Sport

Sport pertains to any form of competitive physical

activity or game[1] that aims to use, maintain or
improve physical ability and skills while providing
enjoyment to participants and, in some cases,
entertainment to spectators.[2] Sports can, through
casual or organized participation, improve one's
physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those
between single contestants, through to those with
hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams
or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as Sport in childhood. Association football, shown
racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously above, is a team sport which also provides
or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the opportunities to nurture physical fitness and social
contest (a match) is between two sides, each interaction skills.
attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a
"tie" or "draw", in which there is no single winner;
others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be
arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by
arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.

Sport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with
major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition.[3] Other
organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from
classification as sports.[2] However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition
as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge
as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-
physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi,[4][5] and limits the number of mind
games which can be admitted as sports.[1]

Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow
consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals
or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting
performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic
impression.

Records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced
or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator
sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport
betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.

According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of
2013.[6] The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most
popular spectator sport.[7]
Contents
Meaning and usage
Etymology
Nomenclature
Definition
Competition
History
Fair play
Sportsmanship
Cheating
Doping and drugs
Violence
Participation
Gender participation
Youth participation
Disabled participation
Spectator involvement
Amateur and professional
Technology
Sports and education
Politics
As a means of controlling and subduing populations
Religious views
Popularity
See also
Sources
References
Further reading

Meaning and usage

Etymology

The word "sport" comes from the Old French desport meaning "leisure", with the oldest definition in
English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining".[8]

Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and
diversions, including ones that require exercise.[9] Roget's defines the noun sport as an "activity engaged in
for relaxation and amusement" with synonyms including diversion and recreation.[10]

Nomenclature
The singular term "sport" is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept (e.g. "children
taking part in sport"), with "sports" used to describe multiple activities (e.g. "football and rugby are the
most popular sports in England"). American English uses "sports" for both terms.

Definition

The precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure

activities varies between sources. The closest to an international
agreement on a definition is provided by SportAccord, which is the
association for all the largest international sports federations (including
association football, athletics, cycling, tennis, equestrian sports, and
more), and is therefore the de facto representative of international
sport.
The International Olympic
SportAccord uses the following criteria, determining that a sport Committee recognises some
should:[1] board games as sports including
chess.
have an element of competition
be in no way harmful to any living creature
not rely on equipment provided by a single supplier
(excluding proprietary games such as arena football)
not rely on any "luck" element specifically designed into the
sport.

They also recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby
or athletics), primarily mind (such as chess or Go), predominantly
motorised (such as Formula 1 or powerboating), primarily co-
Show jumping, an equestrian
ordination (such as billiard sports), or primarily animal-supported (such
sport
as equestrian sport).[1]

The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been
universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to being denied funding
available to sports.[11] Whilst SportAccord recognises a small number of mind sports, it is not open to
admitting any further mind sports.

There has been an increase in the application of the term "sport" to a wider set of non-physical challenges
such as video games, also called esports (from "electronic sports"), especially due to the large scale of
participation and organised competition, but these are not widely recognised by mainstream sports
organisations. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2.i, " 'Sport' means all
forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving
physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all
levels."[12]

Competition

There are opposing views on the necessity of competition as a defining element of a sport, with almost all
professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of
recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or SportAccord.[1]
Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport
to include all physical activity. For instance, the
Council of Europe include all forms of physical
exercise, including those competed just for fun.

In order to widen participation, and reduce the impact

of losing on less able participants, there has been an
introduction of non-competitive physical activity to
traditionally competitive events such as school sports
days, although moves like this are often
controversial.[13][14]

In competitive events, participants are graded or 100m race record holder Usain Bolt (in yellow,
classified based on their "result" and often divided into right) and other runners, Moscow, 2013.
groups of comparable performance, (e.g. gender,
weight and age). The measurement of the result may
be objective or subjective, and corrected with "handicaps" or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to
complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the result is decided by a panel of
judges, and therefore subjective. There are many shades of judging between boxing and mixed martial arts,
where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at the end of the match time.

