1

HIGHWAY
EVALUATION
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Introduction

1890 – it had been accumulated that 2 ½

million miles of rural highways, many of these
are positioned by the successive development
of the trails. In the vast of Mississippi Valley
Area roads commonly follow the north-south
and east-west section and township lines.
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Introduction

1890-1920 – there had been a better

road location, with state aid and state highway
construction.
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Introduction

With the development and increased use of

motor vehicle, alignments were improved and
grades flattened.
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Computations
And
Surveys
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Computations
And
Surveys Slide Rule
Calculator
Computer
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Computers

Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit passengers

Economic analysis

Financial programming

Geometrics

Bridges
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Computers

Pavement designs and maintenance

Pavement management

Scheduling for designs and construction

Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and

payment of contractors
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Photogrammetry
or
Remote Sensing
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Photogrammetry or Remote Sensing

Is the science or art of obtaining measurements by means of photography.

To encompass procedures for photointerpretation and for converting single

photographs into composite ones (called mosaics) and into maps

Is a basic working tool of the highway engineer

Applications appear not only in highway location, but also in planning,

geometric design, rights of way, traffic studies, drainage, soil classification
and identification, earthwork measurement, materials location, and
pavement condition surveys.
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Photogrammetry or Remote Sensing

1. Locations

2 Planning

3. Geometric design

4. Right of Way

5 Traffic studies
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Photogrammetry or Remote Sensing

6. Drainage

7. Soil Classifications arid Identifications

8. Earthwork measurement

9. Material location

10. Pavement condition survey

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Photogrammetric
Mapping A vertical aerial photograph taken
by a camera pointed almost
straight downward are the most
useful mapping for highway
purposes.
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For Stereoscopic uses, the following has to be considered:

End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less
than 55% nor more than 65% in order that the center of one picture is
included in both adjacent photograph.

Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15 or more than 35
percentage unacceptable.

For mapmaking purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the
aerial camera, the desired combination of map scale and contour interval,
and the ratio of map scale to photograph scale.
19 The instruments used for converting data from aerial
photographs into maps are:

The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters

The wild autograph

The Kern PG2

The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph

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The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters

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The wild autograph

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The Kern PG2

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The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph

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24 The information is recalled and the computer is programmed
to develop

Profiles

Cross sections

Cut and fill earthwork quantities

The motorist view of the road

25 With the photographs and computer record data a separate
map could be plotted easily such as:

Highways

Drainage

Utilities

Housing

Land use and Zoning

Property Assessment
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Orthophotographs is an aerial photographs

corrected for scale and tilt. Unlike
an uncorrected aerial
photograph, an orthophoto can
be used to measure true
distances, because it is an
accurate representation of the
Earth's surface.
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Mosaic
and made from aerial photographs,
serve many highway engineering

Overlays purposes. They are formed by

matching the center portions of
individual vertical photographs.
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Mosaic
and When skilfully matched and
copied, they give the appearance

Overlays of a single photograph.

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Mosaic
and Mosaic are classed as
uncontrolled, semi controlled,

Overlays controlled depending on the

degree to which individual
photographs are modified to
correct for scale, for tip, and tilt of
the camera when the initial
picture were taken.
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Color
Aerial aerial colored photographs
presents a more detailed and

Photographs precise information on traffic and

parking studies. Also aerial
camera lenses are now color
corrected and distortion-free. It
also gives a clear information of
the geological conditions.
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Oblique
Photographs An oblique photographs is used
for a special studies especially
when the ground condition is
almost flat, that a black and white
photographs could not give
sufficient details.
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Digital
Terrain is a DEM in which terrain data
has been further enhanced with

Model break lines, creating greater

accuracy as it contains additional
information defining terrain in
areas where Lidar data alone is
unable to do the job effectively.
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Location
Surveys in Reconnaissance of the area is
the first step, using the available

Rural Area tophographic maps. The aim of it

was to search out feasible routes.
Reconnaissance of feasible route
came second. The third step was
for the survey party.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

