ARTICLE IN PRESS

Habitat International 30 (2006) 769–780

www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint

Solid waste collection by the private sector: Households’

perspective—Findings from a study in
Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania
Salha M. Kassim, Mansoor Ali
Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

Abstract

The issue of poor solid waste management (SWM) is a challenge throughout the world, in both developed and
developing countries. People always generate solid waste through their daily activities. This solid waste needs to be
properly managed in a way that minimises risk to the environment and human health, which means storage, collection and
proper disposal. At the same time solid waste creates livelihoods for the urban poor in terms of employment and business.
This paper looks into one aspect of SWM, namely collection service.
The importance of SWM is now recognised at international, national and community level. The Agenda 21 declaration
of the United Nations [UN. (1993). The global partnership for environment and development: A guide to agenda 21 (pp.
88–94). New York: United Nations] addresses the issue of environmentally sound management of solid waste, with
emphasis on the extension of solid waste service coverage to all urban and rural areas worldwide.
SWM is a service for which local governments are usually responsible. However, due to inadequate capacity in the public
sector, in many developing countries the private sector has stepped in to fill the gap in service provision. Dar es Salaam
(DSM), Tanzania, is one such developing country city in which the private sector has become involved in solid waste
collection services. The sector comprises Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), Community-Based Organisations
(CBOs), and local private companies [Kassim, S. M., & Ali, S. M. (2003). Private solid waste collection SERVICE, Dar es
Salaam Tanzania. In Proceedings of the 29th WEDC international conference: Towards millenium development goals.
Abuja Nigeria, Water and Engineering Centre WEDC]. The private sector in solid waste collection in DSM has been
promoted by Sustainable DSM Programme (SDP) through Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) [UNCHS.
(1994a). Sustainable Human Settlements Development: Implementing Agenda 21; UNCHS. (1994b). UNCHS (Habitat)
Activities; New Envoy to UNCHS from the United Republic of Tanzania. Habitat News, 16, 1–3].
Contracting out of solid waste collection services to the private sector has emerged to fill the gap in service delivery. In
1991 the city was generating 1400 tonnes of solid waste per day out of which only 5% was being collected. Currently daily
solid waste generation is estimated at about 2500 tonnes and approximately 48% of the total waste generated is collected.
At present, privatisation covers 44 out of 73 city wards, and 451 active registered private companies are involved [Chinamo,
E. B. M. (2003). An overview of solid waste management and how solid waste collection benefits the poor in the city of Dar
es Salaam. Solid waste collection that benefits the poor, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Collaborating Working Group on Solid
Waste Management in Low and Middle -Income Countries (CWG)].This paper presents the findings of a study that
explored the households’ perspective on solid waste collection services provided by the private sector. The study showed

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1509 222392; fax: +44 1509 211079.
E-mail addresses: S.M.Kassim@lboro.ac.uk, kassimsalha@yahoo.com (S.M. Kassim).
1
The data found during the study (Source: DSM City Council’ Local document, 2004).

0197-3975/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.09.003
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770 S.M. Kassim, M. Ali / Habitat International 30 (2006) 769–780

that the solid waste collection service by the private sector is greatly influenced by households’ attitudes and behaviour.
Their participation, demand for service, awareness, satisfaction level and views on cost recovery are important in the
sector. The study concludes that the above factors would be superior if customers (households) were more involved in the
planning and decision-making.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Private sector; Dar es Salaam; Private sector; Privatisation; Developing countries; Solid waste management; Solid waste
collection; NGOs; CBOs

