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DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL and ICT SERVICES

[ECE 503, 2 C]

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering,

Kwara State University,
Malete, Kwara State

Oladimeji Ibrahim, PhD

Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Email: ibrahim.o@unilorin.edu.ng
Office Address: Block 10, Ground Floor
H/P: +2348062421820
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Course Outline
1. Basic electrical installation: Power system overview and basic electrical
installations.
2. Regulation: IEE, NSE, Nigeria standard.
3. Illumination: lighting types, design and layout.
4. Design of electrical installation (Building): Domestic, industrial, and
commercial.
5. Auxiliary electrical system: Transformer installation, escalator & elevator
circuit, and conveyor systems.
6. Telecommunication design & installation: Telephone, PABX, cables, cablings,
trucking, calculations, etc.
7. Computer Networking: Design, topology, cables, cabling, etc.
8. Fire, Surge and lighting protections. Fire alarm, earthing, earth resistivity
measurement, surge and lighting equipment selection and installation.
9. Contract proposal and document preparation: project costing and preparation
of BEME.
10. Basic
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law of contract.
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1.0
Basic Electrical Installation: Electric power system
overview and basic electrical installations.

BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

 Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons
or protons), either statically as an accumulation of charges or dynamically as a current.
 The electricity supply is the flow of current (movement of electron) at a specific voltage (can be
liken to flow pressure) through a conductor with specific resistance and path (circuit) to the
targeted load.
 The current path is dual i.e. the path “from” (usually red line) and “to” (black line) its source.
[Note: electron flow from negative to positive terminal]
 Electrical current can take the form; Alternating Current (AC) when the direction of flow of
current reverses many times each seconds and Direct Current (DC) when the current flow only in
one direction.
 The current carrying conductors can either be through the overhead (OH)/surface lines or through
underground (UG)/conduit lines.
[What are the difference between the overhead (OH)/surface lines and the underground (UG)/conduit lines]
Factors for Conductor Installation Type
 Safety
 Faults
 Cost
 Troubleshoot
 Flexibility
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 Maintenance 4

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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electric Power System - Overview

 An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to supply, transfer, and
use electric power. It is a large network that links power plants (large or small) to loads, by means
of an electric grid that may span a whole country or continent, such as Europe or North America.
 An electric power system comprised of all the generating stations, transmission lines, substations,
feeders, primary mains, distribution transformers, secondary mains and services. An example of a
power system is the electrical grid that provides power to homes and industry within an extended
area.
 The power system has a complex structure that may be subdivided into sub-systems such as
generating substation, transmission & sub-transmission substation and distribution substation.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Overview of Generating System

 A generating station is the plant where the energy of the coal, oil, waterfall or atoms are
changed to electrical energy.

 The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The
generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy comes
from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the internal
combustion engine.
 The electricity generation is usually in the order of 10 kV to 50 kV depending on the power
capacity of the generating plant. The generated voltage is then stepped-up to higher voltages
e.g. 330/132 kV, even up to 500 kV for onward transmission.

Kinds of power station

 Hydro
 Steam
- Steam engine
- Steam turbine
 Solar
 Hybrid
 Gas turbine
 Wind
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 Nuclear
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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Overview of Transmission System

 A transmission line is set of conductors over which large bulk of electrical energy are
transmitted to relatively long distance from transmission substation at the generating
station to a transmission substation at a switching point.
 The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions:
 It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving stations.
 It interconnects the two or more generating stations.

 The transmission voltage usually operate at more than 66kv and standardised at 69kv,
115KV, 138KV, 161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The
transmission line above 230KV is usually referred to as extra high voltage (EHV).

Why the high voltage transmission and not

high current; what are the implications in
term of safety, cost, engineering and long
term management?
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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Overview of Distribution System (DS)

 The distribution substations are located near the utilization point in the electric grid

 Distribution substation changes the transmission voltage to lower levels, providing

sources for distribution circuits supplying power for short distance to consumer
premises.

