Module in

Crim 212:
Theories of Crime Causation
COURSE NO. & TITLE: CRIM 212/THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

SCHOOL YEAR/SEMESTER OFFERED: S.Y. 2020-2021 – Second Semester

Pre-requisites: None

COURSE OUTCOMES: At the end of this module the student must have:
1. Have broad cultural background and thorough knowledge and
understanding of constitutional guarantees.
2. Acquired knowledge, skill, attitudes and values essential to the practice of
criminology especially in the fields of Criminalistics, Law enforcement
administration, Criminal Sociology, Criminal Law and Procedure, Correctional
Administration, Ethics and Community Relations, and Defensive Tactics.
3. Have knowledge and understanding of crime problems including causal
theories and the implications of crime statistics.
4. Have adequate knowledge of the organization and operation of law
enforcement agencies and how it forms part of the Criminal Justice System.
5. Possessed scientific knowledge and skills to investigate, analyze and
preserve physical evidence relating to the commission of crime as well as identify
and present the same in court.
6. Have adequate proficiency and technical knowledge in the fields of
criminalistics such as; Police Photography, Dactyloscopy, Questioned Document
Examination, Polygraphy, Ballistics, Forensic Science and Toxicology.
7. Have knowledge and understanding of elements of crimes as provided
under existing laws, including impossible penalties and principles of criminal
evidence.

COURSE CREDIT/UNIT: 3 Units

TIME FRAME: (Midterm)

- 2 weeks (online Discussion)

- 2 weeks (Independent work)

PRE-TEST/POST-TEST:
Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF
CRIME CAUSATION

Activity: Quiz

Notes to the Students

This module is part of the series of Modules for Flexible learning spearheaded
by the office of the Director of Instruction and the Center for Teaching Excellence,
West Visayas State University.

This is meant for the course CRIM 212 – Theories of Crime Causation

Theories of crime causation discusses different explanations of criminalty.They

includebiological,psychological,sociological,economic,biopsychosocial,political,develop
ment life course,theories on women offenders, and ecology and environemental
theories of crime.

There are 9 chapters in this module. They are listed as follows:

Chapter 1: Biological Theories of Crime

Chapter 2: Psychological Theories of Crime

Chapter 3: Sociological Theories of Crime

Chapter 4: Economic Theories of Crime

Chapter 5: Biopsychocsocial Theories of Crime

Chapter 6: Political Theories of Crime
Chapter 7: Development Life Course Theories of Crime

Chapter 8: Theories on Women Offenders

Chapter 9: Ecology or Environmental Theories of Crime

This module requires deep understanding of the history, culture, customs and
traditions of different people in different countries mentioned herein to avoid
misconstruing of the understanding of criminological perspective to
journalistic, biblical, and legalistic perspective of crime, criminals, and
criminal behavior.
 Table of Contents

Notes to the Students

How Much Do You Know?

Criminal Etiology
Chapter 1. Biological explanations of criminality
1.1. Heredity and crimes
A. Family Studies
B. Twin behavior studies
C. Adoption studies
D. Twins separated at birth
E. Chromosomes
1.2. Physiognomy
1.3. Phrenology or Craniology
1.4. Physiology or Somatotype
1.5. Physical defects and crimes
Chapter 2. Psychological explanations of criminality
2.1. Psychoanalytic theory
2.2. Personality and crimes
2.3. Mental disturbances and crimes
2.4. Intelligence and crimes
2.5. Cognitive theory
2.6. Moral development theory
2.7. Behavioral theory
Chapter 3. Sociological explanations of criminality
3.1. Differential association theory
3.2. Differential reinforcement theory
3.3. Neutralization theory
3.4. Social control theory
3.5. Conflict theory
3.6. Social reaction theory
3.7. Labeling theory
3.8. Cultural transmission theory
3.9. Containment theory
4.0. Social structure theory
a. Social disorganization theory
b. Strain theory
c. General strain theory
d. Cultural deviance theory
e. Theory of delinquent subcultures
f. Theory of differential oppurtunity

Chapter 4. Economic Theories of Crime

4.1. Radical theory
4.2. Rational choice theory
Chapter 5. Biopsychocsocial Theories of Crime
5.1. Biological factors
 5.2. Psychological factors
5.3. Sociological factors
Chapter 6. Political Theories of Crime
6.1. Conflict theory
6.2. Radical theory
6.3. Social structure theory
6.4. Marxist theory
Chapter 7. Development Life Course Theories of Crime
7.1. Antidevelopmental theory: Low self control theory
7.2. Sampson and Laub’s developmental model
7.3. Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy
Chapter 8. Theories on Women Offenders
8.1. Liberal feminism
8.2. Marxist feminism
8.3. Radical feminism
8.4. Dual system feminism
Chapter 9. Ecology or Environmental Theories of Crime
9.1. Broken window theory

Information
How Much Do You Know? Sheet 1
 Pre-test

Essay: Answer the following questions based on your own knowledge.