Intensive reconnaissance studies by the most competent talent is

necessary and fundamental to proper highway location. There are
so many variables to be appraised that reconnaissance is to a
degree an art, but it is becoming a much more refined art because
of photogrammetry. In any event, the first step is to assemble all
available maps, particularly those of the Geological Survey already
mentioned. NCHRP Report 132 contains much helpful information
on the topography, geology, climate, and population distribution in
the contiguous states.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

At the reconnaissance stage, the engineer’s task is, by cut and try,
to determine which routes deserve further study. Terminals of the
road and intermediate points through which it must pass from the
primary controls. A unique bridge site or single mountain pass also
may become a primary control if no alternative exists. Likewise, for
scenic highways, the positions of timbered areas, waterfalls, lakes
and other attractions may be primary controls.
41
Preliminary Reconnaissance

Small settlements which would be ignored or purposely bypassed in

locating principal highways may be primary controls for secondary
roads. Drainage systems, mountain passes, low points in ridges, or
swamps in low country, often form secondary controls. Cost factors
such as favorable or unfavorable soil conditions, the numbers and
sizes of structures, and the amount of excavation and embankment
required for satisfactory alignment and grade likewise can be
classified as secondary controls.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

In mountainous country with well -defined summit ranges, there is

usually a suitable pass with possible approaches following along
the drainage on both sides. The least expensive and frequently the
straightest line may lie just above high water in the streams. Often,
however, the rise of the valley or canyon may exceed the maximum
permissible grade. Then, if the stream grade is to be followed, extra
roadway length must be gained on adjacent mountain spurs or in
side canyons. At times a more favorable location lies on the hillside
at some height above the stream.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

On occasion, the route must climb from stream level or from a

stream crossing to an adjoining pass or summit, and the road must
be long enough to provide for the required gain in elevation at the
maximum permissible rate of climb. Excessive use of switchbacks
for such development is objectionable and should be avoided. Long
stretches in one direction before reversal are preferable.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

In snow areas, locations should, if possible, be confined to slopes

exposed to the sun in order to avoid icing of the roadway and to
ease snow-removal problems. Likewise, the spotting of areas where
drifts form, snow slides occur, and the snow melts late is extremely
important and may require separate snow surveys in winter or early
spring.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

Reconnaissance Survey is an extensive study of an entire area that

might be used for a road or airfield. Its purpose is to eliminate those
routes or sites which are impractical or unfeasible and to identify the
more promising routes or sites.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

Existing maps and aerial photographs may be of great help.

Contour maps show the terrain features and the relief of an area.
Aerial photographs show up-to-date plan metric details.

It must include all possible routes and sites. The reconnaissance

survey report should summarize all the collected information,
including a description of each route or site, a conclusion on the
economy of its use, and where possible, appropriate maps and
aerial photographs.
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Preliminary Reconnaissance

On occasion, the route must climb from stream level or from a

stream crossing to an adjoining pass or summit, and the road must
be long enough to provide for the required gain in elevation at the
maximum permissible rate of climb. Excessive use of switchbacks
for such development is objectionable and should be avoided. Long
stretches in one direction before reversal are preferable.
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Two methods
of
Reconnaissance
survey:
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Two methods of
Reconnaissance survey:

Conventional ground method

01 Aerial photography
02
Aerial photography or airborne imagery
In this method a field survey
is reconnaissance for a military or
party inspects a fairly broad
strategic purpose that is conducted
stretch of land along the
using reconnaissance aircraft. The role
proposed alternative route of
of this can fulfil a variety of requirements
the map in the field.
including artillery spotting, the collection
of imagery intelligence, and the
observation of enemy maneuvers.
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The various steps of reconnaissance for location in rural area are;

1. Initially help is taken from maps particularly topographic map.

2. A survey is made along the path selected on the map.

3. Primary Controls are then established.

a. Terminal of the road and intermediate points through which it must pass.

b. Single mountain pass if no alternative exists.

c. Small settlements.
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The various steps of reconnaissance for location in rural area are;