Types of DS
Primary distribution system:- electrical network layout from the main distribution
feeder station where the transmission feeder line is step down from 330/132 kV to 33/11
kV for distribution to different sub-stations for secondary distribution.
Secondary distribution system:- electrical network layout that linked the distribution
sub-stations where the 3-wires, 3Ø, 33/11 kV is stepped down to 415/230 V in 3Ø/1Ø to
the final consumer’s access points through the 4-wires lines.
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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electrical Service Overview

The electrical services is concerned with how all electrical appliances in a building get their
electrical supply safely and efficiently from the power supply access point.

Electrical Services are broadly classified as:

Electrical power – Normal, standby, and emergency power supply & distribution
Lighting – Interior, exterior, and emergency lighting
Auxiliary – Telephone, data, audio/video, sound, security systems, etc.

Installation Samples
- Residential Services - Commercial Service -Industrial Services

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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electrical Service Overview

 Domestic electricity supply usually effected through distribution system

and can either be a single or three phases.

 Normally small buildings are supplied with electricity by two wires, one phase wire
and the other neutral. This is known as single phase supply and gives a voltage of 230
volts to the premises.

 In three phase system, four wire bring 415/ 230 volts, 50 Hz frequency. The voltage
between any two of the phases wires is 415 Volts and between any phase wire and the
neutral is 230 volts.

 The loading of the supply wiring is balanced between the phases by using the phases
in rotation so that each one serve every third building.

 The load balancing is then achieved by serving different areas of the building with
different phases.
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BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electrical Service Overview

Electric motor are usually designed for three phase operation.

Single and Three Phases Distribution

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2.0
Regulations: IEE, NSE, Nigeria Standards

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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION REGULATIONS

 Regulations are guides or criteria that details the principle/condition that customarily
governs behaviour or practice.
 The regulation documents specify characteristics and technical rules that must be met
by a products, systems and processes. The purpose of developing and adhering to
regulation is to ensure minimum performance, meet safety requirements, and
consistency.
 The Regulations are not a statutory document but are quoted as a means of compliance
with certain statutory instruments. Criminal charge could not be instituted for failure to
comply with (wiring regulations), but such failure could be used as evidence on a
charge
 The IEE Wiring Regulations provides the regulations for electrical services Installation.
It is also refer to as BS 7671:200X Requirements for Electrical Installations
 IEE Wiring Regulations is issued jointly by the British Standards Institution (BSI) and
Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE).
 The Institution of Electrical Engineers was a British professional organisation of
electronics, electrical, manufacturing, and information technology professionals. Started
in13-Jan-22
1871 as Society of Telegraph Engineers. 13

WIRING REGULATIONS

 The IEE Wiring Regulations discusses the recommendations of the IEE Regulations
for the Electrical Equipment of Buildings for the safe selection or erection of wiring
installations

 The regulations applies to the design, installation and testing of electrical installations,
also additions and alterations to existing installations.

 The standard represents a code of acceptable safety guides/instructions for electrical

installations to protect:
Persons, Property, and Livestock,
against electrical hazards such as:
Electric shock, Fire, Burns, and Injury from mechanical movement of
electrically actuated machinery.

 The IEE Wiring Regulations and more lately BS 7671:2008 have been the most
important and popular document for electrical contractors and installation designers.
They are key factor in the implementation of electrical safety within the UK and
indeed
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overseas.
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WIRING REGULATIONS

 A recent edition of IEE Wiring Regulations is the 17th edition first

published in 2008, containing substantial changes to align with
European documents.
 The other bodies that contributed to the development of standards for
the national BS 7671 includes but not limited to:
• European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation (CENELEC)
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
• Electrical Contractors’ Association (ECA)

 BS 7671 consists of 7 parts and 16 appendices; each part is

broken up into chapters.

 Each regulation has a number : the first digit is the part

number, the second digit is the chapter and the third digit is
the section; the remaining digits are the actual regulation
number.

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WIRING REGULATIONS

Electrical Installation Regulation in Nigeria

 Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission makes the regulations for Engineering
Designs, Installations, Commissioning and Maintenance of electric power systems in
the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry.

 NERC developed the NIGERIAN ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AND INSTALLATION

STANDARDS REGULATIONS 2015:REGULATION NO: NERC/Reg/1/2015

 The Regulations are compendia of standards for the design, construction and
commissioning of electrical infrastructure in the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry.