1. What is Theories of crime causation?

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2. What are the objectives of theories of crime causation?

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3. What do you think are the advantages of knowing about crime causation?
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4. How does criminological theories adjust on the trending crimes, criminal

behavior, and criminals?
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5. Explain pseudoscientific practices or pseudoscience its attribute in the field of

criminology.
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 What Do You Need To Know? Information
Sheet 1

CHAPTER 1. BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF

CRIMINALITY
Lesson 1.1 HEREDITY AND CRIMES
Introduction

The biological explanations of criminality assume that individuals vary in

behavior because of their biological structural differences. These maybe the result of
chromosomes, genes, chemistry, hormones, or even body type.

Heredity and Crimes

• Early biological theorists believed that criminality was an inherited trait passed on in the
genes. The methods employed to test the proposition that criminality is inherited are
the following:
A. Family Studies
• In this method, the family known to have many criminals was compared with a family
free of criminals. In some studies were conducted to prove that children parents are
more likely to become law violators that children of non - criminal parents.
1. The Study of the Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)
The Juke family was a New York “hill family” studied in the late 19 th and early 20th
centuries. Max Juke daughter Ada Juke was known as “The Mother of all Criminals”.Dugdale
traced the 1,200 descendants for 75 years and found 280 paupers, 60 theives, 7 murderers,
40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants prematurely born, 50 prostitutes,
and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.
2. Kallikak Family A Study in the Heredity of Feeble - Mindedness (Henry H. Goddard)
Martin Kallikak was an American Revolutionary war soldier. While stationed in a
small village, he met a feeble minded girl and had illicit relationship with her. About 489
descendants from this lineage were traced which included 143 feeble minded and 46
normal,36 were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept brothels, and 82 died in infancy.

3. Sir Jonathan Edwards Family (Albert Edward Winship)

Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous Puritan Preacher during colonial period. Almost
150 years after his death. His findings are remarkable, especially when compared to another
man from the same time period known as Max Jukes. Jonathan Edwards legacy includes: 1
U.S. Vice President, 1 Dean of a law school, 3 U.S. Senators, 3 Governors, 3 Mayors, 13
College Presidents, 30 Judges, 60 Doctors, 65 Proffesors, 75 Military Officers, 80 Public Office
Holders, 100 Lawyers, 100 Clergyman, and 285 College Graduates.

B. Twin Behavior Studies (Johannes Lange)

The logic of this method is that if there is greater similarity in behavior between
identical twins than fraternal twins, the behavior must be due to heredity.
One of the earlier and simpler twin studies was conducted in the 1920s by Johannes
Lange (1929). He studied 30 pairs of twins who were the same sex. 17 of these pairs were
fraternal (dizygotic [DZ]) twins and 13 of these pairs were identical (monozygotic [MZ])
twins. At least one of each twin pair was known to have committed a crime. However, Lange
found that both twins in 10 of the 13 MZ twin pairs were known criminals, compared with
both twins in only 2 of the 17 DZ paris.

C. Adoption Studies
In adoption studies, the behavior of adoptees is compared with the outcomes of
their adopted and biological parents. The aim is to separate out the impact of the
environement from the influence of heredity. This research asks whether a child will exhibit
traits of the adopted parents or of the biological parents.
Research indicates that an adoptee with biological parent who is criminal is more
likely to engageg in property crime than other adoptees and that this effect is stronger for
boys. The findings, from a study of 14,427 Danish children adopted between 1924 and 1947,
provide evidence that there may be a genetic factor in the predispositionto anti - social
behavior (Mednick, Gabrielli, & Hutchins, 1984). studies in both Sweden and in the United
States confirm these conclusions.

D. Twins Separated at Birth

A nature vs nurture methodical approach. One of the most notable study have been
done at the University of Minnesota, found that the twin pairs often showed extremely
similar tendencies for criminality, sometimes more similar than those seen in concordance
rates for identical twins raised together. This finding obviously supports the profound
influence of genetics and heredity, which is not surprising to most well read scientist, who
now acknowledge the extreme importance of inheritance of physiological and psychological
aspects to human behavior. Perhaps more surprising was why separated identical twins,
who had never known that they had a twin and were often raised in extremely different
circumstances, had just as high or even higher concordance rates than identical twins who
were raised together.

E. Chromosomes
The role of chromosomes in crime causation has been analyzed inrecent studies on
human genetics. The first well known study of this type was undertaken by Patricia A.
Jacobs, a British researcher who examined 197 Scottish prisoners for chromosomal
abnormalities through a realtively simple blood test known as karyotyping. Twelve of the
group displayed chromosomes which were unusual, and 7 were found to have XYY
chromosome. “Normal” males possess an XY chromosome structure while normal females
are XX and human cells normally have 22 pairs of chromosome that determines sex, for a
total of 46. Some other unusual combinations might be XXX, wherein a females genetic
make up contains an extra X or female chromosome. Klinefelter’s male syndrome caused by
a presence of extra Y chromosome for males. The XYY male, however, whose incidence in
prison population was placed at around 3.5% by Jacobs, was quickly identified as potentially
violent and termed as supermale.

