Ste-Marieetal 2012

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/230584109
Observation interventions for motor skill learning and

performance: An applied model for the use of observation
Article in International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · January 2012
CITATIONS READS
31 2,834
6 authors, including:
Barbi Law Amanda M Rymal

Nipissing University California State University, San Bernardino
45 PUBLICATIONS 828 CITATIONS 23 PUBLICATIONS 418 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Jenny O
California State University, East Bay
34 PUBLICATIONS 613 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Modeling (OL) and Imagery in Sport View project
Applied Model for the Use of Observation View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Amanda M Rymal on 03 November 2014.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article was downloaded by: [Amanda Rymal]
On: 04 April 2012, At: 20:54
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
International Review of Sport and

Exercise Psychology
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rirs20
Observation interventions for motor

skill learning and performance:
an applied model for the use of
observation
a b a
Diane M. Ste-Marie , Barbi Law , Amanda M. Rymal , O Jenny
c d c
, Craig Hall & Penny McCullagh
a
School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada
b
School of Physical and Health Education, Nipissing University,
North Bay, Canada
c
Department of Kinesiology, California State University East Bay,
Hayward, USA
d
Kinesiology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario,
Canada
Available online: 30 Mar 2012
To cite this article: Diane M. Ste-Marie, Barbi Law, Amanda M. Rymal, O Jenny, Craig Hall &
Penny McCullagh (2012): Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an
applied model for the use of observation, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
DOI:10.1080/1750984X.2012.665076
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.665076
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-

conditions
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation
that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any
instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary
sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,
demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Downloaded by [Amanda Rymal] at 20:54 04 April 2012
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology
2012, 132, iFirst article
Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an

applied model for the use of observation
Diane M. Ste-Mariea*, Barbi Lawb, Amanda M. Rymala, Jenny Oc, Craig Halld and
Penny McCullaghc
a
School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; bSchool of Physical
and Health Education, Nipissing University, North Bay, Canada; cDepartment of Kinesiology,
California State University East Bay, Hayward, USA; dKinesiology, The University of Western
Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
(Received 7 September 2011; final version received 5 February 2012)
Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we

reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily
movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much
research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who)
for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for
not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of
literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this
applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observer’s
characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention
is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the
context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information
to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what
instructional features will accompany the intervention; (3) when it is observed;
and (4) how the observed information should be delivered. Future research
directions are also forwarded with regard to identified gaps in the literature.
Keywords: observational learning; skill acquisition; performance enhancement;
review
Introduction
The fact that we repeat and learn the behaviors of those we have observed is a
longstanding finding that is not disputed. What might be disputed, however, is how
to label this factual evidence. Indeed, a wide variety of terms, such as imitation,
emulation, observational learning, and modeling, to name a few, have been used in
the context of such findings (Williams, Davids, & Williams, 1999). It is our intention
to speak to the use of observation for both motor skill acquisition and performance.
Specifically, we are interested in how observation of others, or the self, can be
optimized to assist the learning of motor skills, as well as to improve motor skill
performance, such as in sport competition. In the motor skill acquisition context
there is the typical tenet that observation can result in the adoption of new motor
behaviors not in the individual’s existing repertoire (Horn & Williams, 2004). Thus,
usage of the term observational learning is most appropriate in this context.
*Corresponding author. Email: dstmarie@uottawa.ca

ISSN 1750-984X print/ISSN 1750-9858 online
# 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.665076
http://www.tandfonline.com
2 D.M. Ste-Marie et al.
Observational learning, however, does not apply so well to the situation where a
person is using observation to enhance the performance of skills that are already
learned (i.e., within their repertoire). For this reason, we chose to remove the word
‘learning’ and instead refer only to the use of observation so as to reflect both the
potential learning and performance enhancement components that can occur
through observation.
Horn and Williams (2004) argued that many studies have used novel tasks at the
expense of ecological validity while examining the use of observation. Our goal was to
review research that involved tasks relevant to practitioners who would be interested in
using observation for skill acquisition and performance. Therefore, laboratory-based
tasks (e.g., Bachman ladder, computer keyboard, knock-down barrier, stabilometer
tasks, etc.) were excluded. The research paradigm also had to include observation
being used as an intervention to improve motor skill acquisition or performance, with
the exception of descriptive studies that examined the functions of observational
learning. While some studies were located that employed modeling interventions using
only auditory models, we chose to focus on the delivery of visual information, and thus
these were excluded for the purposes of this review. Appendix 1 (see online
supplementary data) provides an overview of the intervention articles reviewed.
With a focus on intervention-based experiments, it is important to note that the
neuroscientific research paradigm within observation is not a major theme in this
review. Such research typically examines neural structures activated as an action is
being observed (e.g., Calmels, Hars, Jerry, & Stamm, 2010; Clark, Trembley, & Ste-
Marie, 2003; Grezes, Costes, & Decety, 1998) and it certainly informs our
understanding of the contributions of observation to learning and performance.
The key discovery of mirror neurons by Rizzolatti and his group in the early 1990s
(di Pellegrino, Fadiga, Fogassi, Gallese, & Rizzolatti, 1992) is a clear example of its
importance. The research design in such experimentation, however, does not
introduce interventions that may enhance the execution of the action and thus
they are not captured to any great extent in this review. Readers are encouraged to
read the varied reviews that link the mirror neuron system and observation with such
topics as education (van Gog, Paas, Marcus, Ayres, & Sweller, 2009), cognitive
science (Obhi & Hogeveen, 2010) and sport (Holmes & Calmels, 2008).
Actually, Holmes and Calmels’ (2008) neuroscientific review of observation also
includes literature related to imagery use in sport, a mental process tightly coupled
with observation, with both being shown to have similar neural involvement (e.g.,
Clark et al., 2003; Macuga & Frey, 2011). Indeed, if one considers Bandura’s (1986)
work, imaginal coding of observed information is an important step in the process of
building a cognitive representation, and thus it is not surprising that imagery and
observation are often examined together in research, although McCullagh, Law, and
Ste-Marie (in press) have commented on how this coupling is often not made explicit.
As noted by Holmes and Calmels, however, these processes are also distinct, with
imagery described as a top-down, conscious, knowledge-driven process and
observation as more of a bottom-up, unconscious, percept-driven process. Such
distinctions support our interest in focusing this review on observation interventions,
although some of the combined observation and imagery interventions are given
mention.
The review is divided into three sections: (1) current state of knowledge; (2) an
applied model for the use of observation; and (3) future research directions. The first
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 3
section concerns the current state of knowledge concerning observation interventions

with sport and activities of daily living tasks. Borrowing from the journalism field,
we use the 5 Ws (Where, Why, Who, What, When) and 1 H (How) method to convey
this information as it is argued to be a factual gathering process that enables the
presentation of all the essential elements on a topic (Beveridge Mackie, 2011).
This structure of the 5 Ws and 1 H is also used in the second section, which
concerns a proposed applied model that can be used to guide practitioners in the use
of observation. Approaching the research from this structure also exposed us to the
many research questions that are yet unanswered, thus allowing us to conclude with
recommendations for further research on the use of observation.
Current state of knowledge

Where
There is the opportunity for observation of motor skills to occur in a number of

situations (i.e., training, competition or rehabilitation), but most investigations of
observation interventions (90%) have been in training sessions (see Appendix 1,
online supplementary data, for overview of settings). Less than 5% of the research
has taken place in rehabilitation, and even less has occurred in sport competitions.
With respect to training, the large majority of studies (80%) have employed a
laboratory setting, with the other studies being undertaken in either a sport club or a
physical education setting.
Why (functions)
Researchers interested in the use of observation have just recently begun to take a
learner-focused view and study the specific reasons learners engage in observation.
Cumming, Clark, Ste-Marie, McCullagh, and Hall (2005) were the first to explicitly
examine the functions that observational learning may serve for the athlete. The term
‘function’ refers to the reasons why athletes, learners, coaches or other individuals
engage in observational learning; it is the underlying intent or purpose for observing
the demonstration. Cumming et al. investigated these reasons through their
development of the Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ).
They found that athletes use observation for motor skill acquisition and execution
(i.e., the skill function), to develop and execute sport strategies (i.e., the strategy
function), and to reach optimal arousal levels and mental states for physical
performance (i.e., the performance function). This and subsequent research employ-
ing the FOLQ has consistently shown that athletes of all skill levels (i.e., novices
through to experts) employ the skill function most frequently, followed by the
strategy and performance functions (Cumming et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2009;
Hancock, Rymal, & Ste-Marie, 2011; Law & Hall, 2009a, b; Wesch, Law, & Hall,
2007). Fairly reliable sport type differences exist, with individual and independent
sport athletes reporting greater use of the skill and performance functions, and team
and interactive sport athletes reporting greater use of the strategy function
(Cumming et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2009; Wesch et al., 2007). Hancock et al. (2011)
extended the populations studied with the FOLQ to include officials and coaches,
and replicated the Skill Strategy Performance function pattern of previous
research. Yet some differences among the sport populations were found. Coaches
employed more of the skill function than the other two groups, while officials
employed more of the performance function than coaches.
Using the basis of these functions of observation, we now turn to experimental
findings to demonstrate how the functions have been explored within observation
research. It is quite difficult to discuss these functions without discussing outcomes
from the use of observation. In fact, we would argue that these two should be paired.
That is, the measured outcomes within an experiment arise as a result of the specific
function(s) that the researchers targeted in their intervention. Basically, the functions
can be considered the intended focus or desired outcome of the modeling experience,
whereas the outcome can be considered as the actual effects of the observation
experience on key performance variables (i.e., the physical and/or psychological
effects of the modeling experience on the learner’s cognitions, affect and behavior).
From this perspective, we have chosen to review research that has directly examined
each of the functions, and highlight the corresponding outcomes.
Skill function and related outcomes

Within the larger body of observation intervention research, the emphasis has been on
examining the effectiveness of skill-based modeling experiences on motor skill learning
(i.e., ‘skill’ function; see Appendix 1, online supplementary data). Aside from the
research using the FOLQ described above, only one published study was identified on
how athletes employ the skill function. Hars and Calmels (2007) conducted a qualitative
study of elite gymnasts’ use of observation within practice and reported that gymnasts
used the self-observation of their bar performance to help improve self-assessment, to
increase performance of their technical execution, to increase their imagery use and to
increase their visual perceptions. With the skill improvement context of the study, these
four reasons may be considered sub-functions of the skill function, suggesting that
athletes have very particular goals in mind when observing the self on video.
Research on observation use has examined and demonstrated significant out-
comes related to skill learning in terms of both short-term (i.e., acquisition phase) and
long-term (i.e., retention or transfer phase) effects (e.g., Hayes, Hodges, Huys, &
Williams, 2007; McCullagh & Meyer, 1997; Wrisberg & Pein, 2002; Wulf, Raupach, &
Pfeiffer, 2005; Zetou, Fragouli, & Tzetzis, 1999). These physical performance tests
have demonstrated modeling benefits for movement outcomes (e.g., Al-Abood,
Davids, & Bennett, 2001; Weiss, McCullagh, Smith, & Berlant, 1998) as well as
movement dynamics, or the quality and coordination of movements (e.g., Horn,
Williams, & Scott, 2002; Magill & Schoenfelder-Zohdi, 1996). Two meta-analyses
have been conducted on this literature and have demonstrated that in terms of skill-
related outcomes, the use of observation appears to produce greater changes in
movement dynamics than movement outcomes (Ashford, Bennett, & Davids, 2006).
However effects for movement dynamics are greater for adults than children, while
effects for movement outcome appear to be greater for children than adults (Ashford,
Davids, & Bennett, 2007). While these meta-analyses included a wide range of gross
motor tasks, including many sport skills, some of the laboratory tasks included are
those that were excluded from the current review. Due to space limitations, readers are
referred to these meta-analyses, as well as reviews by McCullagh et al. (in press; see
also McCullagh, Ste-Marie, & Law, in press) for further reading.
Consistent with Bandura’s (1986) conceptualization of the modeling process,

researchers have shown that the use of observation improves cognitive representa-
tions of the movement, as measured by recall and recognition tests. Findings on the
use of observation are also consistent with the direct perception perspective (Scully &
Newell, 1985), whereby observers pick up relative motion information from a
demonstration and use this information to produce novel or unfamiliar coordination
patterns (Williams et al., 1999). These benefits have been shown for serial as well as
continuous and discrete tasks (see Ashford et al., 2006). This illustrates the
universality of observation as a tool within the motor skill domain.
Outside of sport skills, only scant attention has been paid to the use of
observation for improvement in motor skills and their performance in the injury and
chronic disease rehabilitation environment (Maddison, Prapavessis, & Clatworthy,
2006; Ng, Tam, Yew, & Lam, 1999), highlighting the need for continued research in
this setting. One notable exception is the work of Dowrick and colleagues (Dowrick
& Dove, 1980; Dowrick & Raeburn, 1995), who have successfully employed self-
modeling techniques in therapeutic settings to assist children with physical

disabilities in the acquisition of motor skills, such as swimming, walking and other
activities of daily living.
Strategy function and related outcomes

