MIDTERM EXAMINATION

1. Discuss the four major principles of human development.

-All principles are interconnected to one another but the emotional principle is what makes these
principles become one.
        The cognitive principle This is also critical because it assists the child/student in learning
through knowledge-based concepts and ideas. It sharpens their ability to think both inside and
outside the box, as well as to read between the lines. 
        The physical principle is also necessary because it allows the child/student to do whatever
he wishes in order to understand what the mentor/educator/teacher intended and perform
according to the assigned tasks.
         The emotional principle It is also relevant because it lets the child/student learn by
communicating with other people through their emotions and feelings and how they behave and
react as a result of it. This theory is apparent in the interaction of psychological, emotional, and
physical factors. 
       In terms of education, social principle is significant because it allows the child/student to
learn further by engaging with others who have diverse abilities and qualities, aptitudes,
capacities and skills, desires and ideas, and so on. It also encourages the child/student to learn
and know more about himself/herself in all ways.

•Education is not only a process and a result of growth; it is also a medium of growth. It seeks to
realize all of the potentialities of children to the greatest extent possible. This means that
teachers and parents must be aware of what their students are capable of and what ability they
have. Armed with this information, they can have appropriate resources and favorable
environmental facilities that promote the full development of children. Aside from these
openings, their actions must be supportive, constructive, and sympathetic. 
•The development philosophies also emphasized the significance of "social distinctions" from
one child to the next and from one point to the next. This fact justifies the provision of diverse
courses for the advancement of unique skills, strengths, and desires, as well as a rich and
varied co-curricular curriculum. Similarly, curricular programs can be tailored to the needs and
expectations of children at different stages of development, such as infancy, boyhood or later
puberty, pre-adolescence, and adolescence.

2. Describe the developmental tasks in each stage.

a. Pre-natal period
-Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a
child. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal
development is also organized into three equal trimesters, which do not correspond with the
three stages.

b. Infancy
-For the first year after birth, a baby is called an infant. Early childhood begins at age two, when
a child may be referred to as a toddler. Childhood continues until adolescence, which generally
coincides with the teen years. Adolescence is the period of transition into adulthood. Infancy is
defined as the first year of life after birth. For the first month after birth, an infant is called a
newborn. A newborn has a distinctive appearance. The head is very large, and the arms and
legs are relatively short. The shoulders and hips are narrow, and the abdomen protrudes
slightly. Many newborns still have lanugo on some areas of their body, but this usually
disappears within a few weeks after birth. Head hair can vary from almost no hair to a full head
of hair. The stub of the umbilical cord remains for a few weeks until it dries up and falls off,
forming the navel. Infants are born with certain abilities already developed.

c. Middle and Late Childhood

-Middle and late childhood spans the ages between early childhood and adolescence,
approximately ages 6 to 11 years. Children gain greater control over the movement of their
bodies, mastering many gross and fine motor skills that eluded the younger child.

d. Adolescence
-Adolescence is a distinct stage that marks the transition between childhood and adulthood. The
Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget described adolescence as the period during
which individuals' cognitive abilities fully mature.

e. Early Adulthood
-The life stage called early adulthood defines individuals between the ages of 20 and 35, who
are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendships, romance, child bearing
and careers. Yet serious conditions, such as violent events, depression and eating disorders,
can negatively impact young adults.

f. Middle Adulthood
-Middle adulthood-oughly the ages between 25 and 45 and between 45 and 65, respectively.
These stages represent a long period of time — longer, in fact, than any of the other
developmental stages — and the bulk of our lives is spent in them. These are also the periods
in which most of us make our most substantial contributions to society, by meeting two of Erik
Erikson’s life challenges: we learn to give and receive love in a close, long-term relationship,
and we develop an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by
becoming parents.

g. Late Adulthood

3. Give the three issues of development and explain each.

-Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to
as the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and
psychology. Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are
inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula
rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.
Today, most psychologists believe that it is an interaction between these two forces that causes
development. Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However,
the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

-Early Experience vs. Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance
of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that
occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role? Psychoanalytic
theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud, much of a
child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case, those
who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not
necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life, however there is evidence
that childhood adversity may correlate to greater levels of stress in adulthood.4Many people
with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

-Continuity vs. Discontinuity

A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur
smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps? Some theories of development
argue that changes are simply a matter of quantity; children display more of certain skills as
they grow older. Other theories outline a series of sequential stages in which skills emerge at
certain points of development. Most theories of development fall under three broad areas.

4. What are the steps of scientific research and explain each.

-The basic steps of the scientific method are: 1) make an observation that describes a problem,
2) create a hypothesis, 3) test the hypothesis, and 4) draw conclusions and refine the
hypothesis.

-The basic steps in the scientific method are:

•Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it
•Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question
•Test the hypothesis
•If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence
•If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again
•Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever
considered perfect

In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a
researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making observations, a researcher can
define a useful question. After finding a question to answer, the researcher can then make a
prediction (a hypothesis) about what he or she thinks the answer will be. This prediction is
usually a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. After making a
hypothesis, the researcher will then design an experiment to test his or her hypothesis and
evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the hypothesis. Based on
the conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will then find more evidence to support the
hypothesis, look for counter-evidence to further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis
and create a new experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the
research question.

5.

6.
7. Explain the 8 stages of life according to Erikson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development.

-Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development include:

•Trust vs. Mistrust
This stage begins at birth and lasts through around one year of age.
The infant develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and affection. A
lack of this will lead to mistrust.

•Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years. The
infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. Success leads to feelings of
autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

•Initiative vs. Guilt

This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five.
The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. Success at this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
If initiative is dismissed or discourages, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt.

•Industry vs. Inferiority

This stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. It is at this stage that
the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s
self-esteem. The child is coping with new learning and social demands. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of Inferiority.

•Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. Teenagers explore who they
are as individuals, and seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different
roles, activities, and behaviors. According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming
a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

•Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other
people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

•Generativity vs. Stagnation

This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approximately 40 and 65.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having
mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

•Ego Integrity vs. Despair

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one's life and either moving into
feeling satisfied and happy with one's life or feeling a deep sense of regret.
Success at this stages leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.