4. Secondary Controls are then considered which include.

a. Drainage system.

b. Mountain passes.

c. Low points in ridges.

d. Cost factors such as soil conditions, the number and sizes of structures,
the amount of excavation and embankment, alignment and grade.
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The various steps of reconnaissance for location in rural area are;

5. Possible Alignment

6. Mountain Location

7. Snow Location
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Final
Location
Final Location is essentially fixing
of the details of the projected
highway.
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Final Locationm

All information pertaining to

Alignment

Topography

Bench mark levels

Cross sections
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Locating
Roads in
Recreational
and Scenic
Areas
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Locating Roads in Recreational and Scenic Areas

Circuitous rather than direct route may be appropriate access to lakes,

stream, campsites, or scenic views.

The alignment may have more curves.

A narrow roadbed, sometimes placed under canopy of trees.

View from straight roadbed should be avoided on curves.

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Locating Roads in Recreational and Scenic Areas

Very wide shoulders, turnouts, or parking areas should be provided.

Locations should also be sited so that it is not disruptive to the area.

Scars from cuts and fills should be minimized.

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Highway
Location
and Survey in
Urban Areas
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Factors Affecting Selection of Highway Location in Urban Area

Traffic / Trip Orientation and Purposes

Land use

Parking Facility for Vehicles

Already existing Transportation System

Topography and Geology

Sociological, Historical and Environmental factors

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Location
of the
Proposed
Highway
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Location of the Proposed Highway

Early roads started from trails.

For new highways, locations are blended with curvature grade and other
elements to offer an easy driving.
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Location of the Proposed Highway

To improve highways, there must be a tentative plan regarding the control

and minimum design, speed, roadway cross sections and maximum slope
considering the following:

Reliable estimation of the cost.

Character and hourly distribution of traffic.

Economic and community benefit factor.

Availability of funds.
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The location surveys in the rural areas are divided into four stages:

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between terminal points.

2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.

3. Preliminary survey of the best route.

4. Location survey, staking of the right of way and of the highway

including the structure for construction.
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Activities

Under stage I - Reconnaissance survey of the entire area:

a) Stereoscopic examination of large scale aerial photographs of the area.

This is usually supplemented by available maps.

b) Determination of controls of topography and land use.

c) Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps.

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Activities

Stage II - Reconnaissance survey of all feasible route:

a) Stereoscopic examination of large scale aerial photographs of each

route.

b) Determination of the detailed controls of photography land use.

c) Preparation of route maps by photogrammetric methods.

d) Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.

e) Selection of the route.

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Activities

Stage III - Preliminary survey of the best route:

a) Preparation of large scale topographic map using the route

photographs and photogrammetric methods or preparation of large
scale topographic maps by ground survey guided by best route location
made on photographs in the second stage.

b) Design of the preliminary location.

Stage IV - Location survey, staking of the right of way and of the highway
including the structure for construction.
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Joint and
Multiple Use
Concepts
Applied to
Urban
Traditionally, highway rights of
way have been used exclusively

Freeway
for highway purposes due to
some reasons:

Location
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Joint and
Multiple Use
Concepts
Applied to
Urban
-Joint ownership or easements to
permit occupancy of space

Freeway
above, below, or alongside
highways creates many legal

Location
complexities.
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Joint and
Multiple Use
Concepts
Applied to
Urban
-Fear of loss of life or property in
case of accidents on the highway

Freeway
.

Location
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Multiple
Use Very attractive playgrounds or
parks, parking facilities, business
enterprises, or industrial activities
have been placed under elevated
freeways.
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Multiple
Use Large office, apartment, and
hospital structures, among other
developments, have been
erected spanning at-grade or
depressed facilities.
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Multiple
Use Often in the past, it has been
advantageous to locate urban
highway facilities adjacent to
already established railroad or
rail-transit facilities or to use them
as a center divider.
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Dan Ryan Expressways in Chicago

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BART Express in san Francisco Bay Area

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Surveys for
Urban In general, the sequence of area