Introduction

Solid waste generated by the daily activities of the people needs to be properly managed in such a way that it
minimises the risk to the environment and human health. Inadequate collection and disposal of solid waste is a
major factor in the spread of disease and environmental degradation. One of the most visible problems in the
provision of solid waste management (SWM) is the collection service of the solid waste, which is the subject of
this paper.
SWM is a service for which local governments are responsible, but most administrations in developing
countries fail to provide the service for a large section of the population (Pfammatter, 1996). The main reason
for this situation is the rapid growth of population coupled with the expansion of cities together with the
diminishing financial resources. It is reported that urban population in developing countries is increasing at
about 50 million per year all of whom demand for service provision (Choguill, 1996). Hence, the local
authorities have difficulties in keeping pace with this development and in meeting the growing demand for
SWM services in general and collection services in particular. However, due to a lack of capacity in the public
sector the private sector has stepped in to fill the gap. The contribution by the private sector to solid waste
service provision is now a common phenomenon in most cities in developing countries (Ali, 1997).
Dar es Salaam (DSM) has, since 1994, had solid waste collection services provided jointly by public and
private sector. There has been a noticeable advance in the service after the entrance of the private sector; on
the one hand new opportunities for employment have been created and on the other there has been an
improvement in the cleanliness of the city.
The focus of this paper is households’ perspectives on the solid waste collection service by the private sector.
As the households are recognised as the main solid waste generators and active customers in solid waste
collection service, it is important to understand their views of service provision. The recent study carried out
by Kasseva and Mbulingwe (2005) shows that the households alone generate about 56% of total waste
generated in DSM. It is also important to understand the relationship between customers and their service
providers. This paper makes emphasis on households’ attitudes and behaviour towards the private sector;
their relationship with the private sector, satisfaction with the service, solid waste collection charges
(payments) and demand for the service.

Background of the study location

DSM city is located in the eastern part of Tanzania in East Africa; it is situated along the Indian Ocean. The
whole city is divided into three urban Municipalities: Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni. It has a total area of
about 1393 km2 (Kasseva & Mbulingwe, 2005).
DSM has a warm temperature, moist monsoon climate, cold and dry from April to October, hot and humid
from November to March. The average annual precipitation in DSM is over 1000 mm due to the long rains
between March and May when rainfall is about 150–300 mm. The average temperature is 24 1C whereas the
maximum temperature is 35 1C and the minimum temperature is 13 1C (Yhdego, 1995). This temperature
demonstrates the need for removing waste and disposing of it immediately due to the rapid decomposition
process that takes place in this type of tropical climate and to the high organic content of the waste generated
in DSM.
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DSM is the centre of economic growth in Tanzania. It has an estimated population of 2.5 million and an
average growth rate of 4.3% per annum (Census, 2003). DSM is the principal city and administrative,
commercial, and industrial centre in Tanzania. It constitutes a high percentage of the country’s population.
The rapid increase of population in the city, coupled with the increasing growth of commerce and trades has
increased the solid waste generation at a rapid rate. Average domestic solid waste generation rate is estimated
at 0.40 kg/cap/day and total waste generation is within range 2425 tonnes/day (Kasseva & Mbulingwe, 2005).
In DSM the majority of the population live in unplanned areas and it is estimated that more than 70% of the
city population live in over 40 unplanned settlements (Chinamo, 2003; Halla & Majani, 1999; Kasseva &
Mbulingwe, 2005). SWM in DSM is administered by three municipalities under DSM City Council.
Since its introduction the private sector has made much improvement in to the general cleanliness of the
city. Until 1991, the city was generating 1400 tonnes of solid waste daily and only 5% of this daily generation
was being collected (Chinamo, 2003). Currently solid waste generation per day is estimated at about 2500
tonnes, and approximately 48% of all waste generated is collected and disposed.2 About 44 of 73 wards are
covered to some extent by collection services (Kasseva & Mbulingwe, 2005). This shows some improvement of
the service, DSM is now cleaner than before.

