NEUROTRANSMITTERS

SHAIRA MAE M. REGALA, RPM

 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• often referred to as the body’s chemical messengers.
• influences a neuron in one of three ways: excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory.
Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have excitatory
effects on the neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire
an action potential. Some of the major excitatory neurotransmitters include
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have inhibitory
effects on the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an
action potential. Some of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin
and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can create both
excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are
present.
Modulatory neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters, often referred to as
neuromodulators, are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at the
same time. These neuromodulators also influence the effects of other chemical
messengers. Where synaptic neurotransmitters are released by axon terminals to
have a fast-acting impact on other receptor neurons, neuromodulators diffuse
across a larger area and are more slow-acting.
 TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

• Amino Acid Neurotransmitters – vast majority of fast acting, directed synapses in

the CNS – molecular building blocks of proteins.
• Glutamate, GABA
• Monoamine Neurotransmitters – synthesized from a single amino acid; slightly
larger than amino acid neurotransmitters and their effects tend to be more
diffuse.
• Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Histamine, Dopamine, Serotonin
 TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Acetylcholine (Ach)– only neurotransmitter in its class. Found in both the central
and peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter associated with
motor neurons.
• Peptides – only large-molecule neurotransmitters.
• Oxytocin, Endorphins
• Soluble-gas neurotransmitters – neurotransmitters that easily diffuse through the
cell membrane because they are soluble in lipids.
• Nitric oxide, carbon monoxide
 AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Glutamate
- most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the
nervous system where it plays a role in cognitive
functions such as memory and learning.
- Excessive amounts of glutamate can
cause excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death.
- excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up is
associated with some diseases and brain
injuries including Alzheimer's disease, stroke,
and epileptic seizures.
 AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
- acts as the body's main inhibitory chemical
messenger.
- contributes to vision, motor control, and plays
a role in the regulation of anxiety.
- Benzodiazepines, which are used to help
treat anxiety, function by increasing the
efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which
can increase feelings of relaxation and calm.
 MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Epinephrine
- considered both a hormone and a
neurotransmitter.
- generally, epinephrine (adrenaline) is a stress
hormone that is released by the adrenal
system.
- however, it functions as a neurotransmitter in
the brain.
 MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Norepinephrine
- plays an important role in alertness is involved
in the body's fight or flight response.
- help mobilize the body and brain to take
action in times of danger or stress.
- Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically
lowest during sleep and highest during times
of stress.
 MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Histamine
- acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and
spinal cord.
- plays a role in allergic reactions and is
produced as part of the immune systems
response to pathogens.
 MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Dopamine
- plays an important role in the coordination of
body movements.
- involved in reward, motivation, and addictions.
- several types of addictive drugs increase
dopamine levels in the brain.
- Parkinson's disease, which is a degenerative
disease that results in tremors and motor
movement impairments, is caused by the loss
of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.
 MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Serotonin
- plays an important role in regulating and
modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and
appetite.
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, usually
referred to as SSRIs, are a type of antidepressant
medication commonly prescribed to treat
depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic
attacks.
- SSRIs work to balance serotonin levels by blocking
the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which can
help improve mood and reduce feelings of
anxiety.
 ACETYLCHOLINE
- the only neurotransmitter in its class.
- Found in both the central and peripheral
nervous systems, it is the primary
neurotransmitter associated with motor
neurons.
- plays a role in muscle movements as well as
memory and learning.
 PEPTIDES
• Oxytocin
- both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
- produced by the hypothalamus and plays a
role in social recognition, bonding, and sexual
reproduction.
- synthetic oxytocin such as Pitocin is often used
as an aid in labor and delivery. Both oxytocin
and Pitocin cause the uterus to contract during
labor.
 PEPTIDES
• Endorphins
- neurotransmitters that inhibit the transmission
of pain signals and promote feelings of
euphoria.
- produced naturally by the body in response to
pain, but they can also be triggered by other
activities such as aerobic exercise.
- for example, experiencing a "runner's high" is
an example of pleasurable feelings
generated by the production of endorphins.
 SOLUBLE-GAS NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Nitric oxide
- plays a role in affecting smooth muscles,
relaxing them to allow blood vessels to dilate
and increase blood flow to certain areas of
the body.
 SOLUBLE-GAS NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Carbon monoxide
- usually known as being a colorless, odorless gas that can have toxic and potentially
fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance.
- produced naturally by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that helps
modulate the body's inflammatory response.
METHODS OF VISUALIZING
AND STIMULATING THE
LIVING HUMAN BRAIN
SHAIRA MAE M. REGALA, RPM
 CONTRAST X-RAYS
• injecting into one compartment of the body a
substance that absorbs X-rays either less than
or more than the surrounding tissue.
• the injected substance then heightens the
contrast between the compartment and the
surrounding tissue during X-ray photography.
cerebral angiography,
- uses the infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a
cerebral artery to visualize the cerebral
circulatory system during X-ray photography
 X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
(CT)

• Computer- assisted X-ray procedure that can

be used to visualize the brain and other
internal structures of the living body.
• During cerebral computed tomography, the
neurological patient lies with his or her head
positioned in the center of a large cylinder
 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
• a procedure in which high-resolution images
are constructed from the measurement of
waves that hydrogen atoms emit when they
are activated by radio-frequency waves in a
magnetic field
• provides clearer images of the brain than
does CT.
• can produce images in three dimensions.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
 POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
• the first brain imaging technique to
provide images of brain activity
(functional brain images) rather than
images of brain structure (structural brain
images).
• Each PET scan is an image of the levels
of radioactivity (indicated by color
coding) in various parts of one
horizontal level of the brain.
 FUNCTIONAL MRI
• produce images representing the increase in
oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of
the brain.
• Functional MRI has four advantages over
PET:
• (1)Nothing has to be injected into the
subject;
• (2) it provides both structural and functional
information in the same image;
• (3) its spatial resolution is better; and
• (4) it can be used to produce three-
dimensional images of activity over the
entire brain.
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY

• measure of the gross electrical activity

of the brain.
• recorded through large electrodes by a
device called an electroencephalograph
(EEG machine)
QUIZ NEXT MEETING (20 PTS)

• Development of Nervous System

• Neurotransmitters and Methods in Visualizing the Brain