Lesson 1.2 PHYSIOGNOMY

 Physis meaning “nature” and gnomon meaning “judge” is the practice of assessing a
person’s character or personality from their outer appearance especially the face and
sometimes refer as anthroposcopy. Physiognomy is the study of facial features of a
person in relation to his criminal behavior. This is done to determine whether the shape
of the ears, nose, and eyes, and the distances between them were associated with anti -
social behavior. The first to use this approach was Beccaria in his Crime and
Punsihment. It was later revived by Swiss theologian Johann Kaspar Lavater.

Lesson 1.3 PHRENOLOGY OR CRANIOLOGY

 It is the process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine and
individuals psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall believed that the brain was made
up of 27 individual organs that determine personality, the first 19 of these “organs” he
believed to exists in other animal species. Phrenology, the study of the conformation of
the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character, especially according to
the hyphotheses of Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), a German doctor, and such 19 th
century adherents as Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) and George Combe (1788-
1858). Phrenology enjoyed great popular appeal well into the 20 th century but has been
wholly discredited by scientific research.
 The principles upon which phrenology was based were five: (1) the brain is the organ of
the mind; (2) human mental powers can be analyzed into a definite number of
independent faculties; (3) these faculties are innate, and each has its seat in a definite
region of the surface of the brain; (4) the size of each region is the measure of degree to
which the faculty seated in it forms a constituent element in the character of the
individual; and (5) the correspondence between the outer surface of the skull and the
contour of the brain - surface beneath is sufficiently close to enable the observer to
recognize the relative sizes of these several organs by the examination of the outer
surface of the head.

Lesson 1.4 PHYSIOLOGY OR SOMATOTYPE

 Physiology or Somatotype refers to the study of the body build of a person in relation
to his temperament and personality and the type of offense he/she is prone to commit.
This approach was originated by Ernst Kretschmer and develop by William Sheldon.
 Kretschmer studied the different body types and presented the relationship between
physique and mental illness. He classified the body build into three distinct types:
1. Asthenic type - thin with long narrow arms, delicate bone structure and appearance;
could also be muscular and athletic. This body type is associated with schizophrenia and
tends to be idealistic, introverted, withdrawn, and prone to commit larceny and fraud
cases.
2. Pyknic type - round,fat, and fleshy body; associated with manic depressiveness. Persons
with this built tend to be moody, extrovert, jolly, and realistic. They are prone to
commit deception, fraud, and violence.
3. Dysplastic type - partly asthenic and partly pyknic with no identifiable mental illness.
Their offenses are against decency and morality.

Sheldon defined three body types and their corresponding temperaments:

Body Type Physical Attributes Temperament

 Ectomorph tall, thin, bony, droopy shoulders Cerebrotonic - full of

complaints,insomiac with
chronic fatigue and
sensitive skin, nervous, self
concious, and introvert.

 Endomorph round,fat,short,tapering limbs, Viscerotonic - relaxed,jolly,

and small bones lazy,comfortable,loves
luxury,and extrovert.

 Mesomorph muscular with athletic built Somotonic-

active,dynamic;walks talks
and gestures assertively;behaves
aggresively;dominant; more prone
tocriminal activity than the
Ectomorph and Endomorph.

Lesson 1.5 PHYSICAL DEFECTS AND CRIMES

 Physical defects were the usual source of irritation especially during childhood
whenever they were the subject of mockery by others. As a result, they develop
inferiority complex. Consequentially, they have poor relationship and serious emotional
disturbances. They lack competitiveness occupationally and socially, and they become
frequently irritated by people. This makes them resort to violent criminal behavior.

CHAPTER 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF

CRIMINALITY
 Psychologists and Psychiatrists, same with biologists and chemists also attempted to
explain criminal behavior. They tried to find out whether criminal behavior is caused by
such personal factors as emotional problems, mental disorders, sociopathy, and
 abnormal thinking patterns. The psychological and psychiatric theories have the
common assumption that there is something wrong with the mind of the offender,
which causes him to commit crimes.

Lesson 2.1 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

 It is the personality theory, which based on the notion that an individual gets motivated
more by unseen forces that are controlled by the conscious and rational thought.
Sigmund Freud is closely related to Psychoanalytic theory. According to him, the human
behavior is formed through an interaction between three components of the mind, i.e.
Id, Ego, Super Ego. “I want this”, “Let’s work on it”, “This is not the way to get it”.
1. Id - The primitive part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification of the biological or
instinctual needs.
2. Ego - In contrast to the instintual Id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational,
pragmatic pragmatic part of our personality. It is the less primitive than the Id and is partly
concious and partly unconcious.
3. Superego - It is concerned with the social rules and morals similar to what people call
their “conscience” or their “moral compass”. It develops as child learn what their culture
considersright or wrong.