 The new regulation was approved by the Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission
to replace the Electricity Supply (S.I.5) Regulations and the Electrical Installation
Regulations (S.I.6) of 1996 issued under the repealed Electricity Act.

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WIRING REGULATIONS

 The new Regulations is now known as the “Nigerian Electricity Supply and Installation
Standards (NESIS) Regulations”.
 The document describes the requirements regulating the generation, transmission, distribution,
and users site standards, guides, and recommended practices for use in the Nigerian Electricity
Supply Industry (NESI).
 User’s Sites Electrical Installations Guides Include:
1. General Provisions
2. Indoor Installation
- Indoor wiring cables
- Restriction of Indoor Lines Voltage
- Allowable Current of Indoor Wirings
- Switching Devices at the Indoor Main Lines
The Nigerian Electricity Management Services Agency (NEMSA)
 The Nigerian Electricity Management Services Agency (NEMSA) is established by NEMSA
ACT – 2015 to carry out the Functions of Enforcement of Technical Standards and Regulations,
Technical Inspection, Testing and Certification of All Categories of Electrical Installations
 To ensure the Efficient Production and Delivery of Safe, Reliable and Sustainable Electricity
Power Supply and Guarantee Safety of Lives and Property in the Nigerian Electricity Supply
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Industry, and other allied industries/workplaces.
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3.0
Illumination

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ILLUMINATION

 Illumination can be defined as the degree of visibility in an environment which

largely depends on lighting presence. Generally, light travels in straight lines and
much faster than sound.

Lighting is broadly divided into two types:

1- The Natural lighting / Daylighting
2- The Artificial Lighting

Daylighting
 Lighting received in an area due to the natural bright weather condition, usually
brighter during the day and faint at night time.
 The daylight received inside a building can be
expressed as the ratio of the illumination at the
working point indoors, to the total light
available simultaneously outdoors.
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ILLUMINATION

Artificial Lighting

 When some materials are heated above certain temperatures, they start to radiate
energy in form of light, the phenomenon is called luminance.

 If a body is heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the

surrounding medium in form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths.

 At low temperature, radiated energy is in the form of heat waves only but as a certain
temperature is reached, light waves are also radiated out in addition to heat waves and
the body becomes luminous.

 A further increase in temperature produces changes in the amount of radiations and the
colour of the visible radiation (light). The light changes [Bright red - Orange - Yellow -
White] as the temperature increases.

 The ratio of energy radiated out in the form of light to the total energy radiated out by
an hot body is called the radiant efficiency of the luminous source and, evidently,
depends
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on the temperature of the source.
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WIRING REGULATIONS

Definitions of terms employed with illumination

1. Candela (cd): It is the unit of luminous intensity of a source. It is defined as 1/60th of

the luminous intensity per cm2 of a black body radiator at the temperature of solidification
of platinum (2045°K).

2. Luminous Flux (F/Φ). It is the light energy radiated out per second from a body in the
form of luminous light waves. Unit of luminous flux is lumen (lm). [1 lumen = 0.0016
watt (approx.)]

3. Luminous Intensity (I) or Candle-power of a point source in any particular direction

is given by the luminous flux radiated out per unit solid angle in that direction. If dΦ is the
luminous flux radiated out by a source within a solid angle of dω steradian, then I =
dΦ/dω.

The solid angle of a sphere shape with area A and radius r is defined as the angle enclosed
by the cone at centre point.

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WIRING REGULATIONS

4. Illuminance/Illumination (E): When the luminous flux falls on a surface, it is said to

be illuminated. The illumination of a surface is measured by the luminous flux per unit
area received it. If Φ is the luminous flux incident on an area A, then E = Φ/A. Since flux
Φ is measured in lumens and area in m2, unit of E is lm/m2 or lux or metre-candle (m-cd).

5. Luminous Exitance (M) of a Surface: The luminous exitance (M) at a point on a

surface is defined as luminous flux emitted per unit area in all directions. If an element of
an illuminated area A emits a total flux of Φ in all directions (over a solid angle of 2π
steradian) then M = Φ/A lm/m2

In summary,

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WIRING REGULATIONS

Lighting Schemes/Installation

Lighting schemes are classified as (i) Direct lighting (ii) Indirect lighting
(iii) Semi-direct lighting (iv) Semi-indirect lighting and (v) General diffusing systems.