History
Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China as early as 2000 BC.[15]
Gymnastics appears to have been popular in China's ancient past. Monuments
to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and
fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in
ancient Egypt.[16] Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump,
and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art
of Zoorkhaneh had a close connection to warfare skills.[17] Among other
sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting.

A wide range of sports were already

established by the time of Ancient Greece
and the military culture and the
development of sport in Greece
Roman bronze reduction influenced one another considerably.
of Myron's Discobolos, Sport became such a prominent part of Motorised sports have appeared
2nd century AD. their culture that the Greeks created the since the advent of the modern
Olympic Games, which in ancient times age.
were held every four years in a small
village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia.[18]

Sports have been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the ancient Olympics up to the
present century. Industrialisation has brought increased leisure time, letting people attend and follow
spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media
and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's
popularity, as sports fans followed the exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and
competition associated with amateur participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st  century, there has
been increasing debate about whether transgender sports persons should be able to participate in sport
events that conform with their post-transition gender identity.[19]
Fair play

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy

toward teammates and opponents, ethical behaviour and
integrity, and grace in victory or defeat.[20][21][22]
Swimmers perform squats as warm-up
Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the exercise prior to entering the pool in a U.S.
activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known military base, 2011
sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it's "not
that you won or lost but how you played the game", and the
modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: "The most important thing... is not
winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment.

Cheating

Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should have
equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in
order to gain advantage.

Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other
advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on the results of sports fixtures
creates a motivation for match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given
outcome rather than simply playing to win.

Doping and drugs

The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance
through the use of medicines, or through other means such as increasing the volume of blood in their bodies
through artificial means.

All sports recognised by the IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing programme, looking
for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for
banned substances.

Violence

Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence.
Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in
misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular
is a problem at some national and international sporting contests.

Participation

Gender participation
Female participation in sports continues to rise alongside
the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports
for child development and physical fitness. Despite
increases in female participation during the last three
decades, a gap persists in the enrolment figures between
male and female players in sports-related teams. Female
players account for 39% of the total participation in US
interscholastic athletics.

Youth participation
International level female athletes at ISTAF
Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, Berlin, 2006
socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness,
and athletic scholarships. Activists for education and the
war on drugs encourage youth sport as a means to increase educational participation and to fight the illegal
drug trade. According to the Center for Injury Research and Policy at Nationwide Children's Hospital, the
biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion. These risks come from running,
basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey.[23] Youth sport in the US
is a $15 billion industry including equipment up to private coaching.[24]

Disabled participation

Disabled sports also adaptive sports or parasports, are sports

played by persons with a disability, including physical and
intellectual disabilities. As many of these are based on existing
sports modified to meet the needs of persons with a disability, they
are sometimes referred to as adapted sports. However, not all
disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been
specifically created for persons with a disability have no equivalent
in able-bodied sports. A runner gives a friendly tap on the
shoulder to a wheelchair racer during
the Marathon International de Paris
Spectator involvement (Paris Marathon) in 2014.

The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of

some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to watch
sport being played. This has led to the specific phenomenon of
spectator sport.

Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in

person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including
radio, television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person
and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, Spectators at the 1906 unofficial
such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast. Olympic Games

It is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences,

leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain fixtures. The
football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone
attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final
attracted an estimated audience of 135 million in India alone.[25]
In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most
watched television broadcasts of the year.[26][27]
Super Bowl Sunday is a de facto national holiday in
America;[28][29] the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at
$4.5m for a 30-second slot.[26]

Amateur and professional

Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional or semi-
professional basis, depending on whether participants are
incentivised for participation (usually through payment of a wage
or salary). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often
called "grassroots sport".[2][30]

The popularity of spectator sport as a recreation for non-participants

has led to sport becoming a major business in its own right, and this
has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where Women's volleyball team of a U.S.
high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in excess of university.
average wages, which can run into millions of dollars.[31]

Some sports, or individual competitions within a sport, retain a policy of allowing only amateur sport. The
Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport
professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby.[32]
From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive compensation and sponsorship,[33] and from 1986,
the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics,[33][34] with the exceptions of
boxing,[35][36] and wrestling.[37][38]

Technology
Technology plays an important part in modern sport. With it being a
necessary part of some sports (such as motorsport), it is used in
others to improve performance. Some sports also use it to allow off-
field decision making.