Lesson 2.2 PERSONALITY AND CRIMES

 Personality and crime have been linked in to two general ways. First, in “personality
trait psychology” (Akers & Sellers, 2009) Certain traits or super traits within a structured
model of personality may be linked to anti - social behavior. As reviewed by Miller and
Lynam (2001), four structured models of personality theory were found to be widely
used in criminological research and are considered reliable: the five factor model (FFM;
McCrae & Costa, 1990), the PEN model (Eysneck, 1977), Tellegens three-factor model
(1985), Cloninger’s temperament and character model (Chloninger, Dragan, Svraki, &
Przybeck, 1993).
 Some psychological studies have examined the relation between personality and
criminality. In the investigation of the differences of personality between criminals and
non - criminals carried out in prisons. It showed that inmates are typically more
impulsive, hostile, self centered, and immature than non- criminals. Criminals are
concluded by psychiatrist and psychologist displaying abnormal thinking patterns, the
had “angry” personality at the same time a feel of sense of superiority and have a highly
self inflated image. They do not expect any accountability of their actions.

 In general, studies on criminals’ personality characteristics revealed some relationships.

However, most data did not reveal any significant differences between criminal and non
criminal psychology. Personality testing has not differentiated criminals from non
criminals

Lesson 2.3 MENTAL DISTURBANCES AND CRIMES

 Studies of criminality among patients in psychiatric hospitals and of mental disorder
among incarcerated offenders have suggested an asoociation between the major
mental disorders (Schizophrenia, Paranoia, and Major affective disorders) and crime.
However, these investigations are characterized by notable methodical weaknesses,
and, cosequently, this conclusion has remained tentative. Little known about the
criminality of intellectual handicapped people. The present study examined the
relationship between crime and mental disorder and crime and intellectual/mental
deficiency in an unselected Swidish British cohort followed up to age 30 years. It was
found that men with major mental disorders were 21/2 times more likely than men
with no disorder or handicap to be registered for a criminal offense and four times
more likely to be registered for a violent offense. Women with major disorders were
five times more likely than women with no disorder or handicap to be registered for an
offense and 27 time more likely to be registered for violent offense. These subjects
committed many serious offenses throughout their lives. The criminal behavior in over
half of these cases appeared before the age of 18 years. Intellectually handicapped men
were three times more likely to offend than men with no disorder or handicap and five
times more likely to commit a violent offense. The result of this investigation confirm
and extend previous findings indicating that individuals with major mental disorders
and those with intellectual handicaps are at increased risk for offending and for violent
offending. However, in the United States, where rates of crime overall and crime by
substance abusers are very high, the mentally disordered and intellectually
handicapped would account for only small proportion of these offense.

TYPES OF MENTAL DISTURBANCES, ILLNESS, DISORDERS

1. Mental Deficiency

A. Idiots
B. Imbeciles
C. Feeble - Mindedness
D. Morally Defective

2. Psychosis

A. Schizophrenia
B. Paranoia

3. Neurosis

A. Neurasthenia
B. Anxiety
C. Obsessive Compulsive
1. Kleptomania
2. Dipsomania
3. Pyromania
4. Homicidal Compulsion

D. Hysteria
E. Phobia
1. Agoraphobia
2. Sociophobia
3. Acrophobia
4. Claustrophobia
5. Necrophobia
6. Homophobia
7. Autophobia
8. Scotophobia/Achluophobia
9. Pyrophobia
10. Xenophobia

F. Depression

4. Epilepsy

Lesson 2.4 INTELLIGENCE AND CRIMES

 The classic studies of the Juke and Kallikak families were among the first to show that
feeblemindedness or low intelligence was in inherited and transferred from one
generation to next. Numerous test were likewise conducted that lead to the
development of the use of IQ test as a testing procedure for offenders. The very first
result seem to confirm that offender had low mental abilities. They were found to be
mentally impaired and incapable of managing their affiars.
 Authorities such as Bartol, Wilson, and Herrstein indicate evidence that intelligence is
inherited, as shown by the numeous studies conducted. They were one in concluding
that an estimate 10 point gap exists on IQ scores between offenders and non offenders,
non offenders scoring higher. Moreover, most offenders fall in the low normal or
borderline range (60 - 100) points.

 Criminologists Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang also proposed the idea that low IQ
increases the likelihood of criminal behavior through its effect on school performance,
that is, youths with low IQ’s do poorly in school, and school failure and academic
incompetence are highly related to delinquency and later to adult criminality. These
inferences were later supported by other researchers who continued to prove that IQ
and crime are related though indirect.
 Charles Goring (1870-1919) studied mental characteristics of 3,000 English convicts. He
found little difference in the physical characteristics of criminals and non criminals, but
he uncovered a significant relationship between crime and a condition he reffered to as
a “defective intelligence”, which involves such traits as feeblemindedness, epelipsy,
insanity and defective social instinct. Goring believed that criminal characteristics were
inherited and recommended that people with such characteristics should not be
allowed to reproduce.