Specific research on how athletes gain information to use and modify strategies
through observation (strategy function) is limited. One example is Granados and
Wulf’s (2007) examination of the difference between observing and just discussing
strategies that can be used in speed cup stacking. Their results showed that observing
the strategy for optimal performance produced greater performance benefits than
simple discussion. Research with scarf juggling has also shown that observation of
learning and peer models resulted in greater strategy uses than non-peer and skilled
models (Meaney, Griffin, & Hart, 2005), suggesting that the type of model may be an
important variable for this function. From the lack of research explicitly examining
the strategic function of observation and its outcomes, it is clear that this is an area in
need of future research before further conclusions can be made about how to
effectively focus observation interventions on strategy learning.
Performance function and related outcomes

As the majority of observation research has derived from the motor learning rather
than sport psychology domain, the fact that we were unable to find any studies that
specifically designed a modeling experience to target psychological factors (i.e., used
the performance function) alone is not unexpected. Rather, researchers often assess
the impact of their skill-based modeling experiences using psychological factors (e.g.,
self-efficacy) as well as physical performance. Research that has measured changes in
psychological variables generally supports positive modeling effects on self-efficacy,
motivation and other self-regulatory variables in both sport (Clark & Ste-Marie,
2007; Kitsantas, Zimmerman, & Cleary, 2000) and rehabilitation settings (Maddison
et al., 2006).
Bandura (1986, 1997) placed much emphasis on the mediating role that self-
efficacy plays in the observationbehavior change relationship. Therefore, it is not
surprising that much research has examined the effects of observation on self-
efficacy. In research with undergraduate students, both self-modeling/self-observa-
tion (Feltz, Short, & Singleton, 2008) and participant modeling (Feltz, Landers, &
Raeder, 1979) have produced improvements in self-efficacy. However, other studies
have shown no such observation effects (Law & Ste-Marie, 2005; Ram & McCullagh,
2003; Soo Hoo, Takemoto, & McCullagh, 2004; Starek & McCullagh, 1999).
Research examining these relationships among children has also shown equivocal
findings (Weiss et al., 1998; Winfrey & Weeks, 1993; Zetou, Kourtesis, Getsiou,
Michalopoulou, & Kioumourtzoglou, 2008). One of the reasons for the range of
findings could be that the observation interventions used were all designed to
improve skill performance and did not include design elements that would target self-
efficacy beliefs, such as positive affirmations made by models, indications of
improvement, or mastery. Furthermore, learners’ perceptions of what makes a
model effective for building self-efficacy have not been examined in depth.
In terms of other psychological processes, Weiss et al.’s data (1998) suggested that
a coping or mastery model may help reduce the fear of water among children early in
the swimming skills learning process. The effectiveness of self and other modeling on
self-efficacy and anxiety among novice adult swimmers was examined by Starek and
McCullagh (1999), but no effect was found for this age group. Interventions designed
specifically to examine effects on arousal and anxiety through the use of observation
are needed before clear recommendations can be made regarding the effectiveness of
this technique for modifying these responses.
More recently, Ste-Marie et al. (e.g., Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007; Rymal, Martini, &
Ste-Marie, 2010; Ste-Marie, Rymal, Vertes, & Martini, 2011; Ste-Marie, Vertes,
Rymal, & Martini, 2011) have pushed current bounds on observation research to
examine its effects on self-regulatory variables, thus extending the examination of the
performance function in the motor skill learning and performance contexts. This
research is framed within Zimmerman’s self-regulation of learning framework (2000)
and has demonstrated that, particularly for children, self-modeling produces
favorable changes in self-satisfaction, self-reactions and intrinsic interest in a motor
task being learned (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007), and, in competition, is combined with
other self-regulatory strategies such as strategic planning and self-evaluation (Rymal
et al., 2010; Ste-Marie, Rymal et al., 2011).
While few studies have examined modeling within the context of rehabilitation,
these studies appears to have taken greater care in targeting psychological factors in
the design of the intervention through the use of coping modeling experiences at
several time points during recovery. Within injury rehabilitation, research examining
the effects of modeling on individuals recovering from anterior cruciate ligament
(ACL) reconstructive surgery has shown that a coping model can produce reduced
perceptions of pain and increased crutch self-efficacy, but no effect on anxiety
(Maddison et al., 2006). Again, these findings may depend on the population, as Ng
et al. (1999) did not find any effect of modeling on self-efficacy for chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients who viewed a mastery model. Flint
(1999) conducted interviews with athletes who were recovering from ACL injuries
after they had viewed several coping model videos. Overall, her findings support the
notion that athletes can build confidence in their ability to cope with the recovery
process through peer modeling.
While the FOLQ research has produced clear functions that athletes, coaches and
officials of sport use, it was developed directly from the sport imagery questionnaire
which leads one to question whether other functions for observation have been
overlooked. Law (2008), for example, determined through qualitative methods that
athletes also reported using observation to learn the norms of the sport group in
which they associated. Thus, when researchers are examining the functions of
observation, and its related outcomes, they should also consider other means of data
collection and the ways in which observation use may be unique from imagery.
Who
When examining the literature related to the use of observation, it is noted that many
researchers have been interested in ‘who’ is the most beneficial model to observe.
Although motor skill performance is also of interest in this review, it is noted that
research with this focus has only considered skill acquisition, with no research related
to enhanced execution of motor skills in competition. As such, the focus of this

section is on motor skill acquisition.
The obvious model types to consider are related to the observation of others or
the observation of the self. For observing other individuals, research has grouped
these into peer (i.e., matched gender and age between observer and model) and non-
peer-models. Within these two model types, there is also the consideration of whether
the model is characterized as a skilled model (shows proper execution of skill), an
unskilled model (execution of skill contains errors) or a learning model (observer
sees individual move from unskilled to skilled performances). Another level of
variation is in terms of coping and mastery models. A coping model is seen across a
number of trials and moves from verbalizations concerning difficulty performing the
skill and feeling a lack of confidence concerning the ability to do the skill to
verbalizations that show confidence and ease in performing the skill. Coupled with
these verbalizations is a change in the physical execution of the skill from an
unskilled to a skilled performance. In contrast, mastery models begin with confident
statements in their ability to do the skill and expressing the ease in which they
perform the skill and always show a skilled execution. With respect to observing the
self as a model, one can view the self from a self-observation (basic video replay) or
self-modeling technique (edited video replay techniques; Dowrick, 1999). Research
concerning the varied comparisons of these different model types is reviewed next.
Coping and mastery models

With respect to peer coping and peer mastery comparisons, Weiss et al. (1998)
investigated the acquisition of swimming skills, fear and self-efficacy of 24 children
who were afraid of the water. Children either viewed a peer mastery model, a peer
coping model or no model. Their results indicated that both modeling conditions
seemed best for skill learning gains but the coping model influenced self-efficacy
more than the mastery model and control. Clark and Ste-Marie (2002) extended
Weiss et al.’s research and examined the influences of these model types on learning a
diving skill (a skill considered to be more fearful than that used by Weiss et al.), self-
efficacy and perceived difficulty. Retention scores showed that the peer mastery
model group performed the dive better than the peer coping and control groups,
though this only approached significance. Perceived task difficulty of those in the
peer coping model group decreased at retention, reinforcing the finding that a
mastery model may be better for physical performance changes, but coping models
provide more change to psychological factors.
Research with non-peer mastery and coping models has not shown the same
pattern of findings. In Kitsantas et al.’s (2000) research, a dart-throwing task was
used to investigate whether a non-peer mastery model or a non-peer coping model,
with or without social feedback, would benefit learning. While social feedback did
not have an effect on throwing behavior, those viewing the non-peer coping model
showed the greatest benefits in terms of throwing scores, followed by those viewing
the non-peer mastery model; the control group performed the worst. Moreover, the
non-peer coping model participants had better self-efficacy, intrinsic interest and
self-reactions than the non-peer mastery model group, which in turn did better than
the control group. Thus, in this investigation both the coping and mastery models
yielded physical performance behavior change and psychological benefits more than
the control, with coping models being superior (see McPherson & Bull, 2003, for
similar results).
Overall, there appears to be a distinction in the benefits obtained between peer
and non-peer models and whether they show mastery or coping characteristics. For
peer models, mastery and coping characteristics may affect physical and psycholo-
gical measures differentially, whereas non-peer models show a similar pattern for
both of these measures. No research to date, however, has combined these different
factors in a research design, so it is difficult to tease out why the pattern of findings
differs across the different model types.
Skilled, unskilled and learning models