Sports science is a widespread academic discipline, and can be

applied to areas including athlete performance, such as the use of
video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such as
improved running shoes or competitive swimwear. Sports
engineering emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing These lights at the Melbourne
focus not just on materials design but also the use of technology in Cricket Ground indicate the decision
sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology. [39] In the third umpire makes following a
order to control the impact of technology on fair play, governing review.
bodies frequently have specific rules that are set to control the
impact of technical advantage between participants. For example,
in 2010, full-body, non-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA, as they were enhancing swimmers'
performances.[40][41]

The increase in technology has also allowed many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed,
off-field, with another official using instant replays to make decisions. In some sports, players can now
challenge decisions made by officials. In Association football, goal-line technology makes decisions on
whether a ball has crossed the goal line or not.[42] The technology is not compulsory,[43] but was used in
the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil,[44] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada,[45] as well as
in the Premier League from 2013–14,[46] and the Bundesliga from 2015–16.[47] In the NFL, a referee can
ask for a review from the replay booth, or a head coach can issue a challenge to review the play using
replays. The final decision rests with the referee.[48] A video referee (commonly known as a Television
Match Official or TMO) can also use replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and
union).[49][50] In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a decision, and the third
umpire makes the final decision.[51][52] Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review
decisions has been introduced and used in ICC-run tournaments, and optionally in other matches.[51][53]
Depending on the host broadcaster, a number of different technologies are used during an umpire or player
review, including instant replays, Hawk-Eye, Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer.[54][55] Hawk-Eye is
also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions.[56][57]

Sports and education

Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive adult role models and provide
positive development opportunities, as well as promote the learning and application of life skills.[58][59] In
recent years the use of sport to reduce crime, as well as to prevent violent extremism and radicalization, has
become more widespread, especially as a tool to improve self-esteem, enhance social bonds and provide
participants with a feeling of purpose.[59]

There is no high-quality evidence that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports
participation of the community in sports such as mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy
changes.[60] There is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in
promoting healthy behavior change in the community.[61]

Politics
Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Italy, to showcase Fascist
Italy.[62][63] Adolf Hitler also used the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, and the 1936 Winter
Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan
race, and inferiority of the Jews and other "undesirables".[63][64] Germany used the Olympics to give off a
peaceful image while secretly preparing for war.[65]

When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union,
adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this
was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may
have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.[66]

In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid-20th century
a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the
Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football, or other games seen
to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at
Gaelic venues. This ban, also known as Rule 42,[67] is still enforced, but was modified to allow football
and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until
recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the
RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual
removal of the ban.
Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or
commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent
confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War.
These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own
sake and for the enjoyment of its participants.

Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli
Olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre.

A study of US elections has shown that the result of sports events can affect the results. A study published
in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game
before the election, the incumbent candidates can increase their share of the vote by 1.5 percent. A loss had
the opposite effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses.[68]
Also, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then the incumbent President is
more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has
become known as the Redskins Rule.[69][70]

As a means of controlling and subduing populations

Étienne de La Boétie, in his essay Discourse on Voluntary Servitude describes athletic spectacles as means
for tyrants to control their subjects by distracting them.