Lesson 2.5 COGNITIVE THEORY

 This psychological theory of behavior is based on the belief that people organized their
thoughts into rules and laws, and that the way in which those thoughts are organized
results in either criminal or non criminal behavior. This organization of thoughts is called
“moral reasoning”, and when applied into law, “legal reasoning”.

Lesson 2.6 MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 Pioneered by Lawrence Kohlberg, he contended that moral reasoning develops in

three stages. He called the first stage, pre-conventional; the second stage,
conventional; and the third post-conventional. He and his associates conducted studies
in which criminals were found to be significantly lower in their moral judgment
development than non-criminals of the same social background.
 Since Kohlberg’s pioneering efforts, other researchers have continued to show that
criminal offenders are more likely to be classified in lowest level of moral reasoning
(Stages 1 and 2), whereas non criminals have reached a higher stage of moral
develoment (Stage 3). Recent research indicates that the decision not to commit crimes
may be influence by one’s stage of moral development. People at the lowest levels
report that they are dettered from crime because of their fear of sanctions. Those in the
middle consider the reactions of family and friends. Those at the highest stage refrain
from crime because they believe in duty to others and universal rights.

Lesson 2.7 BEHAVIORAL THEORY

 The most popular work on behavioral approaches is that of B.F. Skinner. Behavioral
theory is based on the belief that all behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Its major
premise is that people alter their behavior according to the reactions it receives from
others. Behavior is supported by rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or
punishments.

 It is assumed that neurotic symptoms and some deviant behavior are acquired through
an unfortunate quirk of learning and that they are rewarding to the person. The
undesirable behavior can be eliminated, modified, or replaced by taking away the
reward value or by rewarding more appropriate behavior that is incomopatible with the
deviant one.
CHAPTER 3. SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF
CRIMINALITY
Lesson 3.1 DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

 Develop by Edwin Sutherland, it assumes that persons who become criminal do so

because of contacts with criminal patterns and isolation from non criminal patterns.
 Principles of Differential Association
 Criminal behavior is learned. Delinquent and criminal behavior is learned in the same
manner as any other behavior, such as writing, painting, or reading.
 Learning is a by product of interaction. Behavior is learned through interaction of
others.
 Learning occurs within intimate groups. People’s contacts with their most intimate
companions - family,friends and peers have the greatest influence on their deviant
behavior and attitude development.
 Criminal techniques are learned. Young delinquents learn from their associates the
proper way to pick up a lock, shoplift, and obtain and use of narcotics.
 Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives. The reaction of social rules and
laws is not uniform across society, and people constantly come into contact with others
who maintain different views on the utility of obeying the legal code. Some people they
admire may openly disdain or flout the law or ignore its substance. A person becomes a
criminal when he or she perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to
violating law. An example would be when a person is exposed to friends sneaking into a
theater to avoid paying for a ticket.

Lesson 3.2 DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT

THEORY

 Proposed by Ronald Akers in collaboration with Robert Burgess, it is a version of social

learning view that employs both differential association concepts along with elements
of psychological learining theory. According to Akers, people learn to be neither “all
deviant” nor “all conforming” but rather strike a balance between the two opposing
poles of behavior. This balance is usually stable, but it can undergo revisions over time.

 A number of learning process shape behavior. Direct conditioning also called differential
reiniforcement, occurs when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or
punished while interacting with others. When behavior is punished, this is called
negative reinforcement.

Lesson 3.3 NEUTRALIZATION THEORY

 This theory is identified with the writings of David Matza and Gresham Sykes. They
viewed the process of becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential
delinquents and criminals masters techniques that enable them to counterbalance or
neutralize conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and
conventional behavior. Matza argued that even the most committed criminals and
delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time; they also attend schools, family
functions, and religious services.
 Sykes and Matza based their theoritical model on these observations:
 Criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt over their illegal acts.
 Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law abiding persons.
 Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they
cannot.
 Criminals are not immune to demands of conformity.
 Techniques of Neutralization
 Denial of responsibility
 Denial of injury
 Denial of victim

Lesson 3.4 SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

 Another approach is made by the social bond or social control theory. Instead of looking
for factors that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people
do not become criminal. Travis Hirschi identified four main characteristics: “attachment
to others,” “belief in moral validity of rules,” “commitment to achievement,” and
“involvement in conventional activities.”
 The more a person features those characteristics, the less are the chances that he or
she becomes deviant. On the other hand, if those factors are not present in a person, it
is more likely that he or she become criminal. Hirschi expand on this theory, with the
idea that a person with low self control is more likely to become criminal. A simple
example is when someone wants to have a big yacht but does not have the means to
buy one. If the person cannot exert self control, he or she might try to get the yacht in
an illegal way; whereas someone with high self control will either wait or deny himself
or herself.