Skilled versus unskilled models are also of interest when attempting to answer who is
the most beneficial model to observe. In Gould and Weiss’s (1981) investigation of
these model types, accompanied with positive, negative or irrelevant self-talk, they
found that viewing a peer unskilled model improved a leg exercise task significantly
more than viewing a non-peer skilled model. Similar results were found for self-
efficacy; peer unskilled performed better than non-peer skilled. A follow-up study
conducted by George, Feltz, and Chase (1992) removed the self-talk statements but
included a peer skilled and non-peer unskilled, resulting in four groups: peer skilled,
peer unskilled, non-peer skilled, non-peer unskilled. Their results showed that the
ability of the model was more important than model similarity. Specifically, peer
skilled and non-peer skilled held their leg up significantly longer than peer unskilled
and non-peer unskilled. However, the less skilled model increased self-efficacy for
both the peer and non-peer model types. A noted weakness of these studies is that a
retention test was not administered and therefore it is difficult to suggest that
increases in performance and self-efficacy were in fact retained. Furthermore, these
studies were using a task that was already within the learner’s repertoire and so its
applicability to skill learning is limited. Using more of a learning paradigm, Weir and
Leavitt (1990) investigated peer skilled and peer unskilled models, with and without
knowledge of results, on a dart-throwing task. No significant difference between the
two model types was evident. The low number of participants per group (n5) and
the lack of learning effects for the task, however, are weaknesses in this experiment,
indicating that continued research on this topic is needed.
Using learning models, McCullagh and Meyer (1997) compared a group that
received only knowledge of results (KR; i.e., no observation provided) to a peer
skilled model plus KR, and two peer learning model groups (peer learning model
plus KR and peer learning without KR) during the learning of a free weight squat.
For free weight squat form, all groups did better over time but the groups with
observation plus KR did better than the peer learning without KR. Therefore, the
addition of feedback seemed to contribute to the models’ effectiveness (see also Weir
& Leavitt, 1990). No differences were found for outcome scores. Adams (2001) was
also interested in the impact of observation on the learning of an overarm throw
when learners were able to view a peer learning model or a peer skilled model, or
received verbal instruction only. The results showed that overarm throwing force
improved across all groups. A problem for interpretation of the results, however, is
that no post hoc analysis was conducted. Thus, differences between groups were not
determined.
Meaney et al. (2005) also examined varied model types for learning scarf
juggling. Here, a non-peer skilled model giving verbal instructions (i.e., simulated
teacher) was accompanied by either a peer skilled, peer learning or non-peer learning
model. No significant differences were seen for outcome scores during acquisition,
retention or transfer, though it is possible that the initial modeling from the teacher
dampened the potential effects of the supplemental modeling. The number of
strategies used by participants during the transfer test indicated that the observation
of a peer model encouraged a greater number of strategies than observation of a non-
peer model. Also, a greater number of strategies were seen in those who viewed a
learning model. Overall then, skilled and learning models do not seem to
differentiate much on physical performance measures, but the provision of feedback
with unskilled and learning models is important. Learning models may also
encourage greater strategy use than skilled models.
Self-as-a-model
Of the research projects that have included comparisons of self-as-a-model
techniques, the majority of research is related to self-observation techniques, with
very few incorporating self-modeling. In relation to self-observation, six papers have
compared self-observation with other modeling interventions to investigate which
model type is best for motor acquisition. The limited neuroscientific research that
has examined influence of behavioral agency does suggest that observation of the self
may be a more powerful technique than observation of another because of the
heightened functional similarity with that of motor execution (Holmes & Calmels,
2008). Consequently, one would expect observation of the self to be a better model
than observation of another. While some studies have shown positive effects for the
self-observation video (e.g., Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007; Onate et al., 2005; Van
Wieringen, Emmen, Bootsma, Hoogesteger, & Whiting, 1989), one study has shown
it to be less effective (Zetou et al., 1999), and one reported no differences between
self-observation and other model types (Emmen, Wesseling, Bootsma, Whiting, &
Van Wieringen, 1985). This is similar to Rothstein and Arnold’s (1976) early review
on self-observation studies and speaks to the idea that certain features are important
when considering the effectiveness of self-observation.
Within these studies, one would think that there would be commonalities to help
explain who is a more effective model when comparing self-observation techniques to
other modeling techniques. However, no specific feature has surfaced. Although
Ashford et al. (2006) suggested that skill classification could moderate observation
benefits, a self-observation video was more effective than other modeling techniques
for discrete skills such as a jump landing task used in basketball (Onate et al., 2005)
and a volleyball serve (Van Wieringen et al., 1989) as well as continuous skills such as
swimming (e.g., Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007), so other variables should be considered.
As for research investigating self-modeling, some has found that self-modeling is
more effective than other model types for learning swimming skills (Clark & Ste-
Marie, 2007; Dowrick & Raeburn, 1995; Starek & McCullagh, 1999) while discrete
volleyball skills showed no learning differences from self versus other models
(Barzouka, Bergeles, & Hatziharistos, 2007). Such few studies, with a number of
different variables, make it difficult to draw any firm conclusions, highlighting the
need for continued investigation of advantages related to different model types.
In the reviewed articles, the most popular model used by researchers interested in
observation interventions was that of a skilled model, and most often a peer (see
Appendix 1, online supplementary data). The use of such a model is likely influenced
by Bandura’s (1997) notions of the importance of model similarity for the provision
of a strong cognitive representation of the skill. Of the papers implementing skilled
models, the majority are examined within a laboratory environment intending to
influence skill acquisition. That said, there is a clear need to investigate other model
types to gain a better understanding of the wide variety of applications of
observation in different situations.
What
Any understanding of the crucial elements that lead to learning and performance
advantages through the use of observation should include research that has
questioned ‘what is observed?’ in addition to ‘what instructional features can
accompany observation?’. Noteworthy is that these questions have currently only
been posed in the context of motor skill acquisition, with no inquiry into how they
may affect motor performance enhancement of skills already acquired. Conse-
quently, the next section will focus on the literature pertaining to these two questions
for motor learning.
What is observed?
In terms of this first question, Scully and Newell (1985) were the lead researchers
critical of the emphasis of research on how observation assisted learning and
performance. Instead, in their visual perception perspective of observational
learning, they argued that researchers needed to determine the essential information
to be conveyed to assist motor skill acquisition. Framed in Gibson’s (1950) direct
visual perception perspective and Newell’s (1985) viewpoint of the hierarchical
structure of coordination, control and skill, Scully and Newell contended that
observing relative motion (i.e., the motion of all the elements in the configuration
relative to each other) provided the necessary information to constrain the emergence
of the coordination pattern in the early stages of learning. Thus, observation
provides spatial and temporal information concerning the relationship of the limbs
and joints involved in the movement. Later in learning, once the coordination
pattern is being refined, observation may provide the required dynamic features to
assist the learning related to the scaling of the movement pattern.
A corollary to Scully and Newell’s perspective is that methods that reduce relative
motion information to its essential elements should enhance skill acquisition due to
the increased saliency of that information (Runenson, 1984). Point light displays
(PLD: a procedure that removes structural and contextual information by only
showing moving dots that reflect the motion of key joints of a moving body) is one
technique that has demonstrated that a reduced visual display that provides relative
motion is sufficient for people to determine varied movement patterns (Johansson,
1973, 1975). Thus, the question as to whether PLD is favorable over video or live
models is relevant when considering how to best constrain the information observed.
Scully and Carnegie (1998) compared the use of PLD and filmed models for learning
ballet sequences. In support of the propositions outlined, participants who observed
the PLD were not only able to learn the dance sequences effectively, showing the
utility of observing relative motion information, but they did better than those
participants who saw a video model.
Subsequent research has not supported the latter finding of PLD being superior
to video display, although some research has shown that it is as effective as video
display (Al-Abood, Davids, Bennett, Ashford, & Marin, 2001; Breslin, Hodges,
Williams, Curran, & Kremer, 2005; Munzert, Hohmann, & Hossner, 2010), even
when visual search patterns show that a more effective search strategy is used with
PLD (Horn et al., 2002). For example, Breslin et al. had participants learn a cricket
bowling task across 60 acquisition trials and examined the learning and retention
across four groups, three of which received modeled information either through PLD
or video. The results showed that observation groups gained learning and retention
benefits, as witnessed by better intra-limb coordination patterns, than the control
group, although no differences were seen between the two different displays of
modeled information.
In contrast to these findings, using such tasks as ballet skills (Rodrigues,
Ferracioli, & Denardi, 2010) and basketball dribbling (Romak & Briggs, 1995), other
research has shown PLD to be inferior to video display. Differences in relation to
task complexity and novelty of the movement pattern (e.g., Rodrigues et al., 2010)
have been introduced as possible reasons for these varied findings. Differences have
also emerged as a function of the age of the observer. Hayes, Hodges, Scott, Horn,
and Williams (2007) had children and adults learn a bowling task under point light
and video model conditions (Experiment 1). While the adults showed no differences
between the two observation techniques, children were poorer at reproducing the
action when it was observed via PLD compared to video. In Experiment 2, they
noted that with perceptual training, the children were able to benefit from PLD.
These equivocal findings suggest that if one has access to a video or live model (both
assumedly easier to obtain than the creation of a PLD), this modeled information
will provide sufficient information to enhance motor skill acquisition, and the effort
associated with creating a PLD is likely unnecessary.
The perceptual training benefits noted in Experiment 2 of Hayes, Hodges, Scott

et al.’s (2007) work should also be considered. These benefits highlight the
importance of visual gaze behaviors for optimizing information gained from modeled
information. Visual search research has clearly shown that expert athletes engage in
different visual search patterns that provide the relevant information necessary to
anticipate and execute movements and that perceptual training can enhance their
performance (see Williams & Ward’s 2003 review paper). An obvious corollary to
this is that individuals could also be trained to be better observers and more quickly
detect the necessary critical information. Unfortunately, however, to our knowledge
no other studies have specifically trained visual behaviors for relevant information
detection of modeled actions. Breslin et al.’s (2005) research does indicate that visual
search patterns change across observation sessions, and thus research of this nature
is of merit.
Although the research has not strongly supported the argument that reduced
contextual and structural information produces more salient relative motion
information for observers, stronger support has been found in terms of relative
motion information being important in a demonstration. One experimental
paradigm used to support this has involved comparing discovery learning methods
to the use of observation. For example, Al-Abood, Davids, Bennett, et al. (2001)
studied the acquisition of an underarm dart-throwing task. A group provided with a
demonstration yielded similar movement dynamics of the task more quickly than
those provided with only verbal descriptions or allowed to discover a throwing
method (see also Horn, Williams, Scott, & Hodges, 2005; Janelle, Champenoy,
Coombes, & Mousseau, 2003 for similar results with other tasks).
A problem with this research, however, is that there has been no manipulation of
the availability of relative motion. As noted by Hodges, Williams, Hayes, and Breslin
(2007), it is not possible to determine the necessity of relative motion information
without manipulating its availability across different experimental groups. To address
this, Hodges and colleagues (e.g., Breslin, Hodges, & Williams, 2009; Hayes, Hodges,
Huys et al., 2007; Hodges, Hayes, Breslin, & Williams, 2005) used PLD and
regulated the availability of relative motion information by removing key markers
from joints associated with the movement pattern. A series of experiments were
conducted, using a number of different tasks, such as a non-dominant kicking action
(Hodges et al., 2006; Hodges, Hayes, Eaves, Horn, & Williams, 2006), a crown green
bowling action (Hayes, Hodges, Huys, et al., 2007; Hayes, Hodges, Scott, Horn, &
Williams 2006; Hayes, Hodges, Scott et al., 2007) and cricket bowling (Breslin et al.,
2009; Breslin et al., 2005; Breslin, Hodges, Williams, Kremer, & Curran, 2006).
Assessments of visual gaze, varied coordination measures and movement outcome
were collected throughout these experiments and the reader is encouraged to read
Hodges et al. (2007) for a more detailed account of each experiment.
A few main points emerged from this extensive experimentation. One key point
was that relative motion information was not always required for observation to
generate improvements in coordination patterns. End-point effector information, for
example point light emission of only the toe in a kicking action (e.g., Hodges et al.,
2006) or only the wrist in a bowling action (Hayes, Hodges, Scott et al., 2007), was
sufficient to enable movement coordination benefits from observed information,
although movement outcome advantages were not evidenced. Furthermore, the
addition of goal-directed constraints, such as the requirement to kick the ball over a
barrier (Hodges et al., 2006), resulted in greater approximations to the observed

coordination patterns on the part of the learners than when the learner was just
attempting to reproduce the action. Removal of relative motion information,
however, for a more complex, full-body task, like that of cricket bowling, did result
in negative consequences (Breslin et al., 2005). Moreover, in a follow-up experiment
that involved fewer practice trials (Breslin et al., 2006) the benefits of inter-limb
coordination information via a PLD that was found in Breslin et al.’s (2005) research
were not replicated. Taken together, these findings clearly imply that task
characteristics (e.g., single limb versus multi-limb tasks), task constraints (e.g.,
goal-directed versus action-directed) and experience (e.g., number of practice trials)
all interact when using observation.
Variation in modeled information is not only through PLD and video. There have
also been comparisons between whether the model is on video, live, animated or
presented as a virtual model. The research at this level indicates that there is not
much difference between these displays. For example, no differences were seen
between a live model showing a handstand and one that was animated (Kampiotis &
Theodorakou, 2006), or between a live model and a virtual model for the acquisition
of flycasting (Kernodle, McKethan, & Rabinowitz, 2008). Similarly, no differences
were shown between live models and video models (Feltz et al., 1979).
What instructional features accompany observation?