Methods of the study

This paper is based on a field study conducted in DSM city Tanzania; the data have been collected from
January to May 2004. The purpose of the field study was to explore what is happening on site regarding the
whole system of the private sector dealing with the solid waste collection service in DSM. The following
techniques were used in the study: survey questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussion, desktop survey
and observation.
The questionnaires were used to study the households and a sample of the private solid waste collectors
(SWCs). A sample of about 300 households was selected for study, about 100 people from each municipality.
Criteria considered when selecting the areas of study were income levels, i.e. high-, medium- and low-income
areas, in both planned and unplanned areas of the city. The sampling was designed to ensure that all of the
various types of households within a particular area were represented. Four undergraduate students of
University College for Land and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) were used in this exercise as enumerators.
A closed-ended approach questionnaire was adopted in this survey. The objective of the survey was to obtain
views and ideas of the different people in DSM concerning the private solid waste collection service. The
following aspects were included in the survey: collection methods, demand for service, awareness, payment for
the service, satisfaction with the service and the relationship of households with the private sector.
Interviews were made with representatives of the private sector. A sample of private organisations
interviewed were only those having a legitimate arrangement with the local authority. The objective of the
survey was to understand the overall picture of the service provision by the private sector. The interviews with
the local authority officers were also conducted at City Council level and three municipalities; the objective
was to explore their arrangements with the private sector, i.e. public–private partnership.
The observation was made throughout the city, by visiting different places in high-, medium- and low-
income areas and taking a view of the whole process of collection services and general cleanliness of the city.
This gave an opportunity to see the practices within households, collection activities, transfer stations and
disposal site.
Desktop surveys were made to explore information from available literature and to study what had been
done previously in the SWM in DSM.

Focus group discussion

In this case a 1 day workshop was conducted in which participants were: a cross section of the DSM City
Council, including heads of the SWM at City Council level and three DSM municipalities, the head of private
organisations dealing with he solid waste collection services, Mtaa leaders (households representatives), health
2
Data obtained at DSM City Council during the field work February 2004.
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officers in three municipalities, ILO officers dealing with the Waste Managements and experts in SWMs from
DSM Institute of Technology (DIT) and University College for Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS).
The aim of this discussion was to present the findings from the fieldwork and to explore the ideas from
different corners of the system. These are private sector, public sector and the service recipients.

Involvement of the private sector in the solid waste collection service in DSM

Involvement of the private sector in solid waste collection in DSM was initiated under the Global
Sustainable City Development Programme (GSCDP). Several cities, including DSM, are part of this
sustainable cities network through which the GSCDP is promoting demonstration projects worldwide.
The Sustainable DSM city Project (SDP) was started in January 1992 (UNCHS, 1994a, 1994b). In 1993 the
SDP introduced the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process with the overall aim of
supporting the DSM City Council as it promoted new partnerships among public, private, and community
sectors. This process served to develop sustainable solutions to priority environmental issues (UNCHS, 1994a,
1994b), one of which was SWM.
The SDP, through the EPM process, provides municipal authorities and their partners in the public, private,
and community sector with an improved EPM capacity. ‘‘The focus of the SDP in solid waste management is to
support DSM municipalities to prioritise their most critical problems in solid waste management, and in so doing
to bring together in working groups those affected by the problem, those who create problem, and those who have
an institutional responsibility to manage the problem’’ (Halla & Majani, 1999; Majani, 2000).
Before the intervention of the SDP in 1992 the first city consultation on environmental issues was held in
August 1992 involving more than 200 participants, who represented a cross-section of institutions in the
public, private and community sector (Chinamo, 2003). The participants were exposed to an analysis of nine
critical city environmental issues, including SWM. A series of City mini-consultations were held and working
groups established for each environmental issue under the overall supervision of the Sustainable DSM project.
The working group on SWM adopted a five-point strategy involving the following:

 launching of an emergency city clean-up campaign;

 privatisation of SWM services;
 encouraging community participation in SWM;
 encouraging recycling and composting;
 better management of disposal sites (Chinamo, 2003; Halla & Majani, 1999).