Lesson 3.5 CONFLICT THEORY

 Conflict theory assumes that society is based primarily on conflict between competing
interest groups - for instance the rich againt the poor, management against labor, men
against women, adults against children. In many cases, competing interest group are
not equal in power and resources. Consequently, one group is dominant and the other
 is subordinate. One of the earliest theorists to apply conflict theory to the study of
crime was George Fold.

Lesson 3.6 SOCIAL REACTION THEORY

 Commonly called labelling theory, the focus of social reaction theory is the
criminalization process - the way people and actions are defined as criminal. The
distinguishing feature of all “criminals” is that they have been the object of a negative
social reaction. Throughout their lives, people are given a variety of symbolic labels and
ways to interact with others. Negative labels include “troublemaker,” “mentally ill,” and
“stupid.” these labels reduced the self image of the individual. The less personal power
and fewer resources a person has, the greater the chance he or she will become
labeled.

Lesson 3.7 LABELING THEORY

 This theory states that the reaction of other people and immediate effects of these
reactions create deviance. Once it became known that a person has engage in a
delinquent behavior, said person is segregated from society, and a label such as “thief,”
“drug addict,” and “criminal,” is attached to the person. Labeling serves as a process of
segregation that creates “outsiders,” or outcast from society, who begin to associate
with others who also have been cast out. The more people begin to think of these
people as deviants and respond to them as such, the more these deviants react to the
response by continuing to engage in the behavior society now expects of them. This
theory serves as a process where the self image of a labeled deviant is attached to him
permanently.

Lesson 3.8 CULTURAL TRANSMISSION THEORY

 It is sometimes referred as “cultural learning” which is the process of learning new

information through socialization and engagement with those around you. The cultural
transmission of knowledge is a broad concept, and it refers to knowledge that is gained
through non - biological needs. For example, if youre walking down the street and
would like to cross the road, you know that you can’t simply step into the road without
looking because there is a chance that you’ll get hit by a car. You don’t instinctively
know this; rather, it was pass on to you by your parent or other adult early in your life
and reinforced through cultural transmission.

 As a means of communication, cultural transmission is a one - way system in which

culture is passed onto a person through certain channels. The process of receiving
information about your culture or society is what is known as “enculturation.”

Lesson 3.9 CONTAINMENT THEORY

 Containment theory is a form of control theory proposed by Walter Reckless in the
1940s - 1960s. The theory contends that a series of external social factors and internal
qualities effectively insulate certain individuals from criminal involvement even when
ecological variables induce others to engage in crime. Although initially promising, the
theory was criticized by some criminologists for various weaknesses. However, the
theory has been subjected to very few empiracal tests and therefore the relative
strenghts of its various propositions ahve never been properly established.

Lesson 4.0 SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORY

 Many criminologists view the disadvantaged economic class position as a primary cause
of crime. This view is referred to as social structure theories. These theory suggest that
social and economic forces operating in detoriorated lower-class areas push amny of
their residents into criminal behavior patterns. They consider the existence of
unsupervised teenage gangs, high crime rates, and social disorder in slum areas as
major social problems.

 There are three independent , yet overlapping branches within social structure
perspective - social disorganization, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory.

1. Social Disorganization Theory - this theoryis based on the work of Henry Mckay and
Clifford Shaw of the Chicago School. it links crime rates to neighborhood ecological
characteristics. A disorganized area is one in which institutions of social control, such as
the family, commercial establishments and schools, have broken down and can no
longer carry out their expected functions. Indicators of social disorganization include
high unemployment, school dropout rates, deteriorated housing, low income levels,
and large number of single parent households. Residents in these areas experience
conflict and despair, and as a result, anti social behavior flourishes.

2. Strain Theory - this theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the
goals of people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. Although social
and economic goals are common to people in all economic strata, strain theorists argue
that the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent. People desire wealth, material
possessions, power, prestige, and other life comforts. Members of the lower class are
unable to achieve these symbols of success through conventional means.

Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, which is referred to as strain.
Lower - class citizens can either accept their condition, or they can choose an alternative
means of achieving success such as theft, violence, or drug trafficking. The roots of strain
theories can be traced to Emile Durkheim’s notion of anomie. Sociologist Robert Merton
used a modified version of the concept of anomie to fit social, economic, and cultural
conditions found in modern U.S. society. He suggested the mainstream culture is saturated
with dreams of oppurtunity, freedom, and properity; as Merton put it, the “American
Dream.” Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and
psychological motivation. If the social structure of oppurtunities is unequal and prevents the
majority from realizing the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in
order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures (gang members,
“hobos”: urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

 General Strain Theory (GST) - Sociologist Robert Agnew helps identify the micro level
or individual influences of strain. Whereas Merton tried to explain social class
differences in the crime rate, Agnew tried to explain why individuals who feel stress are
more likely to commit crimes. He also offered a more general explanation of criminal
activity among all elements of society rather than restricting his views to lower class
crime. He suggested that criminality is the direct result of negative affective states - the
anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and
destructive social relationships. These negative affective states are produced by a
variety of sources of strain

 Failure to achieve goals

 Disjunction of expectations and achievements

 Removal of positive stimuli

 Presentation of negative stimuli

3. Cultural Deviance Theory

 This theory combines elements of both strain and social disorganization. According to
this view, because of strain and social isolation, a unique lower class culture develops in
disorganized neighborhoods. These independent sub - cultures maintain a unique set of
values and beliefs that are in conflict with conventional social norms. Middle class
culture stresses hard work, delayed gratification, formal education, and being cautious;
the lower class subculture stresses excitement, toughness, risk - taking, fearlesness,
immediate gratification, and street smarts. The lower class sub - culture is an attractive
alternative because the urban poor find that it is impossible to meet the behavioral
demands of middle class society.

 Theory of Delinquent Subculture - Albert Cohen postulated that delinquent behavior of

lower class youths is actually a protest against norms and values of middle class culture.
Because social conditions amke them incapableof achieving success legitimately, lower
class youths experience status frustration. As a result, they join in gangs and engage in
non - utilitarian, malicious negativistic behavior.

 Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin also combined strain and social disorganization
principles into a portrayal of a gang sustaining criminal subculture. They agreed with
Cohen and found that independent delinquent subcultures exist within society. They
suggest that delinquency can result from differential oppurtunity for lower class youths.

 Theory of Differential Oppurtunity -Such youths maybe temted to take up criminal

activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic
 benefits than conventional, over legal options such as minimum wage - paying jobs
available to them.

CHAPTER 4. ECONOMIC THEORIES OF CRIME

Lesson 4.1. Radical Theory
Although Karl Marx wrote very little about crime and criminal justice, radical theories of
crime causation are generally based on Marx’s ideas. Among the first criminologists to
employ Marxist’s theory to explain crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William
Chambliss and Anthony Platt. Radical criminologist argue that capitalism is an economic
system that requires people to compete against each other in the individualistic pursuit of
material wealth. The destructive effects of capitalism, such as crime, are not caused by
income or property inequality or by poverty. Rather, crime is caused by class struggle the
competition among wealthy people and among poor people, between rich and poor, and the
practice of taking advantage of other people.

Lesson 4.2. Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory states that individuals use rational calculations to make rational
choices nad achieves outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives. These
results are also associated with maximizing an individuals self interest. Using rational choice
theory is expected to result in outcomes that provide people with the greates benefit and
satisfaction, given the limited option they have available.

Rational choice theory states that individuals rely on rational calculations to make rational
choices that result in outcomes aligned with their own best interest. Rational theory is often
associated with the concepts of rational actors, self interest, and the invisible hand.

Many economist believe that the factors associated with rational choice theory are
beneficial to the economy as a whole. Adam Smith was one of the first economist to develop
the underlying principles of the rational choice theory. There are many economists who
dispute the veracity of the rational choice theory and the invisible hand theory.

CHAPTER 5. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES OF

CRIME
Lesson 5.1. Biological Factors
This made the common norms that physical traits can lead an individual to criminal
activities. Generally speaking, it was thought that physical attributes were passed down from
parent to child. It was thought that the risk of committing crimes also passed down from
parents.

The early biological factors of crime were focused mainly on hereditary crime, that a child
inherited this behavior from his parents.

Lesson 5.2. Sociological Factors

The entry focuses on the three major sociological factors of crime and delinquency; strain,
social learning, and control theories. It then briefly describes several other important
theories of crime, most of which represent elaborations of these three theories.

All of the theories that are described explain crime in terms of social environment, including
the family, school, employment, group associate, workplace, community, and society. These
factors however, differ from one another in several ways: they focus on somewhat different
features of social environment, they offer different accounts of why the social environment
causes crime, and some focus on explaining individual difference in crime while others
attempt to explain group differences in crime (e.g. why some communities have higher
crime rates than other communities).

Lesson 5.3. Psychological Factors

This came to the existence around 1913, and their primary concern was to find a supporting
link between crime and low intelligence (IQ).

Simply explain that criminal behavior is a result of individual differences in thinking

processes. There are many different psychological theories, but they all believe that it is the
person’s thought and feelings that dictate their actions. As such, problems in thinking can
lead to criminal behavior. Take the example of A & B, he doesn’t believe that what he did
was wrong, which was what led him to be in jail.