The mere observation of a motor skill does not automatically lead to the learning of
that task. From Bandura’s (1986, 1997) perspective, for example, attention and
retention processes need to be engaged to form a cognitive representation that is later
used in behavior reproduction. Neuroscientific research has also shown that the
nature of instructions prior to observation modifies the neural structures employed
during action observation (e.g., Grezes et al., 1998). Consequently, research
considering the factors that can supplement the observation experience to optimize
its effectiveness is important.
Rosen et al. (2010) described a framework in which to understand how
instructional features can accompany observation. This framework consisted of
five categories that were embedded in three different levels of decision points. The
first level concerned whether the instructional feature involved providing the learner
with information (passive feature) versus giving the learner an activity to supplement
the observation (active feature). Rosen et al. only applied the second level to the
active category and it involved whether the activity was to be done before, during or
after the demonstration. We would argue, however, that this level could also be
applied to the passive category. For example, a therapist could video a client and
provide information to that client while the video is being watched, thus fitting with
the passive category situated in the ‘during’ phase of observation. Finally, the third
level of categorization in Rosen et al.’s framework only applied to those activities that
were provided after observation. Within this level, the distinction was whether the
activity was retrospective in nature and encouraged retention of the observed
information versus being prospective such that it encouraged transfer to the next
attempts at the task. In the remainder of this section, research that has examined the
influence of instructional features accompanying observation will be considered
within Rosen et al.’s framework.
Both passive and active categories of instructional features with observation have
been manipulated in the research. This has been done separately in some research
and in a combined fashion in others, always with the purpose of evaluating whether
these additional features enhance motor skill instruction. In terms of the passive
category, the dominant design has been to add verbal cues to the modeled
information. Verbal cues are described as succinct statements, typically of just one
or two words, that are used to direct a learner’s attention to relevant features of a
skill or to trigger key movement pattern elements of a motor skill (Landin, 1994). In
the context of the use of observation, the verbal cues have been used for the former
function with the logic that there is often too much information to attend to in the
demonstration and the observer needs guidance to detect the relevant features in the
display.
Much of this research has shown that the benefits obtained from verbal cues
depend on a variety of factors, such as age and task characteristics. For example,
verbal cues augmented observation benefits for children younger than 6 years of age,
but had no effect for children between 7 and 9 years old when they were learning a
motor sequencing task (Wiess, 1983; see also Kowalski & Sherrill, 1992; Meaney,
1994). However, Wiese-Bjornstal and Weiss (1992) showed that children between 7
and 9 years old showed dramatic changes in some kinematic variables related to an
underhand softball pitch once verbal cues were added to the observation interven-
tion, highlighting that task characteristics may interact with age when evaluating
whether to add verbal cues. In addition, verbal cueing seems to influence qualitative
aspects of performance as compared to quantitative aspects (McCullagh, Stiehl, &
Weiss, 1990; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Rose, 1992).
Sawada, Mori, and Ishii (2002) also used verbal information coupled with
observation for younger and older children learning a five-step dance sequence, but
contrasted a group that received the dance term for the different movements in the
sequence with a group who received a metaphorical cue (e.g., open like a flower).
Both age groups were shown to benefit from the coupling of the metaphorical
information, but not from the dance terminology, suggesting that the content of the
verbal cueing provided is an important consideration. Another possible factor,
however, is that Sawada et al. presented the verbal information before the
demonstration, whereas the research by Weiss, McCullagh and colleagues (e.g.,
McCullagh et al., 1990; Weiss et al., 1992) used concurrent verbal cueing. Ste-Marie,
Clark, and Latimer (2002) have proposed that the limited attention processing
capacity of children can interfere with them using concurrent verbal cueing
information effectively and that such information should be presented prior to or
after a demonstration, suggesting that the timing of the verbal cueing is a variable
that needs to be more fully understood.
Mixed results have also been obtained for adults who received verbal cues in
conjunction with a demonstration. Verbal cues aided adults in the acquisition of
scarf juggling (Meaney, 1994), but did not alter the learning of a soccer pass (Janelle
et al., 2003). Janelle et al. also added a novel cueing technique, that of visual cueing.
For this, directional arrows were superimposed on the video to point at key features
of interest in the soccer pass. Those participants who received the visual and verbal
cueing techniques showed less error and had more appropriate form than all other
groups. Thus, verbal cueing reinforced with visual highlights appears to be an
effective technique to enhance the use of observation. The addition of eye-movement
recording to tap into visual search patterns would have been useful in this
experimentation to determine whether these benefits occurred due to increased
focus on the relevant cues in the display. In terms of verbal instruction (full sentences
of information), it has been shown that instruction enhances the learning as
compared to being provided with the modeling experience alone (Kampiotis &
Theodorakou, 2006), although this feature has not been investigated at length.
Coming from a different perspective, Al-Abood, Bennett, Hernandez, Ashford,
and Davids (2002) manipulated the type of verbal instructions provided before the
video was presented (passive/before). One group was encouraged to observe
the movement effects of a basketball shot, whereas the other group was told to
pay more attention to the movement dynamics. Their results showed that the
movement effects group’s outcome scores were better than those of the movement
dynamics group. Moreover, visual search data showed that the movement effects
group spent less time examining movement dynamics than did the movement
dynamics group. The authors used this data as support for the idea that by focusing
on movement effects, that group was able to free up the movement dynamics required
and allowed the basketball shot to self-organize. Problematic with this interpretation,
however, is the lack of data concerning the movement dynamics adopted by the two
groups. Moreover, despite the instructions, the movement effects group still spent a
greater proportion of their time watching movement dynamic information in the
visual display (7580%) rather than movement effect information (2025%), thus it is
difficult to eliminate the possibility that movement dynamic information was
contributing to the benefits attained from observation. Regardless, the combined
data do show that cueing through verbal or visual means can influence observation
benefits positively in adults.
The active category for instructional features is represented mostly by the
addition of different verbal rehearsal strategies, such as symbolic coding (Bandura &
Jeffery, 1973), imagery (e.g., Fery & Morizot, 2000; Gray, 1990; Gray & Fernandez,
1989; Ram, Riggs, Skaling, Landers, & McCullagh, 2007) and repetition of
movement names (Kowalski & Sherrill, 1992; McCullagh et al., 1990; Weiss, 1983;
Weiss et al., 1992; Weiss & Klint, 1987) that occur after the modeled information is
provided (active/after). In line with social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), these
strategies focus more on the retention process associated with observation by
promoting increased information processing or self-regulatory processing of the
observed information. Similar to the verbal cueing and observation literature,
findings differ across the different experiments with factors such as age, stage of
learning and task characteristics being forwarded as explanatory variables for the
incongruences. For example, adults have profited from such strategies when learning
hand movement sequences (Bandura & Jeffery, 1973), but not scarf juggling
(Meaney, 1994). Similarly, some studies show children benefiting from rehearsal
strategies regardless of age (Weiss & Klint, 1987), or between the ages of 7 and 9
years (Kowalski & Sherrill, 1992), with others showing only younger children (57
years) benefiting and not older (810 years) (Weiss et al., 1992), and yet others
showing no benefits for children at any age (McCullagh et al., 1990).
Moving into the research that has incorporated other mental skills, this has
focused mainly on imagery coupled with observation. One approach in which
imagery and observation have been combined is visual motor behavioral rehearsal
(VMBR; Suinn, 1984). Hall and Erffmeyer (1983) in their VMBR group had subjects
first relax, then view a video of a female basketball player successfully executing 10
foul shots with perfect form before they imaged and then performed the task. A
second group did not receive the video but did image, and showed poorer free
throwing performance than the VMBR group. Further studies that have included a
video with VMBR (Gray, 1990; Gray & Fernandez, 1989) have also shown that the
addition of observation assisted in various aspects of performance, suggesting that
visual information supported by imagery rehearsal (and vice versa) can enhance
learning (see also Onestak, 1997).
Finally, the last aspect related to instructional features concerns an active/before
category that implemented a training protocol. Perceptual training provided before
the use of PLD modeled information was implemented by Hayes, Hodges, Scott et
al. (2007) with children learning a bowling task. This research showed that children
were able to gain information from PLD better as a result of learning how to identify
different biological motion patterns viewed on a computer screen.
Upon examination of these two factors for the compilation of articles reviewed, it
is apparent that most researchers use full body video displays (approximately 80%),
followed by a full body live model (15%), with none of the experimenters opting to
use PLD. In terms of instructional features, less than 20% added a component to the
modeled information. When a feature was added it was typically passive, concurrent
information that directed attention to relevant cues in the demonstration. One study
also included an active verbal rehearsal strategy in addition to the passive
information. In this regard, there is the implication that researchers interested in
the use of observation perhaps do not capitalize on potential instructional features
that can complement observation experiences.
When
Observation can be provided before a skill is practiced, interspersed throughout
practice trials, and/or provided after practice is complete. As can be noted in
Appendix 1 (online supplementary data), the majority of studies (approximately
60%) have employed a combination of presenting observation both before and
during physical practice. The next largest representation was providing observational
learning before physical practice (almost 35%) with fewer studies providing it only
during physical practice, or following physical practice (remaining 5%).
In terms of directly manipulating when observation is provided, only two studies
were found that incorporated ecologically valid tasks. Anderson, Gebhart, Pease,
and Rupnow (1983) had 7- and 9-year old children learning a ball-striking task,
whereas Weeks and Anderson (2000) had adults learning a volleyball serve. The basic
experimental conditions for both studies involved groups viewing the model either
before, after or interspersed throughout practice trials. The results showed that the
children were not affected by the temporal placement of the modeling experience, but
that the modeling groups performed better than the control. For the adults, service
form and outcome were assessed during acquisition, immediate and delayed
retention. Multiple pre-practice demonstrations by the model generated better initial
form, although there were no significant group differences on either of the retention
tests for either dependent measure. A noted weakness in this research was the lack of
a control group.
Overall, the most common approach in research studies is to have the model
demonstrate both before and during physical practice, and given the positive effects
of observation, this appears to be effective. Is it the optimal approach? At this point
we really do not know because of the paucity of research examining ‘when’ a model
should demonstrate.
How
Certainly, it may be possible to increase the effectiveness of one’s observation use
through manipulation of several model presentation characteristics such as the angle
at which the model is viewed, the speed of video demonstration and the frequency of
model presentation. Despite this, it appears that such characteristics have not been
thoroughly examined. This is surprising given the importance placed on effective
implementation of psychological skills (e.g., Gill & Williams, 2008). It is not enough
to simply be using psychological skills; one must use such skills in an effective
manner in order to maximize learning and/or performance gains. In the remainder of

this section, we highlight certain presentation features that may be of importance
and review the research to date on each.
Angle at which a model is viewed