An emergency clean-up campaign was initiated between 1992 and 1994 by the Prime Minister’s office to
remove heaps of solid waste from market places, open spaces, and streets. Collection points were established
in the city centre and at market places and open spaces. The various stakeholders who participated during the
implementation of the strategy included: central government, local government, donor agencies, institutions,
the private sector, and individuals (Chinamo, 2003; Halla & Majani, 1999). The emergency campaign was so
successful that within a few months of start-up the amount of waste transported to the disposal site rose from
40 to 400 tonnes daily (Chinamo, 2003). As such the City Council gained experience on how solid waste
collection could be improved through stakeholder participation using available equipment and personnel.
Experience gained in solid waste collection during the emergency clean-up campaign in the city offered an
opportunity for privatising SWM services (Halla & Majani, 1999; Majani, 2000).

Privatisation of solid waste collection in DSM

In 1994 the DSM City Council acknowledged the difficulty of providing adequate SWM by itself and, after
gaining the experience as discussed above, decided to involve the private sector as a partner in solid waste
collection services. In that partnership the private sector acts as a collector (service provider) and the City
Council remains as the principal (responsible overall) for provision of the service. The collectors are varied
ranging from Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) to local companies (Ishengoma, 2003, Kassim & Ali,
2003).
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How was it started?

From the beginning only one contractor, i.e. ‘Multinet Africa Company Limited’ started solid waste
collection services within 10 city centre wards as a pilot study for the project. The contractor performed well in
its service provision and other private contractors entered the scheme. The private service provider has been
given a monopoly to provide services in a particular area, and to charge the solid waste generators an amount
approved by the Dar es Salaam City Council (Halla & Majani, 1999).
Under the agreement the contractor is obliged to pay the City Council a sum of money for waste disposal,
and the City Council is also obliged to pay the contractor revenue collection charges for the services provided
by the contractor at Council owned premises such as schools, hospitals and offices. The principal has the
responsibility for setting the framework including passing by-laws that require service users to pay for solid
waste collection, enforcing by-laws, monitoring performance of service providers and managing the whole
scheme (Halla & Majani, 1999). After the local contractors have been accepted to provide service, CBOs are
also entered into the scheme.
Currently solid waste collection in DSM is mainly undertaken by local contractors and CBOs. The
households pay fees directly towards the collection service to the organisation or local contractor who
provides service. The monthly fee is based on flat rates set by the Municipalities, depending on the
classification of the area.

Findings and discussion

Solid waste collection practice

Solid waste collection service at household level in DSM is divided into two types, door-to-door and
transfers point’s collection. In high-income areas the collection is mainly door-to-door, the solid waste
collection trucks run around the streets to be served and each truck is run by the collection workers (crews).
During the collection one of the collector members walks along the street alerting the households by using an
alarm, or an alarm direct from the truck, to bring their wastes out for collection. The crew members
unload the wastes from the bins and containers, put them in the collection trucks and return the containers to
the owners.
SWM in DSM at the household level is generally considered to be housekeeping, so normally falls to women
and house servants as practised in many African countries such as in Accra, Ghana (Addo-Yobo & Ali, 2003).
The collection activities are usually carried out by house servants under the supervision of women or the
women themselves. The charge incurred for this service is the responsibility of households themselves and not
landlords or house owners. The solid wastes are kept in containers before collection, the most common being
plastic buckets or used plastic sacks. The buckets used are normally old that cannot be used for any other
purpose such as storing water or washing. These containers are usually small, and not adequate for solid waste
storage, so have to be emptied immediately when full. Many households do not cover their waste containers,
which are usually kept outside near the house waiting for collection. In most cases these wastes are exposed to
rain, sun and winds, which results in littering and the creation of unhygienic conditions as the leachate and
odour come out from the waste, which is a risk to public health and causes pollution of the environment. Only
a few households in DSM use standard containers, durable with fitted lids, able to prevent odour and leachate
flow from the waste, and these are mainly in high-income areas.
It is common in DSM to see wastes in open drains or on the ground near the houses before the collection
truck comes. The wastes are then collected by the crew members who use hand tools to put them in the
collection trucks. When the truck is full the waste is transferred to the disposal site. The collectors (crew)
complained about the littering habit among other households:

