The graphs that show a plot of current flowing through the junction vs the potential
difference applied represent the I-V characteristics of junction diode.

(i) Forward characteristics of p-n junction diode:

 In the beginning when applied voltage is low, there is almost zero current
through the diode because of the potential barrier which opposes the applied
voltage.
 On further increasing the applied voltage, there is rapid increase in the
currentand the diode behaves like a conductor. The forward voltage beyond
which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly with voltage is
called threshold voltage or knee voltage.
 Circuit Diagram
  I-V Graph

(ii) Reverse characteristics of p-n junction diode:

 In reverse bias, the current is very small (of order of μA) and almost remains
constant with change in bias voltage. It is called reverse saturation current.
However at very high reverse bias (breakdown voltage), the current suddenly
increases. In reverse bias, for voltage below the breakdown voltage, the
dynamic resistance of diode is very high.
 Circuit Diagram:

 I-V Graph:
***************************************************************************

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The barrier potential of a p-n junction diode depends on:

(i) Type of semiconductor material
(ii) Amount of doping
(iii) Temperature

Which one of the following is correct?

(a) Both (i) and (ii)

(b) Only (ii)
(c) Both (ii) and (iii)
(d) (i), (ii) and (iii)

Ans : (d)

2. In the depletion region of a diode

(a) There are mobile charges
(b) Equal number of holes and electrons exist, making the region neutral
(c) Recombination of holes and electrons has taken place
(d) mobile charged ions exist

Ans : (b)

***************************************************************************

Assertion- Reason Questions:

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.
1. Assertion: A p-n junction diode can be used even at ultra high frequencies.
Reason: Capacitive reactance of p-n junction diode increases as frequency increases.
Ans: ©
2. Assertion: A hole on p-side of a p-n junction moves to n-side just an instant after
drifting of charge carriers occurs across junction.
Reason: Drifting of charge carriers reduces the concentration gradient across junction.
Ans: (a)
***************************************************************************
Fill in the blanks:

1. In p-n junction, the physical distance from one side of the barrier to the other is
known as ___________ barrier.
2. A p-n junction is equivalent to a ___________ with p and n- regions acting as the
pates of a _________ and depletion region as the _______.
3. In pn junction, p-side is known as ___________ and n-side is known as
___________.
4. In germanium p-n diode, the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is ____________.
5. The height of potential barrier in p-n junction diode is ______to temperature in
Kelvin.

Answers:

1. Width of the
2. Capacitor, capacitor,dielectric medium
3. Anode, cathode
4. 4 x104:1
5. Proportional

***************************************************************************

Important Questions for slow bloomers:

1 Mark questions:

1. Can the potential barrier across a p-n junction be measured by simply connecting a
voltmeter across the junction?

Ans: No, because the voltmeter must have a resistance very high compared to the junction
resistance, the latter being nearly infinite.

2. What is the direction of diffusion current in a p-n junction ?

Ans: p to n side.

3. What happens to the width of depletion layer of s p-n junction when it is (i) Forward
biased, (ii) Reverse biased?

Ans: (i) When forward biased, the width of depletion layer decreases.

(ii)When reverse biased, the width of depletion increases.

2 Mark questions:

1. How is forward biasing different from reverse biasing in a p-n junction diode?
2. Draw V-I characteristics for a p-n junction diode.

3. Name the important process that occurs during formation of a p-n junction. Define the
term barrier potential.
3 Mark questions:

1. (i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential
upto a critical voltage?
(ii)Why does reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical voltage?
Answer:
 2. Describe briefly, with the help of a diagram, the role of two important processes
involved in the formation of a p-n junction.