When a learner is viewing a model, from which angle should he or she watch? This is
not a new question being asked in the modeling literature (i.e., Fleishman & Gagné,
1954), but the research is limited. Researchers have examined three different viewing
angles. The objective view involves placing the learner in front of the model (i.e.,
facing the model while the model faces the learner). The subjective view requires the
learner to be placed behind the model performing the skill to be learned. Lastly,
the looking glass view requires the model and learner to be facing each other (as in
the objective view), but the model presents a mirrored image of the skill to be
learned, relative to the required limb movements (e.g., for a movement sequence
where the right arm is abducted simultaneously, the looking glass model would
abduct the left arm instead, thus simulating one looking into a mirror).
It has been suggested by some researchers (i.e., Ishikura & Inomata, 1995) that,
relative to the subjective view, the additional cognitive processing required in the
objective and looking glass model view conditions may force a learner to process
movements of a skill at a ‘deeper’ cognitive level because of the reversal processing
needed to flip the visual information, thus leading to greater skill learning due to the
development of a more robust memory representation. A second hypothesis has
suggested that learners may move through the acquisition phase of skill learning at a
faster rate when using a subjective model view (e.g., Ishikura & Inomata, 1998) as
reversal processing strategies are not required, but this faster proficiency may lead to
a weaker memory representation of the skill to be learned. Taken collectively, these
two hypotheses suggest that the objective and looking glass model views may lead to
greater learning but will require more time to move a learner through the acquisition
phase, while the subjective view will allow a learner to demonstrate skill proficiency
sooner, possibly at the cost of a weaker memory representation of the skill being
developed.
Ishikura and Inomata (1995) examined the effect of model viewing angle in a
sample of 30 undergraduate students who learned a seven-step movement sequence
under one of three conditions: (1) an objective model view group; (2) a looking glass
model view group; and (3) a subjective model view group. Results indicated that the
subjective model view group acquired the movement sequence the fastest and the
objective model view group the slowest; however, all three experimental groups
demonstrated similar retention test performance. These results suggest that, from a
practical perspective, it may be more time-efficient to have learners view modeled
skills from a subjective view. Additional support for the faster acquisition rates
following subjective model viewing is provided by Roshal (1961) who employed a
knot-tying task. However, in a replication of the Roshal experiment, Sambrook
(1998) found no difference in the rate of acquisition between subjective and objective
model view groups. At this time, the conclusion that a subjective model view is more
effective than objective or looking glass model views may be somewhat premature,
especially given the sparse number of experiments examining the influence of model
viewing angle on acquisition and learning.
Speed of video demonstration

Despite the ever-increasing popularity of the use of slow motion video in sport (e.g.,
Goldlust, 1987), scientifically rigorous examinations of the influence of video speed
on observation effects are scant and appear to be strongly linked to the movement
characteristic(s) being examined. For example, Scully and Carnegie (1998) compared
the effects of slow motion speed, real time speed and still picture modeling
conditions on novices’ performance of a ballet jumping skill. Results of biomecha-
nical analyses indicated that the slow motion video group performed significantly
better than the other groups in terms of foot placement upon landing, movement
form and relative timing. However, the slow motion video group also performed
more poorly than the other groups relative to absolute timing and force production.
Scully and Carnegie hypothesized that slow motion modeling may be beneficial for
aspects of skill performance related to coordination and relative timing but may be
detrimental to aspects related to the manipulation of control variables required to
produce variations of skill performance (e.g., absolute timing/speed of movement,
force production).
This suggestion is supported by results of earlier research (Williams, 1989) which
found that the use of slow motion modeling of an overhand throwing motion assisted
with acquisition of the correct relative timing of the throw, but did not influence limb
displacement. More recent research (i.e., Al-Abood, Davids, Bennett, et al., 2001),
however, has found contradictory results, indicating that slow motion video
modeling appeared to impede spatial and temporal pattern recognition in limb
movement coordination compared to a real time speed video modeling condition.
In reviewing the few studies examining model demonstration speed, it should be
noted that tasks of varying complexities have been examined. For example, the ballet
jumping skill of Scully and Carnegie (1998) had high spatial and temporal dependency
between several movement components as well as the need to constrain all of the limbs,
each in a precise manner (i.e., high skill complexity). Conversely, spatial and temporal
dependency were less crucial to task success in Al-Abood, Davids, Bennett, et al.’s
(2001) three-meter underhand dart throw for accuracy. That task was comprised of
relatively few movement components, and less limbs had to be constrained in a precise
way. Although speculative, it is possible that with increased complexity of the
movement, slow motion assists the learning of the greater spatial/temporal demands.
Frequency of model presentation

The number of times a demonstration is provided, much like viewing angle and
speed, has been relatively under-researched in the literature. Of the research
investigating this characteristic, Sidaway and Hand (1993) hypothesized that since
viewing a correct model still requires a learner to employ error detection and
correction strategies, then high frequencies of model viewing relative to the number
of the practice trials should not negatively impact learning. Using a four-group
experimental design, Sidaway and Hand examined whether the frequency of model
presentation would influence retention and transfer test performance of a golf ball
hitting task. The 100% group viewed a correct model before each physical practice
trial, the 20% group viewed a correct model once in every five physical practice trials,
the 10% group viewed a correct model once in every 10 physical practice trials and
the control condition received only initial instruction. Results indicated that all
groups improved performance significantly over the three practice days. During
retention, however, the 100% group performed significantly better than all other
groups, and demonstrated a trend towards superior performance during the transfer
test.
These results show very good support for the effectiveness of frequent model
presentation in skill learning situations. However, with regards to effective and
efficient instructional practices, coaches and other movement practitioners would
benefit from a deeper understanding of the doseresponse relationship between
model viewing frequency and performance or learning effects. Whereas Sidaway and
Hand (1993) chose to use pre-determined model presentation frequencies for all of
their experimental groups (i.e., 100%, 20% and 10% of physical practice trials),
Wrisberg and Pein (2002) allowed one of their three learner groups to dictate how
often they viewed a correct model during the acquisition phase for the long serve in
badminton. Over three days of practice, one group viewed correct model video
performance before each physical practice trial, a second group was only shown
correct model video performance when they explicitly asked to view it (self-control
group), and a third group served as a no-model control group (only physical
practice). For both acquisition and retention form scores, the 100% and self-control
groups performed significantly better than the control group, but interestingly did
not differ from each other.
The results of Wrisberg and Pein (2002) suggest that 100% model presentation
frequency may not be needed to maximize performance and/or learning gains
derived from the use of observational learning. In fact, the researchers reported that
participants in the self-controlled model view condition only requested to view the
correct model during 9.8% of their practice trials, and that most view requests (82%)
occurred during the first half of the trials on the first practice day. This finding has
recently been replicated by Wulf et al. (2005), who reported that their sample
requested to view the correct model during only 5.8% of their practice trials. This
notion of allowing learners to self-select when they view a correct model is
promising, particularly from an applied perspective, where movement practitioners
are constantly seeking to streamline their practice structure in order to maximize

efficiency without sacrificing effectiveness. As noted for model viewing angle and
speed, however, it is difficult to offer conclusive practical guidelines at this point,
given the sparse amount of research examining model presentation frequency.
An applied model for the use of observation

The empirical research reviewed provides both insight and direction in terms of
understanding the many factors that must be considered when wanting to use
observation interventions effectively. The goal of this section is to present an applied
model that can guide practitioners in the use of observation. Given the limitations in
the length of the present review, we provide a general overview of the framework in
Figure 1 and subsequently describe briefly the basic sequence a practitioner can take
to understand how to use this framework.
At the forefront of the model are observer and task characteristics. These two
factors emerged clearly as moderator variables that would influence the implementa-
tion of an observation intervention. Indeed, in an early review of the literature,
McCullagh, Weiss, and Ross (1989) proposed a model that included ‘the observer’ as
a key factor to be considered in the modeling process, and highlighted that age, and
consequent cognitive, verbal and motor development as well as motivational
orientation, were characteristics of potential importance. Ashford et al.’s (2007)
meta-analysis also pointed to the importance of developmental effects in influencing
Figure 1. An applied model for the use of observation.

observation benefits. Children and adults benefited differently dependent upon

whether the measures considered movement dynamics (i.e., the form of the
movement) or movement outcomes (e.g., the accuracy of the movement). Adults
showed more gains for movement dynamics whereas children showed more for
movement outcome.
Examining the research used in this review, a number of studies had a clear focus
on the influence of observer characteristics. The observer characteristic most
frequently studied was age. Weiss and colleagues’ work (McCullagh et al., 1990;
Weiss, 1983; Weiss & Klint, 1987; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Weise-Bjornstal, 1993) was
consistent in showing that younger children (57 years old) benefited from verbal
cueing and verbal rehearsal strategies as compared to older children (89 years old).
Thus, providing only visual demonstrations was not sufficient for the younger
children; they needed a model that also verbalized the task components to help them
remember what to do during execution (see Meaney, 1994, for similar results).
Sawada et al. (2002), however, have shown that older children can benefit from verbal
cuing the same as younger children, but only when it is metaphorical cuing,
suggesting that the content of verbal cues is important (see also Bouffard & Dunn,
1993).
Cadopi, Chatillon, and Baldy (1995) also examined the effect of age with
observation on varied factors, such as the number of demonstrations requested,
coding strategies and performance of 8- and 11-year-olds learning a ballet dance
sequence. There were no differences in number of demonstrations requested by 8- or
11-year-olds. When children were asked how they remembered the movements, there
was an interaction with age. Younger children reported using more visual coding,
whereas older children reported using more verbal coding. These results are in line
with the verbal advantages shown by older children (e.g., Bouffard & Dunn, 1993).
While there have been studies that include both male and female participants,
many do not use gender as a variable in their analyses (Cadopi et al., 1995; Meaney,
1994; Weiss, 1983). Those that have compared males’ and females’ responses to
observation in more traditional formats involving a teacherstudent relationship
typically report no gender differences (e.g., Sawada et al., 2002), while some studies
have found gender differences (e.g., Weiss & Klint, 1987). In contrast to these
traditional formats, gender differences have been noted within dyadic learning. In a
series of studies, d’Arripe-Longueville and colleagues (d’Arripe-Longueville, Fleura
Winnykamen, 1995; d’Arripe-Longueville, Gernigon, Huet, Cadopi, & Winnyka-
men, 2002; d’Arripe-Longueville, Gernigon, Huet, Winnykamen, & Cadopi, 2002;
Legrain, d’Arripe-Longueville, & Gernigon, 2003) examined males’ and females’
learning in dyad situations. Legrain et al. (2003) reported that males benefited more
from peer tutoring than females and that skill level of the tutor interacted with
gender; males benefited more than females when the tutor was skilled, yet females
benefited more when tutors were at the novice level (d’Arripe-Longueville, Gernigon,
Huet, Cadopi &Winnykamen, 2002; d’Arripe-Longueville, Gernigon, Huet, Winny-
kamen, & Cadopi, 2002). Differences in psychological outcomes were also reported,
with females reporting higher task involvement as compared to the higher ego
involvement measured for the males (d’Arripe-Longueville, Gernigon, Huet, Cadopi,
& Winnykamen, 2002). These differences between dyad learning and more
traditional techniques of observation suggest that different dynamics occur in
different learning settings and more attention to gender differences in the use of
observation is necessary.
Taken as a whole, the studies examining age differences in modeled observation in
general produce fairly clear age effects. Younger children appear to need some sort of
verbal information or rehearsal beyond mere visual demonstrations for enhanced
performance. Older children use their language advantage for developing strategies,
whereas younger children may rely more on visual coding of information. Noted,
however, is that some of these studies that examined different aged children picked
age groups without clear conceptual reasons for the particular ages, whereas others
based their samples on previous research or conceptual guidelines that would help to
explain the differences. Research that has examined possible male and female
differences suggests that different observation experiences may produce varied
results, highlighting the importance of gaining a better understanding of interactions
between observer and model.
Unlike the fairly substantial research that has examined observer characteristics,
few if any studies had the influences of task characteristics as a main research
question. Rather, task characteristics were raised more as explanatory features of
discrepant findings. An exception to this is the work by Hodges, Williams, and
colleagues (e.g., Hayes, Hodges, Huys, et al., 2007; Hodges et al., 2005; Horn et al.,
2005). Hodges et al. (2007) noted in their review paper, which questioned what was
modeled during observational learning, that task complexity and novelty affected
whether observation of relative motion information or end point effector informa-
tion was most pertinent. For a more complex, whole body task, for example, relative
motion information may be necessary, but end point effector information can be
sufficient for a single limb task. Ashford et al.’s (2006) meta-analysis also points to
the importance of task characteristics in terms of observation benefits. Serial tasks
benefited more than continuous tasks, with discrete tasks showing even fewer
benefits than continuous ones.
Given these influencing factors of observer and task characteristics, it is
important for the practitioner to first gain a clear understanding of the observer
and the task. At the second level of the applied model, we propose that the
practitioner should then consider the environment in which the observer is situated,
and the functions they anticipate the use of observation will serve. Upon acquiring a
full appreciation of these four components (observer/task/where/why), the practi-
tioner can better consider the choices involved in manipulating the characteristics
concerned with the Who, What, When, and How features of the applied model.
Next we provide two example scenarios of observation interventions, outlining
the observer/task characteristics, where and why the intervention is being used and
how the intervention may unfold given the situation provided. Although it is obvious
that we cannot step through all the permutations and combinations, we hope it is
clear that the use of observation is proposed as an effective technique for varied
learners/performers (e.g., novice, intermediate or advanced) that have different
objectives related to the use of observation (e.g., skill/strategy/performance
functions) in a variety of settings (e.g., sport club/physical education class/
competition/rehabilitation session) and that the implementation of the observation
intervention is adjusted to account for the specific scenario. First, consider the
example of a novice dancer, Jessica, who is 6 years old and is learning a dance
sequence within a dance class. In this situation, it is likely that she would benefit from
a live (or videoed), skilled model of a teacher who provides metaphors for the
movements during the dance sessions. It may be best for the teacher to provide an
objective view when modeling the dance and to perform the dance in real time. The
outcome focus in this situation is on skill learning.
A different scenario, however, would be an advanced dancer (Robert) preparing
for a recital. He wants to show strong execution, build confidence and develop
strategies for his performance. In this situation, he would likely benefit more from a
self-modeling video that the dancer would be provided with in the days leading up to
the recital. The dancer would self-control the frequency and the speed of the video.
He may use the video to assist with other strategies that can be used to enhance his
dance execution at the recital, such as positive self-talk in key components of the
dance or imaging the perfect execution seen on video while performing. Under this
scenario, the use of observation could assist with the skill function (e.g., viewing the
technical execution of the dance), strategy function (e.g., learning to use varied
strategies in performance) and the performance function (e.g., increasing self-efficacy
for performing in recital).
Future research directions