Some people are not civilized. Instead of putting waste in waste containers, they just push wastes from their
house into the ground, open drains, on roads or littering anywhere. This makes our work very difficult, we
use most of our time to collect this type of waste
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The observation and investigations show that the high-income area and planned areas receive better services
and the collection exercise is easier than in other areas. This is due to the good waste storage, payment habit
for the service and accessibility for the collection trucks. In this study 70% of respondents reported that they
have a collection service, scheduled usually once or twice in a week. However, the collection schedule is not
always followed, in most cases the service depending on the availability of vehicles for collection and
conditions of the collection truck. As reported by Kasseva and Mbulingwe (2005) most solid waste collection
trucks in DSM are in bad condition, so the collectors do not follow their collection schedule effectively. This
situation leads to misunderstanding between service providers and households. Burning and burying solid
waste at home are still practised in DSM.
Door-to-door collection by pushcarts is normally practised in unplanned areas. The pushcarts transfer
wastes to the collection points. The wastes are then removed to the disposal site by a responsible contractor or
municipality using collection trucks/trailers. Other households live near the collection points and dispose off
their wastes directly to the collection points. These households often do not pay for the service and this
frequently gives rise to conflicts between them and the responsible contractors. This imposes unnecessary
costs on the contractors and leads to discrepancies between households as some pay for their wastes and some
do not.
In terms of collection methods the data shown in Fig. 1 indicate that 57% of respondents reported that they
received door-to-door service, 13% that they put waste in a shared container/collection point in the street and
30% of the respondents do not receive any service.
Results indicated that the majority of households receive a door-to-door collection service: the collectors
provide similar services with the only difference being the vehicle used in collection. In planned areas the
collectors use trucks, which is simple and easier, while in unplanned areas they use pushcarts and trucks, which
makes the process longer and expensive. This is one of the reasons why many collectors are not interested in
providing service in unplanned areas. Plates 1 and 2 show the collection trucks performing service at transfer
station and door-to-door, respectively.

Demand for service

This study revealed that there is a high demand for solid waste collection services. The majority (68%) of the
households who currently receive service indicated that they need service to continue. Thirty per cent of
households who do not receive service responded that they need service in their areas and they are willing to
pay for it; however, there is no evidence on their willingness to pay. Only 2% of all respondents reported that
they do not need service; these are people living outside the city centre who have a big plot, so they prefer to
bury their solid waste in their plots. The observation and investigation made indicated that only part of the
city is served; the main areas receiving service are high-income areas, city centre, and areas which are very
close to the city centres. Low-income areas, newly developed areas, and those areas that are a bit far from the
city centre do not receive service.
Based on the discussion made with the collectors, they are keen to extend service areas but they do not have
enough facilities to do so. ‘‘We would like to extend our service area, but we have a problem of working tools

Collection methods

Do not receive
services
30%

Door-to-door
Shared 57%
Container
13%

Fig. 1. Collection methods that households receive.

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Plate 1. Solid waste at collection point hauled by collection crews into the collection truck. (Source: Fieldwork, 2004.)

Plate 2. Shows a collection truck and collection crews in their collection activities, door-to-door. (Source: Fieldwork, 2004.)
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especially collection trucks, we hire trucks very expensively, and sometimes we fail even to fulfil our service
provision efficiently’’.3
It is noted that the large amount of solid waste generated in the city still remains uncollected (more than
50%), which is due to the mismatch between the amount of waste generated and the capacity of the service
providers. This suggests that at that point collectors did not have enough facilities to serve all households in
DSM city hence some support was needed. Post et al. (2003) reported that even though the improvement and
extension of the service should be made partially by the private sector, it also depends on the ability of local
authorities to create an environment with sufficient incentives to extend service to a large area.