CHAPTER 6. POLITICAL THEORIES OF CRIME

Lesson 6.1. Conflict Theory

It is a field of sociology that focuses on competition and the dynamics of conflicting interests
between different social groups as the fundamental force underpining culture and politics.
Conflict theories of criminal justice look at criminal law as a means by which more
prosperous and powerful social groups exercise control and containment over socially
disadvantage groups.

While crimes and punishments have been prescribe by social systems since pre - Biblical
times, criminology as social institution involving police, courts and jails, is a modern
development in the eighteenth century and significant group in nineteenth century through
present day. Writing in the mid - 1800’s Karl Marx develop an economic conflict theory
applicable to criminal justice as well as many other social institutions, poisiting that
industrialization led to excess population, which was then socially and politically oppressed
by those who benefited from developing capitalis system. Max Weber, writing at the turn of
the 20th century, viewed human culture as more beneficient than Marx did, viewing the
conflicts underlying criminal justice as competing values rather than intentional oppression.
George Simmel, at around the same time as Weber, looked at concepts of crime arising from
clashes in cultural groups newly brought into contact with one another by increasing
immigration patterns.

Lesson 6.2. Radical Theory

Although Karl Marx wrote very little about crime and criminal justice, radical theories of
crime causation are generally based on Marx’s ideas. Among the first criminologists to
employ Marxist’s theory to explain crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William
Chambliss and Anthony Platt. Radical criminologist argue that capitalism is an economic
system that requires people to compete against each other in the individualistic pursuit of
material wealth. The destructive effects of capitalism, such as crime, are not caused by
income or property inequality or by poverty. Rather, crime is caused by class struggle the
competition among wealthy people and among poor people, between rich and poor, and the
practice of taking advantage of other people.

Lesson 6.3. Social Structure Theory

Many criminologists view the disadvantaged economic class position as a primary cause of
crime. This view is referred to as social structure theories. These theory suggest that social
and economic forces operating in detoriorated lower-class areas push amny of their
residents into criminal behavior patterns. They consider the existence of unsupervised
teenage gangs, high crime rates, and social disorder in slum areas as major social problems.

There are three independent , yet overlapping branches within social structure perspective -
social disorganization, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory.

Lesson 6.4. Marxist Theory

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that views class realtions and social conflict
using materialist interpretation of historical development and takes dialectical view of social
transformation. It originates from the works of 19 th century German philosophers Karl MArx
and Friedrich Engels.

Marxist criminology is one of the schools of criminology. It parallels the work of the
structural functionilism school which focuses on what produces stability and continuity in
society but, unlike functionalists, it adopts a predefined political philosophy.

Marxist Theory of Criminology. Marxist theory condemns Western capitalist society as an

unjust divide between two classes: the ruling bourgeoisie who own the means of
production (capitalists), and the proletariat, the poor masses with nothing to offer but their
own labor.

Causes:

Unemployment

Capitalism

High class ruling over the low class

CHAPTER 7. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE COURSE

THEORIES OF CRIME
Lesson 7.1. Anti Developmental Theory: Low Self
Control Theory
It retains the focus on restraints from engaging crime but argues that those restraints are
primarily internal. People with low self control, according to this theory, are impulsive and
insensitive to others, tend to engage in physical rather than mental activities.

Lesson 7.2. Sampson and Laub’s Developmental

Model
This emphasize the cumulative continuity to explain correlation between adolescent
delinquency and adult crime. Thus, the theory proposes that crime, deviance, and informal
social controlare intimately linked over the full life course.

Lesson 7.3. Moffit’s Developmental Taxonomy

Taxonomy Moffitt describes two developmental pathways into delinquent behavior: an
episodic, “adolescence limited” occurence of delinquent behavior and pathway
characterised by an early onsetand a stable course of delinquent behavior (“life course -
persistent”).

CHAPTER 8. THEORIES ON WOMEN OFFENDERS

Lesson 8.1. Liberal Feminism

It is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on womens ability to maintain
their equality through their own actions and choices.

Liberal feminists argue that society holds the false belief that women are, by nature, less
intelectually and physically capable than men; thus it tend to discriminate against women in
the academy, the forum, and the marketplace.

Lesson 8.2. Marxist Feminism

Refers to a particular feminist theory focusing on the ways in which women are oppressed
through capitalist economic practices and the system of private property.

Lesson 8.3. Radical Feminism

It is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male
supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic context. Radical Feminist view society as
fundamentally a patriarchy in which men dominate and oppres women.

Lesson 8.4. Dual - System Feminism

A synthesis of Marxists and Radical Feminist Theory, therefore neither Capitalism nor
Patriarchy take a position of importance as were in a capitalist - patriarchal society where
both system work together.

CHAPTER 9. ECOLOGY OR ENVIRONMENTAL

THEORIES OF CRIME

Lesson 9.1. Broken Window Theory

A criminological theory that states that visible signs of crime, anti-social behavior, and civil
disorder create urban environement that encourages further crime and disorder, including
serious crimes. Broken window theory proposed by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling in
1982.