(i) Direct Lighting

 The light source falls directly on the object/surface to be illuminated
 It illuminate only a small part of the surface consists of limited range
 Suitable for horizontal area or with an unobstructed surface
 Direct lighting is most efficient, but liable to cause glare & hard shadows

(ii) Indirect Lighting

 light reach the surface indirectly by diffuse reflection
 Lamps are placed behind a cornice or suspended in opaque bowls
 Maximum light is thrown upwards (80%) on the ceiling from
where it is distributed to the room by diffuse reflection.
 Indirect lighting provides shadowless illumination which is very
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useful for drawing offices. 23

WIRING REGULATIONS

(iii) Semi-direct lighting

 It utilizes luminaries that send most of the light downwards directly on the working
plane but a considerable amount upward
 The distribution is usually 30% upwards and 45% downwards.
 It is best suited for rooms with high ceilings where a high level of uniformly-
distributed illumination is desirable

(iv) Semi-indirect lighting

 The light is partly received by diffuse reflection and
partly direct from source
 A translucent bowls without reflector are used.
 Most of the light is directed upwards to the ceiling for
diffuse and the rest directed to working plane except for
some absorption by the bowl
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WIRING REGULATIONS

(V) General diffusing systems.

The luminaries employed have almost equal light distribution downwards and upwards

Briefly explain the manufacturing and operation of artificial light sources [specifics:
incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps and sodium vapour lamps] ?

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WIRING REGULATIONS

Illumination Level for Different Purposes

 Though it is difficult to lay down definite values of illumination for various purposes
but the following summary can provide guides [More detail from Illuminating Engineering Society
(IES)]:
Purpose and Places lm/m2
Precision work, displays, rapid discrimination above 500
Extra fine machine work, fine engraving, inspection of fine details 200-500
Proof-reading, sustained reading, fine assembling 100-200
Drawing offices, art exhibition, usual reading 60-100
Museums, drill halls, work o not involving close attention to fine details 40-60
Bed-rooms, waiting rooms, auditoriums and general lighting in factories 20-40
Hospital wards, yards, railway platforms and corridors 5 to 10
 Lamp Space/Height Ratio:
horizontal distance between two lamps
Space / Height Ratio 
mounting height of lamps

 This ratio depends on the nature of the polar curve of a lamp when used along with its
reflector. A reflector has tremendous influence on the shape of the polar curve of the
lamp,
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hence the value of space/height ratio. For reflectors normally used in indoor
lighting, the value of space to height ratio usually lies between 1 and 2 26

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WIRING REGULATIONS

Design of Lighting Schemes and Lay-outs

A well-designed lighting scheme is one which:

(i) provides adequate illumination (ii) avoids glare and hard shadows (iii) provides
sufficiently uniform distribution of light.

The are two factors that determines the number, size and proper arrangement of lamps in
order to produce a given uniform illumination over a certain area,

1. Utilization Factor /Coefficient of Utilization (UF): It is the ratio of the lumens actually received
by a particular surface to the total lumens emitted by a luminous source.
lumens actually received on working plane
UF 
lumens emitted by the light source

2. Depreciation Factor/Maintenance Factors (MF): This factor allows for the fact that effective
luminous sources deteriorates owing to blackening and accumulation of dust or dirt on the globes
and reflectors over time.
illumination under actual conditions
MF 
illumination when everything is perfectly clean
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WIRING REGULATIONS

 Taking into consideration the UF and MF, the expression for the gross lumens required
in an area is given by:
EA
Total lumens (luminous flux),  
UF  MF
 The total number of fittings N is
EA 
N 
I  UF  MF I
where E = desired illumination in lm/m2 ; A = area of working plane to be illuminated in m2 , MF =
maintenance factor ; UF= utilization factor. I = flux produced per fitting , lumen.

Work Example:
A room 8 m × 12 m is lighted by 15 lamps to a fairly uniform illumination of 100 lm/m2. Calculate
the utilization coefficient of the room given that the output of each lamp is 1600 lumens.