5 Mark questions:

1. (a) State briefly the process involved in the formation of p-n junction explaining
clearly how depletion region is formed.
(b) Using the necessary circuit diagram, show how the V-I characteristics of a p-n
junction are obtained in (i) forward biasing (ii) Reverse Biasing.
How are these characteristics made use of in rectification?
2. (a) Distinguish between an intrinsic semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor. Give
reason why p-type semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral, although nh>> ne.
(b) Explain, how the heavy doping of both p- amd n- sides of a p-n junction diode
results in the electric field of the junction being extremely high even with a reverse
bias voltage of few volts.
Numericals:

1. The following table provides the set of values V and I obtained for a given diode.
Assuming the characteristics to be nearly linear, over this range, calculate the forward
and reverse bias resistance of the given diode.
V I

Forward biasing 2.04V 60mA

2.4V 8mA

Reverse biasing 0V 0μA

-2V -0.25 μA

Answer:
Forward bias resistance: 20Ω
Reverse bias resistance: 8x106 Ω
 2.
3.

**Diode as a
Rectifier:

 The
process of converting alternating voltage/current into direct voltage/current is
called rectification.
 *Principle:
A junction diode allows current to pass through it only when it is forward
biased.
 Half-wave rectifier:
In half wave rectifier, AC voltage to be rectified is connected to the primary
coil of the step-down transformer and secondary coil is connected to the diode
through resistor RL across which output is obtained.

Working:
The p-n junction is forward biased during positive half cycle of the input AC,
as a result, the resistance in p-n junction becomes low and current flows so
that output is received across the load. During negative half cycle, the diode is
reverse biased. So, no output is received across the load.
 Full-wave rectifier:
In the full wave rectifier, two p-n junction diodes D1 and D2 are used.
Working:
In the full wave rectifier, output is received across the load resistor throughout.
 ( In positive half cycle by D1 which is forward biased in this case even though
D2 is reverse biased and in negative half cycle by D2 which is forward biased
in this case even though D1 is reverse biased.)

***************************************************************************

Important Questions for slow bloomers:

1 Mark questions:

Q. 1 If a full wave rectifier circuit is operating from 50 Hz mains, what will be the
fundamental frequency in the ripples ?
Ans: 100 Hz

5 Mark questions:

1. Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of a p-n junction diode as a
half wave rectifier. Also give the input and output waveforms.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier and explain its working. Also, give
the input and output waveforms.
Numericals

1. A full wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be
assumed constant at 25Ω. The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from center tap to
each end ofteh secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 975 Ω. Find:
(i) Mean load current
(ii) Rms value of load current

Answer: (i) 4.5x10-2 A (ii) 5x10-2 mA

2. In a full wave junction diode rectifier, the input a.c. voltage has r.m.s. value of 10 V.
The transformer used is a step up one having transformation ratio 1:2. Calculate the
D.C. voltage in the rectified output.

Answer: 18V
Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes:
***************************************************************************

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The wavelength and intensity of light emitted by a LED depend upon :

(a) Forward bias and energy gap of the semiconductor
(b) Energy gap of the semiconductor and reverse bias
(c) Energy gap only
(d) Forward bias only

Ans : (a)

***************************************************************************
Assertion- Reason Questions:

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.
1. Assertion: LED emits spontaneous radiation.
Reason: LED are forward biased p-n junctions.
Ans ;(a)

***************************************************************************
Important Questions for slow bloomers:

1 Mark questions:

1. Draw V-I characteristics for a photodiode.

2. Draw V-I characteristic for a solar cell.

3. State with reason why a photodiode is usually operated at a reverse bias?
 4. Explain why elemental semiconductor cannot be used to make visible LEDs?

2 Mark questions:

1. Name the optoelectronic device used for detecting optical signals and mention the
biasing in which it is operated. Draw I-V characteristics.
(Hint: Photodiode , operated in reverse biasing).
2. Write any two important advantages of LEDs over the conventional incandescent low
power lamps.

3. Why are Si and GaAs preferred materials for solar cells?

3 Mark questions:

1. Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of a photodiode. Write briefly
how it is used to detect the optical signals.
2. How is a light emitting diode fabricated? Briefly state its working?

3. Describe the working principle of a solar cell. Mention three basic processes involved
in the generation of emf?
Answers:

(i)b (ii)b (iii)b (iv)c (v)d

HOT QUESTIONS
 SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER LINKS
https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/SQP
/ClassXII_2021_22/Physics-SQP_Term2.pdf
https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/SQP
/ClassXII_2021_22/Physics-MS_Term2.pdf