Although ideas for future research have been mentioned throughout the review,
additional ideas are presented here. An examination of Appendix 1 (see online
supplementary data) clearly shows that the empirical research on the use of
observation has overwhelmingly been concerned with the contributions of a mastery
model for the skill function in motor skill acquisition, examined mainly within
laboratory settings. Given this limited focus on the use of observation for motor skill
learning and performance, it is easy to generate recommendations for future research.
Overall, observation produces desired outcomes related to each of the three
functions. However, a major limitation is that we do not know much about how to
design observational experiences that target the strategy or performance functions,
or what it is, specifically, that helps to create a change in self-efficacy or anxiety
versus skill or strategy learning. Consideration toward the design of modeling
experiences, particularly with respect to psychological outcomes that fall within the
performance function, is strongly recommended. Factors such as modelobserver
similarity and the use of coping models may play a key role. There may be other
factors, such as attentional focus and context provided, to observation experiences
that are also important for specific psychological and self-regulatory variables. Most
recently, Hancock et al.’s work (2011) has shown that coaches and officials of sport
use observation in their sport roles as well. Broadening observation research to
include other sport roles is a good direction to take. Given the unique demands of
coaching and officiating, examining functions for these groups can be an area for
further descriptive and intervention research.
The limited work in the rehabilitation and sport competition contexts is a loud
call for more research in these settings. Based on the limited studies in these two
contexts, there is a strong suggestion that the mastery model may not be the best to
employ. Rather, coping models may capture more of the skill and performance
functions that injured populations may want to address. Self-as-a-model techniques
may also be effective in the rehabilitation setting, much like that seen in the
competitive environment, given their apparent influence on self-efficacy and other

self-regulatory processes.
We also advocate for additional examinations of the ‘How’ factors in the use of
observation, such as the angle of viewing the model, manipulation of speed on video
and the control over the observational viewing. In particular, more research is needed
that incorporates employing tasks of varying complexity and varying degrees of
participant skill level relative to the task and those in which the sample reports a
reasonable degree of motivation regarding their desire to learn the task.
Recommendations are also forwarded in terms of the methodology used in future
observation intervention research, given weaknesses that were noted in the research
reviewed. Firstly, the value of using control groups that do not receive the
observation intervention is important, as well as including groups that allow one
to control for total practice time. Secondly, relevant information concerning how the
observation was delivered during the protocol (e.g., frequency, angle of viewing,
speed manipulation) should be communicated to enable a full appreciation of the
intervention manipulations employed. Thirdly, despite other authors of reviews

stating this more than a decade ago (e.g., McCullagh & Weiss, 2001), researchers
need to include retention and/or transfer tests. These tests are a necessary component
in motor learning and performance research (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992) to capture the
relative permanence and adaptability of the motor skills tested.
Another noted factor is that although neuroscientific measures such as
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS; e.g., Clark et al., 2003), functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI; e.g., Macuga & Frey, 2011) and positron emission
topography (PET; e.g., Grezes et al., 1998), to name a few, have been used to examine
the neural overlap between observation and action execution, none of these studies
incorporates interventions (see Holmes & Calmels, 2008, for a review). Employing
such methods would certainly be advantageous for our further understanding of the
neural mechanisms of observation for learning and performance. Similarly, visual
search measures have been used minimally in observation intervention experimenta-
tion. Williams and Ward’s (2003) review paper noted that perceptual training studies
that involved explicit instruction on the most informative areas on which to focus led
to improvements in perceptual anticipation. Research that couples similar visual
search data with instructions related to relevant information on which to focus
during observation of a model would serve to inform us on the importance of added
instructional features (see Al-Abood et al., 2002, for an example of this). In addition,
Causer, Holmes, and Williams (2011) recently showed that a training program, which
included video self-observation, generated more effective gaze behaviors in shotgun
shooters, as well as shooting performance. Their training program, however, involved
a number of other training methods, and thus contributions specific to the video
feedback cannot be specified. Further research in this vein is also recommended.
A final research design recommendation concerns the reliance on the laboratory
setting used in observation research to date. While laboratory settings are useful for
eliminating confounds and enabling control, there are inherent weaknesses. For
example, participants are typically given the task to learn, and thus may not be very
interested in learning the task being examined, resulting in lower motivation levels.
Indeed, Bandura (1969) has noted that when motivation to learn is low, the effects of
practice on skill acquisition and learning will likely be diminished. In addition, it is
likely that other contextual factors influence the benefits of an observation
intervention. Hence, there is a need for transference of the research into applied
settings, such as the physical education classroom, sport club facility or rehabilitation
program. Research that integrates observation interventions with ecologically valid
tasks and settings will only help to expand our knowledge on the factors that
influence its success. Such findings would serve to further develop the proposed
applied model for the use of observation, a model that can be used by educators,
coaches, therapists and any individual seeking to advance motor skill learning or
performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to recognize the contributions of Elizabeth Nolan, for assisting with
database searches, and Kelly Vertes who was instrumental in assisting with the references,
Figure 1, and the Appendix.
Note
The Appendix is available as online supplementary data for this article, see http://dx.doi.org/
10.1080/1750984X.2012.665076
References
Adams, D. (2001). The relative effectiveness of three instructional strategies on the learning of
an overarm throw for force. Physical Educator, 58, 6777.
Al-Abood, S.A., Bennett, S.J., Hernandez, F.M., Ashford, D., & Davids, K. (2002). Effect of
verbal instructions and image size on visual search strategies in basketball free throw
shooting. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 271278.
Al-Abood, S., Davids, K., & Bennett, S. (2001). Specificity of task constraints and effects of
visual demonstrations and verbal instructions in directing learners’ search during skill
acquisition. Journal of Motor Behavior, 33, 295305.
Al-Abood, S.A., Davids, K., Bennett, S.J., Ashford, D., & Marin, M.M. (2001). Effects of
manipulating relative and absolute motion information during observational learning of an
aiming task. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 507520.
Anderson, D., Gebhart, J., Pease, D., & Rupnow, A. (1983). Effects of age, sex, and placement
of a model on children’s performance on a ball-striking task. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 57,
11871190.
Atienza, F., Balaguer, I., & Garcia-Merita, M. (1998). Video modeling and imaging training
on performance of tennis service of 9-to 12-year-old children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 87,
519529.
Austin, S., & Miller, L. (1992). An empirical study of the Sybervision golf videotape.
Perceptual & Motor Skills, 47, 875881.
Ashford, D., Bennett, S.J., & Davids, K. (2006). Observational modeling effects for movement
dynamics and movement outcome measures across differing task constraints: A meta-
analysis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 38, 185205.
Ashford, D., Davids, K., & Bennett, S.J. (2007). Developmental effects influencing observa-
tional modeling: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 547558.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. Oxford, UK: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston.
Bandura, A.J. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A.J. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bandura, A., & Jeffery, R.W. (1973). Role of symbolic coding and rehearsal processes in
observational learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 122130.
Barzouka, K., Bergeles, N., & Hatziharistos, D. (2007). Effect of simultaneous model
observation and self-modeling of volleyball skill acquisition. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 104,
3242.
Baudry, L., Leroy, D., & Chollet, D. (2006). The effect of combined self- and expert-modeling
on the performance of the double leg circle on the pommel horse. Journal of Sports Sciences,
24, 10551063.
Bertram, C.P., Marteniuk, R.G., & Guadagnoli, M.A. (2007). On the use and misuse of video
analysis. Annual Review of Golf Coaching, 3746.
Beveridge Mackie, J. (2011). Modern journalism: A handbook of instruction and counsel for the
young journalist. Charleston, SC: Nabu Press.
Bouchard, L., & Singer, R. (1998). Effects of the five-step strategy with videotape modeling on
performance of the tennis serve. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 86, 739746.
Bouffard, M., & Dunn, J. (1993). Children’s self-regulated learning of movement sequences.
Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 64, 393403.
Breslin, G., Hodges, N.J., & Williams, A.M. (2009). Effect of information load and time on
observational learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 80, 480490.
Breslin, G., Hodges, N.J., Williams, A.M., Curran, W., & Kremer, J. (2005). Modeling relative
motion to facilitate intra-limb coordination. Human Movement Science, 24, 446463.
Breslin, G., Hodges, N.J., Williams, A.M., Kremer, J., & Curran, W. (2006). A comparison of
intra- and inter-limb relative motion information in modeling a novel motor skill. Human
Movement Science, 25, 753766.
Cadopi, M., Chatillon, J.F., & Baldy, R. (1995). Representation and performance: Reproduc-
tion of form and quality of movement in dance by eight- and 11-year-old novices. British
Journal of Psychology, 86, 217225.
Calmels, C., Hars, M., Jerry, G., & Stamm, C.J. (2010). Nonlinear EEG synchronization
during observation: Effects of instructions and expertise. Psychophysiology, 47, 799808.
Catina, P. (2009). Psychological modeling and adaptations in cognitive representations with
increased resistance during motor skill acquisition. Journal of Strength & Conditioning
Research, 23, 668676.
Causer, J., Holmes, P.S., & Williams, A.M. (2011). Quiet eye training in a visuomotor control
task. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43, 10421049. doi: 10.1249/
MSS.0b013e3182035de6
Clark, S.E., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2002). Peer mastery versus peer coping models: Model type
has differential effects on psychological and physical performance measures. Journal of
Human Movement Studies, 43, 179196.
Clark, S.E., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2007). The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on
children’s self-regulation of learning and swimming performance. Journal of Sports Sciences,
25, 577586.
Clark, S.E., Trembley, F., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2003). Differential modulation of corticospinal
excitability during observation, mental imagery and imitation of hand actions.
Neuropsychologia, 42I, 105112.
Cumming, J., Clark, S.E., Ste-Marie, D.M., McCullagh, P., & Hall, C. (2005). The functions of
observational learning questionnaire (FOLQ). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6,
517537.
d’Arripe-Longueville, F., Fleurance, P., & Winnykamen, F. (1995). Effects of the degree of
competence symmetry asymmetry in the acquisition of a motor skill in a dyad. Journal of
d’Arripe-Longueville, F., Gernigon, C., Huet, M., Cadopi, M., & Winnykamen, F. (2002).
Peer tutoring in a physical education setting: Influence of tutor skill level on novice learners’
motivation and performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 22, 105123.
d’Arripe-Longueville, F., Gernigon, C., Huet, M., Winnykamen, F., & Cadopi, M. (2002).
Peer-assisted learning in the physical activity domain: Dyad type and gender differences.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 219238.
Del Rey, P. (1971). The effects of video-taped feedback on form, accuracy, and latency in an
open and closed environment. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3, 281287.
di Pellegrino, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (1992). Understanding
motor events: A neurophysiological study. Experimental Brain Research, 91, 176180.
Dowrick, P.W. (1999). A review of self-modeling and related interventions. Applied and
Preventative Psychology, 8, 2329.
Dowrick, P.W., & Dove, C. (1980). The use of self-modeling to improve the swimming
performance of spina bifida children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 5156.
Dowrick, P.W., & Raeburn, J.M. (1995). Self-modeling: Rapid skill training for children with
physical disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 7, 2537.
Drummond, J., & Gangstead, S. (1996). The effects of experience on analytical proficiency and
observational strategy among female collegiate athletes and coaches. Applied Research in
Coaching & Athletics Annual, 11, 7594.
Emmen, H.H., Wesseling, L.G., Bootsma, R.J., Whiting, H.T.A., & Van Wieringen, P.C.W.
(1985). The effect of video-modelling and video-feedback on the learning of the tennis
service by novices. Journal of Sports Sciences, 3, 127138.
Erbaugh, S. (1985). Role of visual feedback in observational motor learning of primary-grade
children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 60, 755762.
Erbaugh, S., & Barnett, M. (1986). Effects of modeling and goal-setting on the jumping
performance of primary-grade children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 63, 12871293.
Ertelt, D., Small, S., Solodkin, A., Dettmers, C., McNamara, A., Binkofski, F., & Buccino, G.
(2007). Action observation has a positive impact on rehabilitation of motor deficits after
stroke. Neuroimage, 36, T164T173.