Payment for solid waste collection service

The charge for solid waste collection in DSM was set by DSM City Council (DCC) according to income
level. Every household is required to pay for the solid waste collection services at the end of every month. It is
noted that every municipality has its own by-laws, and charges for solid waste collection are different in each
municipality. For example, Ilala municipality divides its area into zones, i.e. zone A, B and C. Zone A (high-
income area) where the charge set is 2000 Tanzania Shillings (TShs)4 per month per family. Zone B (middle-
income area), 1000 TShs per month per family, and zone C (low-income areas), 700 Tshs per month per family
(Ilala municipality By-Laws, 2000a).
In Kinondoni municipality the households living in high-income areas are required to pay 3000 TShs per
month, those in medium-income areas, 2000 TShs per month, and those in low-income areas 1000 TShs for the
solid waste collection services (Kinondoni Municipality By-Laws, 2000b).
Temeke municipality divides its area into medium-, low- and very low-income areas.
In medium-income areas the households are required to pay 1000 TShs, per month per household for the
solid waste collection services. In low-income areas this is 500 TShs per month per household and 200 TShs
per month per household in very low-income areas (Temeke Municipal By-Laws, 2000c).
The investigation shows that the solid waste collection charges range between 200 and 3000 TShs according
to by-laws. However, the SWCs used to bargain with the households, some of them paying more and some
paying less than the amount set by DCC, i.e. their internal agreement between households and service
providers. The majority (41%) of the households interviewed reported that they pay a monthly collection
charge of 1000 TShs, 16% pay 500 TShs, 10% pay between 2000 and 3000 TShs and 12% pay 250 TShs. Only
2% pay 10,000 TShs, and 19% responded as not paying for services. While the households reported that they
pay for the service, the service providers complained that they do not receive their collection fee effectively; the
fact is that the service charge is still an unresolved issue in this sector (Ishengoma, 2003; Kasseva &
Mbulingwe, 2005). Furthermore, this is the area that needs more research in the sector. It is important to note
that a key element of any sustainability criteria is that the cost of the service must be recovered from the users
(Choguill, 1996). In DSM the collection charge is supposed to cover the cost of collection and transportation
of waste incurred by the collectors; it is also supposed to cover the wages and general running of the
organisations. The private contractors have not been successful in collecting their collection fees, although
they have made all means possible to collect them. The study shows that many contractors manage to collect
less than 50% of the service charge. While contractors depend on the collection fee to run the organisation,
many households are reluctant to pay for a variety of reasons including: priority set, low income level and lack
of awareness. Since the collectors do not receive any outside funds to run their service, households need to be
informed and regularly reminded about the collection fee. The existing practices (legal and enforcement of the
by-laws) fail to keep up to date with regulation of this practice. For this reason, it will be necessary to reinforce
by-laws effectively in order to improve the present situation and to create an environment in which the private
sector is willing to work.

3
Discussion made with the solid waste collector March, 2004.
4
Currently, US$1 equals to 1060 Tanzanian Shillings.
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Awareness

Lack of awareness and active involvement of the households as the key stakeholders in service provision
planning are the main reasons why households refuse to contribute effectively and pay for the service. In most
developing countries those at household level are not given the chance to contribute in design and planning the
SWM activities, which results in residents being unsure of their roles (Addo-Yobo & Ali, 2003). The
households should be informed of decisions relating to the collection activities: types of collection,
arrangements for collection, and fees charged. They should also be involved in what they can do to ensure the
scheme’s success.
It is worth mentioning that this study reveals that the households in DSM are not aware about their service
providers and privatisation as a whole. During the survey it was observed that most households receive a
collection service but they do not know if the service provider is from the private sector, public sector or agent
who is already paid by the City Council, and this is one of the obstacles to contribution.
Both the design and operation of solid waste collection in DSM are managed in a top-down approach.
There is activity at City Council and municipal level but the grassroot people are not much aware about the
service. This low level of involvement and poor flow of information to households has resulted in low
participation in the scheme. It is believed that lack of awareness is the major contributory factor in the failure
of most SWM schemes (Addo-Yobo & Ali, 2003). Post et al. (2003) reported that in order to make solid waste
collection services more sustainable, it is essential to consult residents on the most appropriate method of
collection in their area, on the affordability of possible charges, and on their conceivable role in monitoring
the service.