Highways and route reconnaissance and

preliminary and final location is
followed for urban as well as rural
highway surveys. On urban
projects, however, procedures
are much less uniform and fixed.
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Surveys for
Urban
Highways Photogrammetric methods are
particularly effective for urban
highway location since data
gathering and inspection on the
ground are so difficult.
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Surveys for
Urban
Highways Same steps for rural locations
apply. The principal difference is
in the scale of aerial photographs
and drawings.
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Surveys for Rough approximations for

Urban photograph scales:

Highways
Preliminary Reconnaissance: 800-
1000 ft. to 1 in.
Route Reconnaissance: 400-500 ft.
to 1 in.
Preliminary Surveys and Final
Detailed designs: 40-100 ft. to 1 in.
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Surveys for
Urban
Highways The traditional method of location
surveys in urban areas is the
same as in rural areas.
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Surveys for
Urban
Highways Surveys on new rights of way
through built-up areas will be
complicated by many
obstructions.
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Bridge
Locations Highways and Bridges has but
one purpose – to convey traffic
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Bridge
Locations The position and location of the
bridge is subordinate to the
general alignment and grade.
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Skewed Bridge

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Right Angle Bridge

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- A Skewed bridge is comparatively more expensive than the Right angle

bridge.

- The foundation design for piers and abutment has large effect on cost,
but cost is not always the determining factor.

- The cost of the bridge and its full approach combined before the
crossing site is finally selected.
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- - The bridge survey report must include accurate data on the waterway
and the historical behavior of water.

- - The data should also include the foundation conditions, stream

character and the adjacent structure on the stream more particularly
their waterway opening.
88 When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the
following has to be attended to:

- 1. There must be a complete data report and special survey for the
site.

- 2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.

- 3. The survey report must contain an accurate data of the waterway for
all behavior of water.
89 When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the
following has to be attended to:

- 4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the

stream character.

- 5. A complete data on the adjacent structures, particularly the

waterway opening, must be on hand.

- 6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

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Highway
Plans and
Specifications The plan and specification are
set of documents of instructions
and conditions under which
highways are built.
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Highway
Plans It is after the final location for a
given project has been
completed, including the field
soils investigation, a complete
and detailed scheme for the road
is worked out by specialists.
93 The complete and detailed scheme for the road which are
incorporated in geometrical designs are:

Traffic Structure

Drainage Soils

Erosion Control Pavements

Roadside Development
94

Highway
Specifications As indicated, specifications are
written instructions. Specification
writing is a difficult and exacting
task which requires a knowledge
of law of contacts as well as of
highway practices.
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Highway specifications are divided into two parts:

1. Standard Specifications – it is applied to every project constructed by

the agency and treat subjects that occur repeatedly in the agency’s
work.

2. Special Provisions – cover subjects peculiar to the project in question

and include additions and modifications to the standard specifications.
96
A road plan is usually presented as follows:

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the
horizontal alignment, right of way takings drainage arrangement and
other features.

2. The lower half is allotted for the profile where the original elevation of
the ground surface is plotted. The roadway centerline and the vertical
alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.

3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from

five to ten times for precise detail.

4. The profile and other details of drainage, channels or connecting roads

including ramps are also presented here.
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A road plan is usually presented as follows:

5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other

intervals are indicated along the bottom of each sheet along with the
estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer and the contractor.

6. Roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch
is indicated on another sheet of the plan.

7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway

appurtenances is included.

8. 8. Usually, the standard size of the drawing sheet is 22 inches by 36

inches(.33 x .90 m)
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Pipe culverts

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Concrete box culverts

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Guard rail and parapet

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Curbs

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Gutters

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Sidewalks

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Manholes

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Rip rap and other devices used for bank protection

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Other survey markers

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Highway
Computations The answer to almost every
highway engineering problem is
based on the results of
computations ranging from
simple to complex.
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Highway Often routine calculations

Computations occupied a major share of the

time of the engineer. Today the
larger highway agencies and
engineering consultants engaged
in highway work either have
computers or have access to
them as required.