Project management

Definition

Project management is the application of processes, methods, knowledge, skills and experience
to achieve the project objectives.

General

A project is a unique, transient Endeavour, undertaken to achieve planned objectives, which

could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits. A project is usually deemed to be a
success if it achieves the objectives according to their acceptance criteria, within an agreed
timescale and budget.

A key factor that distinguishes project management from just 'management' is that it has this
final deliverable and a finite time span, unlike management which is an ongoing process.
Because of this a project professional needs a wide range of skills; often technical skills, and
certainly people management skills and good business awareness.

Project Life Cycle (Phases)

The project manager and project team have one shared goal: to carry out the work of the project
for the purpose of meeting the project’s objectives. Every project has a beginning, a middle
period during which activities move the project toward completion, and an ending (either
successful or unsuccessful). A standard project typically has the following four major phases
(each with its own agenda of tasks and issues): initiation, planning, implementation, and closure.
Taken together, these phases represent the path a project takes from the beginning to its end and
are generally referred to as the project “life cycle.”

Initiation Phase

Steps for the project initiation phase may include the following:

 Undertaking a feasibility study – Identifying the primary problem your project will solve
and whether your project will deliver a solution to that problem
 Identifying scope – Defining the depth and breadth of the project
 Identifying deliverables – Defining the product or service to provide
 Identifying project stakeholders – Figuring out whom the project affects and what their
needs may be
 Developing a business case – Using the above criteria to compare the potential costs and
benefits for the project to determine if it moves forward

Planning Phase

Steps for the project planning phase may include the following:

 Creating a project plan – Identifying the project timeline, including the phases of the
project, the tasks to be performed, and possible constraints
 Creating workflow documents or process maps – Visualizing the project timeline by
diagramming key milestones
 Estimating budget and creating a financial plan – Using cost estimates to determine how
much to spend on the project to get the maximum return on investment
 Gathering resources – Building your functional team from internal and external talent
pools while making sure everyone has the necessary tools (software, hardware, etc.) to
complete their tasks
 Anticipating risks and potential quality roadblocks – Identifying issues that may cause
your project to stall while planning to mitigate those risks and maintain the project’s
quality and timeline

Implementation (Execution) Phase

Steps for the project execution phase may include the following:

 Creating tasks and organizing workflows – Assigning granular aspects of the projects to
the appropriate team members, making sure team members are not overworked
 Briefing team members on tasks – Explaining tasks to team members, providing
necessary guidance on how they should be completed, and organizing process-related
training if necessary
 Communicating with team members, clients, and upper management – Providing updates
to project stakeholders at all levels
  Monitoring quality of work – Ensuring that team members are meeting their time and
quality goals for tasks
 Managing budget – Monitoring spending and keeping the project on track in terms of
assets and resources

Closing Phase

Steps for the project closure phase may include the following:

 Analyzing project performance – Determining whether the project's goals were met (tasks
completed, on time and on budget) and the initial problem solved using a prepared
checklist [link to checklist template]
 Analyzing team performance – Evaluating how team members performed, including
whether they met their goals along with timeliness and quality of work
 Documenting project closure – Making sure that all aspects of the project are completed
with no loose ends remaining and providing reports to key stakeholders
 Conducting post-implementation reviews – Conducting a final analysis of the project,
taking into account lessons learned for similar projects in the future
 Accounting for used and unused budget – Allocating remaining resources for future
projects
 By remaining on task even though the project’s work is completed, you will be prepared
to take everything you’ve learned and implement it for your next project.

Setting project objectives & goals

SMART Goals

This is by far the most common approach to defining project goals.

SMART is an acronym that stands for:

 Specific – meaning that your goal should clearly define what you’re aiming to achieve.
 Measurable – your goal also needs to include an indicator of progress you’ll measure the goal’s
success by.
 Attainable –you must have the appropriate knowledge, skill and expertise to achieve it.
 Results-focused – it should focus on results not actions.
 Time-bound – and you need to specify the timeframe for reaching the goal.

1. Specific

goal should be clear and specific. When drafting goal, try to answer the five "W" questions:
 What do I want to accomplish?
 Why is this goal important?
 Who is involved?
 Where is it located?
 Which resources or limits are involved?