Feltz, D. (1980). Teaching a high-avoidance motor task to a retarded child through participant
modeling. Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, 15,
152155.
Feltz, D.L., Landers, D.M., & Raeder, U. (1979). Enhancing self-efficacy in high-avoidance
motor tasks: A comparison of modeling techniques. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1,
112122.
Feltz, D.L., Short, S.E., & Singleton, D.A. (2008). The effect of self-modeling on shooting
performance and self-efficacy with intercollegiate hockey players. In M.P. Simmons & L.A.
Foster (Eds.), Sport and exercise psychology research advances (pp. 918). New York: Nova
Science Publishers.
Fery, Y., & Morizot, P. (2000). Kinesthetic and visual image in modeling closed motor skills:
The example of the tennis serve. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 90, 707722.
Fleishman, E., & Gagné, R.M. (1954). Psychology and human performance: An introduction to
psychology. New York: Holt.
Flint, F.A. (1999). Seeing helps believing: Modeling in injury rehabilitation. In D. Pargman
(Ed.), Psychological bases of sport injuries (3rd ed., pp. 221234). Morgantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology.
Fox, J., & Bailenson, J.N. (2009). Virtual self-modeling: The effects of vicarious reinforcement
and identification on exercise behaviors. Media Psychology, 12, 125.
George, T.R., Feltz, D.L., & Chase, M.A. (1992). Effects of model similarity on self-efficacy
and muscular endurance: A second look. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14, 237
248.
Gibson, J.J. (1950). The perception of visual surfaces. American Journal of Psychology, 43,
367384.
Gill, D.L., & Williams, L. (2008). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise (3rd ed).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Goldlust, J. (1987). Playing for keeps: Sport, the media and society. Melbourne: Longman
Chesire.
Gould, D., & Weiss, M.R. (1981). Effects of model similarity and model talk on self-efficacy
and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 1729.
Granados, C., & Wulf, G. (2007). Enhancing motor learning through dyad practice:
Contributions of observation and dialogue. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport,
78(3), 197203.
Gray, S.W. (1990). Effect of visuomotor rehearsal with videotaped modeling on racquetball
performance of beginning players. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 70, 379385.
Gray, S.W., & Fernandez, S.J. (1989). Effects of visuomotor behavior rehearsal with
videotaped modeling on basketball shooting performance. Psychology: A Journal of Human
Behavior, 26, 4147.
Grezes, J., Costes, N., & Decety, J. (1998). Top-down effect of strategy on the perception of
human biological motion: A PET investigation. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15, 553582.
Guadagnoli, M., Holcomb, W., & Davis, M. (2002). The efficacy of video feedback for
learning the golf swing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 615622.
Hall, C.R., Munroe-Chandler, K.J., Cumming, J., Law, B., Ramsey, R., & Murphy, L. (2009).
Imagery and observational learning use and their relationship to sport confidence. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 27, 327337.
Hall, E.G., & Erffmeyer, E.S. (1983). The effect of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal with
videotaped modeling on free throw accuracy of intercollegiate female basketball players.
Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 343346.
Hancock, D.J., Rymal, A.M., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2011). A triadic comparison of the use of
observational learning amongst team sport athletes, coaches, and officials. Psychology of
Sport and Exercise, 12, 236241.
Hars, M., & Calmels, C. (2007). Observation of elite gymnastic performance: Processes and
perceived functions of observation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 337354.
Hayes, S.J., Hodges, N.J., Huys, R., & Mark Williams, A. (2007). End-point focus
manipulations to determine what information is used during observational learning. Acta
Psychologica, 126, 120137.
Hayes, S.J., Hodges, N.J., Scott, M.A., Horn, R.R., & Williams, A.M. (2006). Scaling a motor
skill through observation and practice. Journal of Motor Behavior, 38, 357366.
Hayes, S.J., Hodges, N.J., Scott, M.A., Horn, R.R., & Williams, A.M. (2007). The efficacy of
demonstrations in teaching children an unfamiliar movement skill: The effects of object-
orientated actions and point-light demonstrations. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25,
559575.
Hodges, N.J., Hayes, S.J., Breslin, G., & Williams, A.M. (2005). An evaluation of the minimal
constraining information during observation for movement reproduction. Acta
Psychologica, 119, 264282.
Hodges, N.J., Hayes, S.J., Eaves, D.L., Horn, R.R., & Williams, A.M. (2006). End-point
trajectory matching as a method for teaching kicking skills. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 37, 230247.
Hodges, N.J., Williams, A.M., Hayes, S.J., & Breslin, G. (2007). What is modeled during
observational learning? Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 531545.
Holmes, P., & Calmels, C. (2008). A neuroscientific review of imagery and observation use in
sport. Journal of Motor Behavior, 40, 433445.
Horn, R.R., & Williams, A.M. (2004). Observational learning: Is it time we took another
look? In A.M. Williams & N.J. Hodges (Eds.), Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and
practice (pp. 175206). London: Routledge.
Horn, R.R., Williams, A.M., & Scott, M.A. (2002). Learning from demonstrations: The role
of visual search during observational learning from video and point-light models. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 20, 253269.
Horn, R.R., Williams, A.M., Scott, M.A., & Hodges, N.J. (2005). Visual search and
coordination changes in response to video and point-light demonstrations in the absence
of intrinsic knowledge of results. Journal of Motor Behavior, 37, 265279.
Ishikura, T., & Inomata, K. (1995). Effects of angle of model-demonstration on learning of
motor skill. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 80, 651658.
Ishikura, T., & Inomata, K. (1998). An attempt to distinguish between two reversal processing
strategies for learning modeled motor skill. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 86, 10071015.
James, P. (1971). Video feedback in learning beginning trampoline. Perceptual & Motor Skills,
32, 669670.
Janelle, C.M., Champenoy, J.D., Coombes, S.A., & Mousseau, M.B. (2003). Mechanisms of
attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 21(10), 825838.
Kampiotis, S., & Theodorakou, K. (2006). The influence of five different types of observation
based teaching on the cognitive level of learning. Kinesiology, 38, 116125.
Kernodle, M.W., McKethan, R.N., & Rabinowitz, E. (2008). Observational learning of fly
casting using traditional and virtual modeling with and without authority figure. Perceptual
& Motor Skills, 107, 535546.
Kitsantas, A., Zimmerman, B., & Cleary, T. (2000). The role of observation and emulation in
the development of athletic self-regulation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92,
811817.
Kowalski, E., & Sherrill, C. (1992). Motor sequencing of boys with learning disabilities:
Modeling and verbal rehearsal strategies. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9,
261272.
Johansson, G. (1973). Visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis.
Perception and Psychophysics, 14, 201211.
Johansson, G. (1975). Visual motion perception. Scientific American, 232, 7689.
Labiadh, L., Ramanantsoa, M., & Golomer, E. (2010). Preschool-aged children’s jumps:
Imitation performances. Journal of Electromyography & Kinesiology, 20, 322329.
Landin, D. (1994). The role of verbal cues in skill learning. Quest, 46, 299313.
Law, B. (2008). A description of athletes’ observational learning use in sport (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). The University of Western Ontario, London, ON.
Law, B., & Hall, C. (2009a). Observational learning use and self-efficacy beliefs in adult sport
novices. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 263270.
Law, B., & Hall, C. (2009b). The relationships among skill level, age, and golfers’
observational learning use. The Sport Psychologist, 23, 4258.
Law, B., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2005). Effects of self-modeling on figure skating jump
performance and psychological variables. European Journal of Sport Science, 5(3), 143152.
Legrain, P., d’Arripe-Longueville, F., & Gernigon, C. (2003). Peer tutoring in a sport setting:
Are there any benefits for tutors? The Sport Psychologist, 17(1), 7794.
Macuga, K.L., & Frey, S.H. (2011). Neural representations involved in observed, imagined, and
imitated actions are dissociable and hierarchically organized. Neuropsycholgia, 49, 12021207.
Maddison, R., Prapavessis, H., & Clatworthy, M. (2006). Modeling and rehabilitation
following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31,
8998.
Magill, R., & Schoenfelder-Zohdi, B. (1996). A visual model and knowledge of performance as
sources of information for learning a rhythmic gymnastics skill. International Journal of
Sport Psychology, 27, 722.
McAuley, E. (1985). Modeling and self-efficacy: A test of Bandura’s model. Journal of Sport
Psychology, 7, 283295.
McCullagh, P., Law, B., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (in press). Modeling and performance. In
S. Murphey (Ed.) The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology. Oxford
University Press.
McCullagh, P., & Meyer, K. (1997). Learning versus correct models: Influence of model type
on the learning of a free-weight squat lift. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 68, 56
61.
McCullagh, P., Ste-Marie, D.M., & Law, B. (in press). Modeling: Is what you see what you get?
In J. VanRaalte & B. Brewer (Eds.) Exploring sport and exercise psychology (3rd ed.).
McCullagh, P., Stiehl, J., & Weiss, M. (1990). Developmental modeling effects on the
quantitative and qualitative aspects of motor performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise
& Sport, 61, 344350.
McCullagh, P., & Weiss, M.R. (2001). Modeling: Considerations for motor skill performance
and psychological responses. In R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas, & C.M. Janelle (Eds.),
Handbook of sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 205238). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
McCullagh, P., Weiss, M.R., & Ross, D. (1989). Modeling considerations in motor skill
acquisition and performance: An integrated approach. In K.B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and
sport science reviews (pp. 475513). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
McPherson, S.L., & Bull, J.R. (2003). Effect of two different videotaped instructional models
on motor and verbal behaviors of adults’ lifting: A pilot study. Perceptual & Motor Skills,
97, 339359.
Meaney, K. (1994). Developmental modeling effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer
of a novel motor task. Erratum. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 65(2), 196.
Meaney, K., Griffin, L.K., & Hart, M. (2005). The effect of model similarity on girls’ motor
performance. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 24, 165178.
Munzert, J., Hohmann, T., & Hossner, E.J. (2010). Discriminating throwing distances from
point-light displays with masked ball flight. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22,
247264.
Newell, K.M. (1985). Coordination, control, and skill. In D. Goodman, R.B. Wilberg, &
I.M. Franks (Eds.), Differing perspectives in motor learning, memory, and control.
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Ng, J.Y.Y., Tam, S.F., Yew, W.W., & Lam, W.K. (1999). Effects of video modeling on self-
efficacy and exercise performance of COPD patients. Social Behavior and Personality, 27,
475486.
Obhi, S.S., & Hogeveen, J. (2010). Incidental action observation modulates muscle activity.
Experimental Brain Research, 203, 227235.
Onate, J.A., Guskiewic, K.M., Marshall, S.W., Giuliani, C., Yu, B., & Garrett, W.E. (2005).
Instruction of jump-landing technique using videotape feedback altering lower extremity
motion patterns. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 33(6), 831842.
Onestak, D.M. (1997). The effect of visuo-motor behaviour rehearsal (VMBR) and videotaped
modeling (VM) on the free-throw performance of intercollegiate athletes. Journal of Sport
Behaviour, 20, 185198.
Priebe, R.E., & Burton, W.H. (1939). The slow-motion picture as a coaching device. The
School Review, 47, 192198.