Satisfaction over service

The majority of the households reported that they were satisfied with the service as compared with the
service before privatisation. Thirty-three per cent of the respondents were reasonably satisfied, 7% were very
satisfied, 28% indicated that the service needed improvement, 30% of respondents do not receive service, and
2% do not know whether the service is good or needs improvements. Fig. 2 shows the satisfaction level of the
solid waste collection service.
Based on the interviews made with the households, most are satisfied with the service for which they pay,
especially the people living in high-income areas. They would also prefer the present collectors to continue
with the service provision. This is one reason why contractors prefer to serve in high-income areas and the
city centre.

We need these people (present service providers) to continue with the service provision, before they started
service we had a problem of waste, in town area we do not have enough space to put our waste for long

Satisfaction of the Service

35
30
%Respondents

25
20
15
10
5
0
d

ce

ow
en
fie

fie

vi

kn
em
tis

tis

r
Se

't
sa

Sa

ov

on
ng
pr
y

D
r

Im

vi
Ve

ei
ds

ec
ee

R
N

ot
N

Level of Satisfaction

Fig. 2. Satisfaction level of the service.

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778 S.M. Kassim, M. Ali / Habitat International 30 (2006) 769–780

period, we have no space in our plots to dig a hole for waste, the best way is to pay and receive service, if we
do not pay what are we going to do with our wastes?5
During the survey it was observed that the high-income areas are cleaner than low-income areas and the
residents are willing to pay for the service. The collectors (Multinet & Sincon) serving the city centre areas
reported that they manage to receive more than 80% of their collection fees,6 whilst the collectors in low-
income areas do not receive much of their collection fees, the majority receiving o50% of the collection
charges. This indicates that if households were satisfied with the service provided, they would be motivated to
pay their fees effectively.

Relationship between household and the private sector

The relationship between households and private SWCs is another issue; due to the lack of awareness
among the households most of them feel that the solid waste collection has to be provided by the local
authorities free of charge, as it used to be at past. This is one of the barriers to good relationships and payment
for the service. It was observed that the public are unaware of the presence of the private sector as the service
provider. If they do know they believe that the private sector gets payment from the local authorities. ‘‘(1).
We receive service and pay for the service but we don’t know who the service provider is, whether is a public or
private sector. (2). We receive service from private contractors but we understand that they have been paid by
City council, they ask payment to us as a double pay.’’7
The investigation made indicated that the DCC had not done much on awareness promotion; they left this
to the service providers, as they believed that the businessmen/women were responsible for advertising their
business. This suggests that the private collectors have to educate households, provide the service, and collect
fees for the service at the same time.
In some areas, however, contractors have managed to create good relationships with their customers
(households). For example; in DSM Buguruni one of low-income areas, where the contractor has direct
contact with the households and Mtaa leaders (as Plate 3), the relationship between contractor and
households is better and the service is good compared with other areas. Before creating this good relationship
the contractor managed to collect o30% only of his collection charge. During the field study which was 3
months after the creation of the idea, the contractor managed to collect 450% of the collection charge.8 The
plate below shows the meeting between the contractors and households in his area discussing the service. It is
reported that this is a routine meeting every month for the contractor asking for feedback from the households
about the quality of the service.
The observation in this study found that the SWM plan had been proposed without co-operation with the
grassroot residents, so the majority did not know about their service provider and the methods of the service.
The households can participate in SWM activities even if they are living in low-income areas and have very
low monthly income. This participation and good relationship between the households and contractors
suggest that an improvement of the service would be better through communications with the households
themselves as the service recipients. Secondly, it would provide a reliable means of identifying bottlenecks in
the service.