2. Measurable

It's important to have measurable goals, so that track progress and stay motivated. A measurable
goal should address questions such as:

 How much?

 How many?

 How will I know when it is accomplished?

3. Achievable

goal also needs to be realistic and attainable to be successful. An achievable goal will usually
answer questions such as:

 How can I accomplish this goal?

 How realistic is the goal, based on other constraints, such as financial factors?

4. Relevant

This step is about support and assistance in achieving our goals, but it's important to retain
control over them. So, make sure that plans drive everyone forward. A relevant goal can answer
"yes" to these questions:

 Does this seem worthwhile?

 Is this the right time?

 Does this match our other efforts/needs?

 Am I the right person to reach this goal?

 Is it applicable in the current socio-economic environment?

5. Time-bound

Every goal needs a target date, so that you have a deadline to focus on and something to work
toward. This part of the SMART goal criteria helps to prevent everyday tasks from taking
priority over your longer-term goals.

A time-bound goal will usually answer these questions:

 When?

 What can I do six months from now?

 What can I do six weeks from now?

 What can I do today?

CPM & PERT

CPM:

A critical path method (CPM) is a network of events, each one of them linked to the
following activities. Each activity is represented as a node on the network, and connecting lines
are drawn to represent the time schedule to complete that activity. A critical path method
schedule must be completed using the following steps:

1. Identify the activities

2. Determine the sequence of the activities
3. Connect or create a network of the activities
4. Enter the completion time for every activity listed ni step 1
5. Identify the critical path or the longest possible path to complete all activities
6. One important and valuable component is the CPM update progress, allowing to track
closely the performance and time used to complete the activities

Identify the Activities

To start developing a list of activities for the project, normally that information is obtained from
the work breakdown structure or the project scope and details. This will be the key to later add
sequence and duration in subsequent steps. Activities are identified by name, coding, accounting
string or other and must have a duration or target date in the case of milestones.

Determine the Sequence of the Activities

This is one key factor of a critical path method (CPM). A complete and thorough
understanding of the sequence of the activities are needed to prepare and connect the list of
activities prepared in the previous step. The project or construction manager needs to understand
the activities that are linked or are related so they can show the proper connection in the
schedule. Sometimes contractors fail to identify these relationships causing delays and other
problems during project execution.

Creating the Network

The CPM is created summarizing all defined activities and showing interdependence between
them. It is of vital importance that all critical work sequence has been linked with logical
coordination and planning requirements. The CPM format shall be based on calendar
days as their main planning unit. A CPM schedule should avoid using working days as it might
lead to confusion and errors.

Estimate Activity Completion Time

Using previous experience, time estimates can be presented and shall represent the necessary
time to complete the activity for a single resource unit. It is one of the most important steps when
preparing a CPM because it will help you determine the time needed or available to perform an
activity.

How to Identify the Critical Path

The critical path is the longest-duration path through the network. 

Activities located on this path cannot be delayed without delaying the project. Because of its
impact on the entire project, critical path analysis is an important aspect of project planning. The
critical path can be identified using these parameters:

 ES – Early Start: earliest time to start a predetermined activity, given that prior activities
must be completed first
 EF – Early Finish: earliest finish time for the activity
 LF - Late Finish: latest time the activity must be completed without delaying the entire
project
 LS – Late Start: latest start date that the activity must be started without delaying the
project

The critical path is the path through the project network in which none of the activities have been
delayed, that is, the path for which ES=LS and EF=LF for all activities in the path.

A delay in the critical path delays the project.

PERT:

The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a widely used method for planning
and coordinating large-scale projects. As Harold Kerzner explained in his book Project
Management, "PERT is basically a management planning and control tool. It can be considered
as a road map for a particular program or project in which all of the major elements (events) have
been completely identified, together with their corresponding interrelations'¦. PERT charts are
often constructed from back to front because, for many projects, the end date is fixed and the
contractor has front-end flexibility." A basic element of PERT-style planning is to identify
critical activities on which others depend. The technique is often referred to as PERT/CPM, the
CPM standing for "critical path method."
PERT was developed during the 1950s through the efforts of the U.S. Navy and some of its
contractors working on the Polaris missile project. Concerned about the growing nuclear arsenal
of the Soviet Union, the U.S. government wanted to complete the Polaris project as quickly as
possible. The Navy used PERT to coordinate the efforts of some 3,000 contractors involved with
the project. Experts credited PERT with shortening the project duration by two years. Since then,
all government contractors have been required to use PERT or a similar project analysis
technique for all major government contracts.
 