Solution: Total lumens emitted by the lamps Φsource = 15 × 1600 = 24,000 lm

Lumens received by the working plane Φused = 100 × 8 × 12 = 9600 lm
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Utilization coefficient = 9600/24,000 = 0.4 or 40%. 28

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WIRING REGULATIONS

Work Example:
Design a suitable lighting scheme for a factory 120 m × 40 m with a height of
7 m. Illumination required is 60 lux (lm/m2) . State the number, location and mounting height of 40
W fluorescent tubes giving 45 lm/W. Depreciation factor = 1.2 (MF=1/DF) ; utilization factor = 0.5

Solution.
EA
Total lumens,  
UF  MF
60  120  40
   691, 200 lm
0.5  1/1.2 

Φ = 691,200 lm;
Flux per tube = flux/W × total watt/tube = 45 × 40 = 1800 lm.

No. of fluorescent tubes required, N = 691,200/1800 = 384.

Installation option, if twin-tube fittings are employed, then number of such fittings required. =
384/2 = 192. These can easily be arranged in 8 rows by 24 fittings each. Assuming that the working
plane is 1 metre above the floor level and the fittings are fixed 1 metre below the ceiling, then,
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space/height ratio will be unity i.e 5m distance between two lamps and 5m mounting height.
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WIRING REGULATIONS

Work Example:
A drawing hall in an engineering college is to be provided with a lighting installation. The hall is 30
m × 20 m × 8 m (high). The mounting height is 5 m and the required level of illumination is 144
lm/m2. Using metal filament lamps, estimate the size and number of single lamp luminaries and also
sketch their spacing layout. Assume : Utilization coefficient = 0.6; maintenance factor = 0.75;
space/height ratio=1, lumens/watt for 300-W lamp = 13 and lumens/watt for 500-W lamp = 16

Solution. Flux is given by Φ = EA/(UF X MF) = 144 × 30 ×20 /(0.6 × 0.75) = 192,000 lm
Lumen output per 500-W lamp = 500 × 16 = 8,000 lm
Lumen output per 300-W lamp = 300 × 13 = 3,900 lm
For, 500W lamp, the No. of 500-W lamps required = 192,000/8000 = 24
Similarly, No. of 300-W lamps required = 192,000/3900 = 49

 The 300-W lamps is not suitable because their number

cannot be evenly arranged in a hall of 30 m × 20 m
with a space/height ratio of unity.

 However, 500-W lamps can be arranged in 4 rows of 6

lamps each with a spacing of 5 m both in the width
and the length which is match to 5m height.
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4.0
Design of Electrical Installation: Building Electrical
Services.

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BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

The building electrical services deals with how all electrical appliances in a building get
their electrical power supply safely and efficiently from the power supply access point.

Building electrical services involves the following part:

• The electrical connection layout from the power supply service point to the building loads
• The protection system
• The wiring system:
- Cables and insulation
- Load characteristics [classification]
- Load distribution wiring/circuitry layout/civil work

• The earthing system

• Special loads and their interface

-Transformers, lift system, temperature control system, generators, washing/grinding system
and water pumping system
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

General Design Consideration

The electrical services design for building usually involves circuit design for lighting, sockets and
other electrical components that requires power.

The system design should be carried out in accordance with national/international codes and
standards to satisfy the safe utilization requirement at minimal cost of installation.

The factors to be considered during the design and installation phases.

Safety: The design and installation must be guided by the relevant professional standards .The
equipment and accessory with workmanship should be of contemporary world to minimize any form
of danger in utilization.

Durability: Environmental and climatic factor should be given adequate consideration during the
course of design to ensure that the system serves its maximum utility period.

Maintainability: As maintenance measures the project utility time, the design should ensured that
there is provisions to aid adequate maintenance on the system over utilization period.

Protection: The protection systems selection should guarantees system reliability, sensitivity, and
stability at minimum operating time.
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Layout from Power Supply Point to the Distribution Point

The electrical connection layout from the power supply service point to the building loads includes
incoming services cable, the utility cut-out fuse, the meter, the change over switch, the raising mains
, ELCB and finally the distribution board.