Potential and constraints of the service

The potential for continuation of the solid waste collection service by the private sector is huge. Since it is
noted from the study that there is a high demand from the households for the service, and the private sector is
willing to provide service.
The main constraints are that the households are not aware about the service and are slowly learning about
the private sector from the contractors (private SWCs) efforts alone. The fact is that the people can co-operate
5
Interview made with the service recipients at city centre, Upanga area, March, 2004.
6
Discussion made with the contractors during the fieldwork March, 2004.
7
Interview made with the service recipients March, 2004.
8
Discussion with the contractor during field work 2004.
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Plate 3. A meeting between contractor and service recipients in low-income area (Fieldwork; March, 2004).

better if, and only if, they are included in the planning and if they are aware of activities going on in their area.
This fact demonstrates the necessity of including people in the decision-making, regardless of their income
level.
In view of these facts, the best arrangement is a public/private partnership working together to educate the
people about the service providers and service in general. Organised co-operative SWCs should also be
encouraged to run their daily activities effectively; the local authorities could provide the private collectors
with the facilities or grant funding and give them advice on how to run the service effectively. For this purpose,
it is important for the responsible authorities together with the private sector to plan with the grassroot
residents and make them aware of the SWM and impacts of improper SWM. The SWM by-laws should
be reviewed and reinforced regularly and SWM policy should be in place to protect the law and regulations
of the SWM.
The privatisation of solid waste collection in DSM has brought several advantages; it has helped to create
employment among the DSM residents and improve the cleanliness of the city. Currently, the quality of
service is much better than it was before the privatisation. The private SWCs are keen to continue with the
service and this investigation shows that both the same contractors and new ones are always able to apply and
compete for tender every year. Furthermore, there is a remarkable recognition from the public sector.

Conclusion

The following conclusion can be made from the discussions:

This study has revealed that a solid waste collection service by the private sector has a great impact on
residents of DSM Tanzania in terms of a source of income and improved cleanliness of the city. The potential
for existence has been identified, especially due to the fact that the private SWCs are keen to remain (continue)
in the service provision, and there is a recognition from the local authority. However, awareness of the
residents is still poor in large areas of the city, where the majority do not know about the service provider and
the change which has occurred in solid waste collection service in the city. This can be managed by good
partnership between the public and private sector to educate residents and to include the grassroot people in
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780 S.M. Kassim, M. Ali / Habitat International 30 (2006) 769–780

the decision. There is a high demand for the service, and the level of satisfaction for those who currently
receive service is fair. These factors show that there is a sign of sustainability of the sector.
The overall conclusion of the study is that a change has occurred in the way that the role of the private
sector must be seen and recognised by the people and local authorities with respect to service provision. With
regard to environmental benefits, it is unquestionable that the city cleanliness is better than before. It is
recommended that a good triangular relationship among residents, private sector and the local authorities
must be established for improvement and sustainability of the sector.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Commonwealth Association who sponsored the study from which this
article is derived. She is also extremely grateful to the head of solid waste management of Dar es Salaam City
Council Mr. Elias Chinamo, and his Solid Waste Management officers at municipality’ level; the heads of
private organisations dealing with collection of wastes and residents in all three DSM municipalities, i.e. Ilala,
Kinondoni and Temeke for their assistance and contribution during a field work; Prof. Bituro Majani of
University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) for his assistance and consultation during the
field work; Dr. Mansoor Ali of Water Engineering and Development Centres, (WEDC) Loughborough
University, UK, for his day-to-day supervision and advice during the research. Lastly, the opinions expressed
in this paper are those of the author only and not of any individual who acted as a consultant in the study.

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