PERT planning involves the following steps:
1. Identify the specific activities and milestones.
2. Determine the proper sequence of the activities.
3. Construct a network diagram.
4. Estimate the time required for each activity.
5. Determine the critical path.
6. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.

Comparison Chart

BASIS
FOR
PERT CPM
COMPAR
ISON

Meaning PERT is a project management CPM is a statistical technique of project

technique, used to manage management that manages well defined
uncertain activities of a project. activities of a project.

What is it? A technique of planning and A method to control cost and time.
control of time.

Orientatio Event-oriented Activity-oriented

n

Evolution Evolved as Research & Evolved as Construction project

 BASIS
FOR
PERT CPM
COMPAR
ISON

Development project

Model Probabilistic Model Deterministic Model

Focuses on Time Time-cost trade-off

Estimates Three time estimates One time estimate

Appropriat High precision time estimate Reasonable time estimate

e for

Manageme Unpredictable Activities Predictable activities

nt of

Nature of Non-repetitive nature Repetitive nature

jobs

Critical No differentiation Differentiated

and Non-
critical
activities

Suitable Research and Development Non-research projects like civil construction,

for Project ship building etc.

Crashing Not Applicable Applicable

concept

What is a Gantt Chart?

 A Gantt chart, commonly used in project management, is one of the most popular and useful
ways of showing activities (tasks or events) displayed against time. On the left of the chart is a
list of the activities and along the top is a suitable time scale. Each activity is represented by a
bar; the position and length of the bar reflects the start date, duration and end date of the activity.
This allows you to see at a glance:

 What the various activities are

 When each activity begins and ends
 How long each activity is scheduled to last
 Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much
 The start and end date of the whole project

To summarize, a Gantt chart shows you what has to be done (the activities) and when (the
schedule).

 
A simple Gantt chart

Project Scheduling

Project scheduling is concerned with the techniques that can be employed to manage the
activities that need to be undertaken during the development of a project.
Scheduling is carried out in advance of the project commencing and involves:

•    identifying the tasks that need to be carried out;

•    estimating how long they will take;
•    allocating resources (mainly personnel);
•    scheduling when the tasks will occur.

Once the project is underway control needs to be exerted to ensure that the plan continues
to represent the best prediction of what will occur in the future:
•    based on what occurs during the development;
•    often necessitates revision of the plan.
Effective project planning will help to ensure that the systems are delivered:
•    within cost;
•    within the time constraint;
•    to a specific standard of quality.
Two project scheduling techniques will be presented, the Milestone Chart (or Gantt Chart) and
the Activity Network.
Milestone Charts
Milestones mark significant events in the life of a project, usually critical activities which must
be achieved on time to avoid delay in the project.
Milestones should be truely significant and be reasonable in terms of deadlines (avoid using
intermediate stages).
Examples include:
•    installation of equipment;
•    completion of phases;
•    file conversion;
•    cutover to the new system
Gantt Charts
A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar or line chart which will commonly include the following
features:
•    activities identified on the left hand side;
•    time scale is drawn on the top (or bottom) of the chart
•    a horizontal open oblong or a line is drawn against each activity indicating estimated
duration;
•    dependencies between activities are shown;
•    at a review point the oblongs are shaded to represent the actual time spent (an alternative is to
represent actual and estimated by 2 separate lines);
•    a vertical cursor (such as a transparent ruler) placed at the review point makes it possible to
establish activities which are behind or ahead of schedule.
 
Activity Networks
The foundation of the approach came from the Special Projects Office of the US Navy in 1958. It
developed a technique for evaluating the performance of large development projects, which
became known as PERT - Project Evaluation and Review Technique. Other variations of the
same approach are known as the critical path method (CPM) or critical path analysis (CPA).
The heart of any PERT chart is a network of tasks needed to complete a project, showing the
order in which the tasks need to be completed and the dependencies between them. This is
represented graphically:
 
Resource leveling
Resource leveling is a technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted based on resource
constraints with the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available supply.