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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

The protection system

Purpose/Needs
• Protection against sudden voltage surge/sag and leakage current
• Isolation of faults for maintenance and easy troubleshooting
• Protection against over-current from overloading and short circuiting.
Types
• Fuse • Electric circuit breaker
• Mechanical isolator switch • Electromechanical CB/switch

Installation Point
(i) Before and after the meter point
(ii) Within distribution board
(iii)Within
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Building service wiring

Types of wires/cables

(i)Solid (ii) Stranded (iii) Braided

Braided
Cable colours
• 2-wires Line (red-black [L-N], brown-blue [L-N]), and Ground (green with/without yellow stripes)

Criteria of good cables

• Should be stranded copper/aluminium of high conductivity (stranded to make it more
flexible and carry more current)
• Carry desired load without overheating and keep voltage drop within limits
• Have proper insulation for safety/reliability
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Have suitable mechanical protection to withstand rough usage and laying
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Structural layout of a cable

• Conductor/wire • Insulation
• Metallic sheath • Bedding
• Armouring

Requirements for insulation materials of cables

• High insulation resistance against any radiative
force or leakage current
• High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown
• High mechanical strength
• Non hygroscopic and non inflammable

Materials for cables insulations

• Rubber and vulcanised Indian rubber
• Impregnated paper
• PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
Cables are classification based on:
• Type of insulation material
• Voltage capacity (either LT/HT)
13-Jan-22 • Type of service wiring (either Single/2-core/3-core/4-core)
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Electrical Load Characteristics

Types of electrical load

The difference in electrical load is in how they consume power in an alternating current (AC) setup.

Need for load separation based on characteristics

• Easy Troubleshooting
• Prevent interference
• Power factor correction
• Prevent frequency changing

i. Resistive Load: Loads consisting of any heating

element include incandescent lights, toasters, ovens,
space heaters and coffee makers. Voltage and current
are in phase. In resistive load, power is always being
dissipated by the load, and never returned to the Current is in phase with voltage in a resistive circuit
source as it is with reactive loads.
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

ii. Inductive Load: Inductive loads include motors,

transformers and chokes. The output current supplied to the
load always lags behind the terminal voltage nearly 90°.
Inductive load makes the power factor of the system very low
because it lags the output current in a huge angle .

Power is not dissipated in a purely reactive load. Though it is

alternately absorbed from and returned to the source

iii. Capacitive Load: A capacitive load charges and

releases energy. Capacitive reactance resists the change
to voltage, causing the circuit current to lead voltage.
examples include synchronous motors, radio circuits,
capacitor
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bank, power supplies
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Load Distribution Wiring/Distribution Board

The distribution board divides electrical power feed into subsidiary circuit in a common enclosure.
It provides the main connection point and control unit using protective fuse or circuit breaker for all
the sub-circuit.

Three/Single phase distribution board circuitry

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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Distribution Board Protection Ratings

Ratings of protection device for the distribution board are determined from the total load current of
each sub-circuit. The distribution board protection then depends on the total load demand of all sub-
circuit.

Illustration:
Given a total load demand of 32,139.8 watts with a diversity factor of 0.9. In the design stage, the
diversity factor takes care of the fact that not all the design load will always be operated at all time on
the system when it is put to operation.

The demand load after applying diversity factor = , . × .

= 28,925.82 watt
The design current ( ) for a three-phase system can be calculated from the total load contributed by
each load that makes up the circuit based on the relationship:
( ) = × ×
Remark: According to the IEE Regulation,
selection of nominal rating of protective
If = Line Voltage (V) = 415 V and = Power factor = 0.8 device ( ) must be greater than or equal to
the total circuit current ( ) [ ≥ )], so
, . for this, a 60A, 3-Ɵ distribution board can
(Amp) =
13-Jan-22
× × .
= 50.30Amp be selected
41

ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Load Cable Size for DB

To determine the load cable size from fused switch to distribution board, following factors are put
into consideration;
1) Cable type
2) Current carrying capacity of cable
3) Distance between supply point from the circuit origin
4) Installation method as specified in IEE regulation
5) Voltage drop per ampere per meter in milivolt of the selected cable.