Do not imagine that there is any bird more easily caught by decoy, nor any fish sooner fixed
on the hook by wormy bait, than are all these poor fools neatly tricked into servitude by the
slightest feather passed, so to speak, before their mouths. Truly it is a marvellous thing that
they let themselves be caught so quickly at the slightest tickling of their fancy. Plays, farces,
spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, pictures, and other such opiates, these were for
ancient peoples the bait toward slavery, the price of their liberty, the instruments of tyranny. By
these practices and enticements the ancient dictators so successfully lulled their subjects under
the yoke, that the stupefied peoples, fascinated by the pastimes and vain pleasures flashed
before their eyes, learned subservience as naïvely, but not so creditably, as little children learn
to read by looking at bright picture books.[71]

Religious views
Sport was an important form of worship in Ancient Greek religion. The ancient Olympic Games, called the
Olympiad, were held in honour of the head deity, Zeus, and featured various forms of religious dedication
to him and other gods.[72] As many Greeks travelled to see the games, this combination of religion and
sport also served as a way of uniting them.

The practice of athletic competitions has been criticised by some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in
which "human beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves."[73]
Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of "collective pride" and "national self-deification" in
which feats of human power are idolized at the expense of divine worship.[73]

Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting "the entire apparatus of the shows is
based upon idolatry."[74] The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament
cultivated by the Christian:
 God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly,
and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these
things are alone in keeping with the goodness of His
nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness. ... Well,
how shall this be made to accord with the shows? For
the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since
where there is pleasure, there is keenness of feeling
giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of
feeling, there is rivalry giving in turn its zest to that.
Then, too, where you have rivalry, you have rage,
bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which
flow from them  – the whole entirely out of keeping
with the religion of Christ.[75]

Christian clerics in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement oppose the

viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that The foot race was one of the events
professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern dedicated to Zeus. Panathenaic
era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day.[76] They amphora, Kleophrades painter, circa
also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment 500 BC, Louvre museum.
that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in
opposition to 1 Corinthians 7:35, what they perceive to be a lack of
modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic
doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to Hebrews 7:26, what they
perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes Colossians 3:8–10, and
the frequent presence of gambling, as well as alcohol and other drugs at sporting events, which go against a
commitment to teetotalism.[76]

Popularity
Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base:[7]

Estimated Global
Rank Sport Sphere of Influence
Following
Association football
1 4 billion Globally
(Soccer)
2 Cricket 2.5 billion primarily UK and Commonwealth
3 Hockey (Ice and Field) 2 billion Europe, North America, Africa, Asia and Australia
4 Tennis 1 billion Globally
Volleyball (along with
5 900 million Americas, Europe, Asia, Oceania
Beach Volleyball)
6 Table tennis 875 million Mainly East Asia
7 Basketball 825 million Globally
8 Baseball 500 million primarily United States, Caribbean and East Asia
primarily UK, Ireland, France, Italy, Oceania, South
9 Rugby Union 475 million
Africa, Argentina, and Japan.
primarily Western Europe, East Asia and North
10 Golf 450 million
America
See also
Outline of sports
List of sports
List of sportspeople
List of sports attendance figures
List of professional sports leagues
New Media and Sports

Related topics

Athletic sports
Animals in sport
Combat sport
Disabled sports
Electronic sports
Fan (person)
Handedness#Advantage in sports
International sport
Lawn game
Mind sport
Motor sports
Multi-sport events
National sport
Nationalism and sports
Olympic Games
Paralympic Games
Physical education
Physical fitness
Spalding Athletic Library
Sponsorship
Sport in film
Sport psychology
Sports club
Sports coaching
Sports commentator
Sports entertainment
Sports equipment
Sports fan
Sports governing body
Sports injuries
Sports league attendances
Sports marketing
Sports nutrition
Sports terms named after people
Sports trainer
 Sportsperson
Sportswear
Sunday sporting events
Team sport
Underwater sports
Women's sports
Water sports
Winter sport

Sources
 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO Text taken
from Strengthening the rule of law through education: a guide for policymakers (https://unesdoc.unesco.or
g/ark:/48223/pf0000366771), UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.

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Further reading
The Meaning of Sports by Michael Mandel (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport (http://journals.humankinetics.com/jps)
Sullivan, George. The Complete Sports Dictionary. New York: Scholastic Book Services,
1979. 199 p. ISBN 0-590-05731-6

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