LESSON 6: LEARNING AND MEMORY

LEARNING AND MEMORY are critical activities in an individual’s interaction with the

environment, and they entail the interaction of huge, distributed brain networks.

---- Memory, Speed, Creativity, Attention, Focus, Flexibility

LEARNING is often limited to situations involving deliberate action or intent, such as learning

a language or learning to drive.

"Any somewhat permanent change in behavior that comes as a result of practice and experience"

is how learning is defined.

There are THREE KEY ASPECTS in this definition.

a. Learning is a shift in one's behavior, for better or for bad.

b. It is a change that occurs as a result of practice or experience, but changes that occur as a

result of growth or maturation are not considered learning.

c. This shift in behavior must be long-lasting and somewhat permanent.

TYPES OF LEARNING:

1. MOTOR LEARNING:

The majority of our day-to-day activities are motor activities. Individuals must learn skills in

order to live a normal life, such as walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, and so on.

Muscle coordination is required for all of these activities.

2. VERBAL LEARNING:

The language we speak, as well as the COMMUNICATION technologies we use, are all part

of this form of learning. The tools utilized in such activities include signs, drawings, symbols,

words, figures, noises, and so on. Words are the means through which we communicate.

3. CONCEPT LEARNING: (logic, analogy, flashbacks, HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTION)

It is a type of learning that necessitates higher-order mental functions such as logic, intelligence,

and so on. We begin learning different concepts as early as childhood. There are TWO

MECHANISMS involved in concept learning. The terms ABSTRACTION and

GENERALIZATION are used interchangeably. This knowledge is extremely beneficial in

recognizing and identifying objects.

4. DISCRIMINATION LEARNING:

Discrimination learning is the process of learning to DISTINGUISH between stimuli and

responding appropriately to them. Sound horns from various vehicles, such as a bus, a car, an

ambulance, and so on.

5. LEARNING OF PRINCIPLES: (how we handle our work properly)

In order to handle their work properly, people acquire specific principles linked to science,

mathematics, language, and so on. The relationship between two or more notions is always

demonstrated by these principles.

6. PROBLEM SOLVING:

This is a HIGHER LEVEL OF LEARNING. Thinking, reasoning, observation,

imagination, generalization, and other cognitive talents are required for this learning. This

is really helpful in overcoming challenging challenges that people face.

7. ATTITUDE LEARNING: (physical body development affects attitude, changes)

Our behavior is determined and directed by our attitude, which is a predisposition. From

childhood, we develop distinct perspectives about people, objects, and all we know. Depending

on our attitudes, our actions might be positive or negative.

THEORIES OF LEARNING:

Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They have conducted

.any experiments on animals and children and come to certain definite conclusions which explain

the modes of learning.

I. THEORY OF TRIAL-AND-ERROR LEARNING:

EL Thorndike, an American psychologist, created this idea (1874-1949). He claims that

learning Is accomplished through trial and error. Learning, he claims, is a lengthy process in

which an Individual will make numerous attempts to learn. The basic premise of this theory is

that as the number of trials increases, the number of errors decreases.

II. LEARNING BY CONDITIONING:

Conditioning literally means ‘becoming used to’ or ‘adjusting to’ a new circumstance or

stimulus. It’s a method of replacing the original stimulus with a new one and linking the reaction

to it.

Conditioning theories are divided into TWO CATEGORIES:

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:

This conditioning method was named after a type of learning circumstance that appeared in the

Early classical studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian biologist

SUB-PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:

The many phenomena of this experiment are explained by a number of sub-principles.

a. EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY:

Extinction refers to THE END OF A RESPONSE. When the Conditioned Response (CS) is

provided alone for a number of trails without being followed by Unconditioned Response (UCS),

the power of the CS eventually declines. Extinction is the term for this process. The dog

eventually halted salivation in this experiment when simply the bell was provided without food

for a number of repetitions.

b. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION:

Stimulus generalization is a tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original one;

the greater the resemblance, the higher the generalization. Even the sound of a buzzer that

sounded like a bell caused the dog to salivate in this trial.

c. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION:

When there is a significant difference between two stimuli, the animal is able to distinguish

between them. If a dog is conditioned to salivate when a red light is presented, it will not
salivate when a green light is presented.

d. HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING:

If a 'light' is offered for a number of trials, followed by a bell, and then food, the dog will

begin drooling to light itself. Higher order condition is the term for these phenomena.

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING:

Bf Skinner, An American Psychologist, invented this conditioning strategy. Because the

animals employ particular procedures or actions as instruments to find solutions, this idea

is also known as ‘INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING. The most significant part of this

experiment is reinforcement, which is divided into TWO TYPES:

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT and REWARD TRAINING. To inhibit unwanted

responses or behaviors, NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT-LIKE PUNISHMENT is applied.

OPERANT CONDITIONING is beneficial for molding and changing unwanted behaviors.

III. LEARNING BY INSIGHT:

Trying those ways that appear to have a relationship to solution is often a more efficient way

of learning. This is accomplished through grasping or perceiving the situation.

IV. LEARNING BY IMITATION: (Demonstration-Replicate-Learn)

It is the most basic form of instruction. We watch professional demonstrations, replicate his

moves, and learn from them. People save time and effort by mimicking the behavior of others

instead of using the trial-and-error technique of learning.

V. LAWS OF LEARNING:

In line with his trial-and-error learning theory, EL THORNDIKE has explained

THREE PRIMARY LAWS OF LEARNING, as well as FIVE MINOR LAWS.

1. LAW OF READINESS:

The term "readiness" refers to an ORGANISM’S ABILITY TO RESPOND OR ACT. This is

a more important requirement for learning. This suggests that the animal or person is eager to

learn.

This state of preparedness has two outcomes: PLEASURE and ANNOYANCE.

2. LAW OF EXERCISE:

The FREQUENCY LAW is another name for this law. The number of times you

learn anything is referred to as FREQUENCY. Thorndike thought that repeatedly training a

response improves the link between the stimulus and the response.

3. LAW OF EFFECT:

This law states that when a link is made by satisfying an effect, the strength of

the connection is strengthened. Thorndike meant by saying that the chances of it happening

are higher. If the hungry cat succeeded in opening the door in his experiment, it would be

given its preferred dish to eat. MEMORY, as with the CONCEPT OF A PHONOLOGICAL

STORE, it is used to allude to a presumed' mental storage device' in which information may be

stored.
There are THREE CRUCIAL COMPONENTS of INFORMATION PROCESSING to

consider:

1. MEMORY ENCODING:

When information enters our memory system (through sensory input), it must be converted into a

format that the system can understand in order to be stored. There are

three basic METHODS FOR ENCODING (changing) information:

1. VISUAL (PICTURE)

2. ACOUSTIC (SOUND)

3. SEMANTIC (MEANING)

2. MEMORY STORAGE:

This refers to the nature of memory stores, such as where data is stored, how

long it lasts (duration), how much data can be saved at any given time (capacity), and what

kind of data is stored.

3. MEMORY RETRIEVAL:

This relates to retrieving data from storage. It's possible that we can't

remember anything because we can't recover it. The distinctions between SHORT-TERM

MEMORY (STM) and LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM) become quite evident when we are

asked to retrieve anything from memory. STM is saved and retrieved in order. By association,

LTM is kept and retrieved. This is why, if you go back to the room where you first thought about

it, you may remember what you went upstairs for.

MEMORY DYSFUNCTION

Memory dysfunction is linked to a wide range of neurologic conditions that influence brain

function, from epilepsy to stroke, and is becoming more clinically relevant as the population

ages and Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases become more common.