Ram, N., & McCullagh, P. (2003). Self-modeling: Influence on psychological responses and
physical performance. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 220241.
Ram, N., Riggs, S.M., Skaling, S., Landers, D.M., & McCullagh, P. (2007). A comparison of
modeling and imagery in the acquisition and retention of motor skills. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 25, 587597.
Rodrigues, S.T., Ferracioli, M.C., & Denardi, R.A. (2010). Learning a complex motor skill
from video and point-light demonstrations. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 111, 307323.
Romack, J.L., & Briggs, R.S. (1995). Relevant visual information in a demonstration and its
use in learning how to dribble a ball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, s79.
Rosen, M.A., Salas, E., Pavlas, D., Jensen, R., Fu, D., & Lampton, D. (2010). Demonstration-
based training: A review of instructional features. Human Factors, 52, 569609.
Roshal, S.M. (1961). Film-mediated learning with varying representation of the task: Viewing
angle, portrayal of demonstration, motion, and student participation. In A.A. Lumsdaine
(Ed.), Student responses in programmed instruction (pp. 155175). Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences National Research Council.
Rothstein, A.L., & Arnold, R.K. (1976). Bridging the gap: Application of research on
videotape feedback and bowling. Motor Skills: Theory into Practice, 1, 3562.
Runenson, S. (1984). Perception of biological motion: The KSD principle and the implications
of a distal versus proximal approach. In G. Janson, S. Bergstom, & W. Epstein (Eds.),
Perceiving events and objects (pp. 383405). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rymal, A.M., Martini, R., & Ste-Marie, D.M. (2010). Self-regulatory processes employed
during self-modeling: A qualitative analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 115.
Sambrook, T.D. (1998). Does visual perspective matter in imitation? Perception, 27,
14611473.
Sawada, M., Mori, S., & Ishii, M. (2002). Effect of metaphorical verbal instruction on
modeling of sequential dance skills by young children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 95,
10971105.
Schmidt, R.A., & Bjork, R.A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles
in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 201217.
Scully, D., & Carnegie, E. (1998). Observational learning in motor skill acquisition: A look at
demonstrations. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 19, 472485.
Scully, D., & Newell, K. (1985). Observational learning and the acquisition of motor skills:
Toward a visual perception perspective. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 11,
169186.
Sidaway, B., & Hand, J. (1993). Frequency of modeling effects on the acquisition and retention
of a motor skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 122126.
SooHoo, S., Takemoto, K.Y., & McCullagh, P. (2004). A comparison of modeling and imagery
on the performance of a motor skill. Journal of Sport Behavior, 27, 349366.
Starek, J., & McCullagh, P. (1999). The effect of self-modeling on the performance of beginner
swimmers. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 269287.
Ste-Marie, D.M., Clark, S.E., & Latimer, A.E. (2002). Contributions of attention and
retention processes in the observational learning of a motor skill by children. Journal of
Ste-Marie, D.M., Rymal, A.M., Vertes, K., & Martini, R. (2011). Self-modeling and
competitive beam performance enhancement. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23,
292307. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2011.558049
Ste-Marie, D.M., Vertes, K., Rymal, A.M., & Martini, R. (2011). Feedforward self-modeling
enhances skill acquisition in children learning trampoline skills. Frontiers in Psychology:
Movement Science and Sport Psychology, 2. doi: 10.3389/psyg. 2011.00155
Suinn, R.M. (1984). Visual motor behavior rehearsal: The basic technique. Scandinavian
Journal of Behavior Therapy, 13, 131142.
Templin, D.P., & Vernacchia, R.A. (1995). The effect of highlight music videotapes upon the
game performance of intercollegiate basketball players. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 4150.
van Gog, T., Paas, F., Marcus, N., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2009). The mirror neuron system
and observational learning: Implications for the effectiveness of dynamic visualizations.
Educational Psychology Review, 21, 2130.
Van Wieringen, P.C.W., Emmen, H.H., Bootsma, R.J., Hoogesteger, M., & Whiting, H.T.A.
(1989). The effect of video-feedback on the learning of the tennis service by intermediate
players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7, 153162.
Weeks, D., & Anderson, L.P. (2000). The interaction of observational learning with overt
practice: Effects on motor skill learning. Acta Psychologica, 104, 259271.
Weir, P., & Leavitt, J. (1990). Effects of model’s skill level and model’s knowledge of results on
the performance of a dart throwing task. Human Movement Science, 9, 369383.
Weiss, M. (1983). Modeling and motor performance: A development perspective. Research
Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 54, 190197.
Weiss, M.R., Ebbeck, V., & Rose, D. (1992). Show and tell’ in the gymnasium revisited:
Developmental differences in modeling and verbal rehearsal effects on motor skill learning
and performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 63, 292301.
Weiss, M.R., Ebbeck, V., & Weise-Bjornstal, D.M. (1993). Developmental and psychological
factors related to children’s observational learning of physical skills. Pediatric Exercise
Science, 5, 301317.
Weiss, M.R., & Klint, K.A. (1987). ‘Show and tell’ in the gymnasium: An investigation of
developmental differences in modeling and verbal rehearsal of motor skills. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58, 234241.
Weiss, M.R., McCullagh, P., Smith, A.L., & Berlant, A.R. (1998). Observational learning and
the fearful child: Influence of peer models on swimming skill performance and
psychological responses. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 380394.
Wesch, N.N., Law, B., & Hall, C.R. (2007). The use of observational learning by athletes.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 219231.
Whiting, H.T.A., Bijlard, M.J., & Brinker, B. (1987). The effect of the availability of a dynamic
model on the acquisition of a complex cyclical action. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology Section A, 39, 4359.
Wiese-Bjornstal, D.M., & Weiss, M.R. (1992). Modeling effects on children’s form kinematics,
performance outcome, and cognitive recognition of a sport skill: An integrated perspective.
Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 63, 6775.
Williams, A.M., Davids, K., & Williams, J.G. (1999). Visual action and perception in sport. New
York: Routledge.
Williams, A.M., & Ward, P. (2003). Perceptual expertise: Development in sport. In J.L. Starkes
& K.A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport (pp. 214229). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Williams, J. (1989). Effects of kinematically enhanced video-modeling on improvement of form
in a gymnastic skill. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 69, 473474.
Winfrey, M., & Weeks, D. (1993). Effects of self-modeling on self-efficacy and balance beam
performance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 77, 907913.
Wrisberg, C.A., & Pein, R.L. (2002). Note on learners’ control of frequency of model
presentation during skill acquisition. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 94, 792794.
Wulf, G., Raupach, M., & Pfeiffer, F. (2005). Self-controlled observational practice enhances
learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 76, 107111.
Wuyts, I., & Buekers, M. (1995). The effects of visual and auditory models on the learning of a
rhythmical synchronization dance skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 66,
105115.
Zetou, E., Fragouli, M., & Tzetzis, G. (1999). The influence of star and self modeling on
volleyball skill acquisition. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 37, 127131.
Zetou, E., Kourtesis, T., Getsiou, K., Michalopoulou, M., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2008).
The effect of self-modeling on skill learning and self efficacy of novice female beach-
volleyball players. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 10(3).
Zimmerman, B.J. (2000). Attaining self- regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In
M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13
39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
View publication stats

Ste-Marieetal 2012

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Ste-Marieetal 2012

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ste-Marieetal 2012

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and

Article in International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · January 2012

Barbi Law Amanda M Rymal

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Modeling (OL) and Imagery in Sport View project

Applied Model for the Use of Observation View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

International Review of Sport and

Observation interventions for motor

Available online: 30 Mar 2012

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.665076

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an

Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we

*Corresponding author. Email: dstmarie@uottawa.ca

section concerns the current state of knowledge concerning observation interventions

Current state of knowledge

There is the opportunity for observation of motor skills to occur in a number of

Skill function and related outcomes

Consistent with Bandura’s (1986) conceptualization of the modeling process,

modeling techniques in therapeutic settings to assist children with physical

Strategy function and related outcomes

Performance function and related outcomes

to enhanced execution of motor skills in competition. As such, the focus of this

Coping and mastery models

Skilled, unskilled and learning models

The perceptual training benefits noted in Experiment 2 of Hayes, Hodges, Scott

barrier (Hodges et al., 2006), resulted in greater approximations to the observed

What instructional features accompany observation?

manner in order to maximize learning and/or performance gains. In the remainder of

Angle at which a model is viewed

viewing angle on acquisition and learning.

Speed of video demonstration

Frequency of model presentation

are constantly seeking to streamline their practice structure in order to maximize

An applied model for the use of observation

Figure 1. An applied model for the use of observation.

observation benefits. Children and adults benefited differently dependent upon

for performing in recital).

Future research directions

competitive environment, given their apparent influence on self-efficacy and other

intervention manipulations employed. Thirdly, despite other authors of reviews

stroke. Neuroimage, 36, T164T173.

School Review, 47, 192198.

View publication stats

You might also like