Voltage drop is associated with an increase in length of a conductor as resistance of

a conductor increases with increase in length and decrease in cross-sectional area.
According to IEE Regulation, the permissible voltage drop over the length of cable span should not
exceed 5 % of the nominal voltage at the origin of the circuit. In Nigeria power system with single
and three phase supply voltage of 240V/415V, therefore voltage drop should not exceed about
12V/20V.

The relationship for calculating voltage drop for a length of cable is given by:
where,
× × = voltage drop per ampere per meter in millivolt
( )= = Distance from distribution board to point of supply
13-Jan-22
= Calculated load current
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ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Circuitry Layout [Lighting and Socket]

Series and Parallel Circuit

Ring and Radial Circuit

Discontinuity in the line will NOT
affect following sockets since
supply also comes from other path

Discontinuity in the line will

affect following sockets but
13-Jan-22
within the socket may not
43

ELECTRICAL SERVICE DESIGN

Civil Work

It is mostly requires for the conduit wiring layout.

The civil work involves the provision of ducts/piping layout for wiring passage on, under ground
within the building wall and over the ceiling.

A number of ducts are specially designed to contain electric cables in different type of building
stations. The common duct type includes the duct tube, skirting trunking and floor trunking.

13-Jan-22
44

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Building Electrical Services Layout Sample

Lighting layout
45

Building Electrical Services Layout Sample

Power Socket Outlet Layout

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Building Electrical Services Layout Sample

47

5.0
Auxiliary Electrical System: Transformer, alternative
power generator, pumping motor, elevator, escalator and conveyor systems

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BUILDING AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Transformer

A transformer accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another voltage. This permits
electrical energy to be generated at relatively low voltages and transmitted at high voltages
and low currents, thus reducing line losses and voltage drop.

Transformers should be placed close to the load centre, considering other features like
optimization needs for centralized control, operational flexibility etc. This will bring down
the distribution loss in cables.

Transformers Classification
Transformers are classified into two categories: power transformers and distribution
transformers.
• Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher voltages, deployed for step-up
and step down transformer application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)

• Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a means to end
user connectivity (11kV, 6.6 kV,3.3 kV, 440V, 230V). Typical distribution transformer standard
for single phase are 10, 16, 25, and 50 kVA and three phase 25, 63, 100, 200, 250, 315 kVA etc.
49

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Sizing , Placing and Installation of Transformer

The electrical size of the transformer load is rated in kVA. This rating provides the
associated power output delivered for a specific period to the loads connected to
the transformer secondary side.

Transformer Placing
It is important to evaluate all safety codes when considering the location for electrical
transformer installation. Ensure that:
• Installation does not present any threat to movement of personnel or equipment, and
• Location does not expose the transformer to damage from cranes, trucks, or moving
equipment.

Ground Installation: If the electrical transformer is installed at ground level, it is important to

evaluate soil characteristics and soil behaviour.
Concrete Pad Installation: Electrical transformer is also installed over a concrete pad
Inside/Top of Building/Pole: If transformer is to be installed inside or on top of a building, careful
provisions and structural analysis of the load must be carried out and considered the integrity of the
structural design
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AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Guidelines For Installing Power Transformers

An electrical transformer should be inspected for visible damage before installation. It is

important to carry out test and the guideline can be summarised as follows:
1. Carry out standard transformer tests- voltage ratio, polarity, excitation test etc
2. Site considerations
3. Preliminary inspection upon receipt of transformer
4. Plan for the prevention of contaminants- procedure for inventory and records
5. Making connections that works
6. Controlling sound level
7. Make sure the transformer is well grounded
8. Final inspection and testing
9. Applying the load
10. Adjustment for correct tap setting

51

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Generator/Renewable Power Source

There is need for alternate source of electric supply in buildings where is there no regular utility
electric supply and for emergency purpose.

A stand-by electric generator or renewable energy source such as solar power should be installed
to supply power to staircase and corridor lighting circuits, fire lifts, the standby fire pumps, smoke
extraction & damper systems in case of failure of normal electric supply.

The generator should be capable of supplying starting current off all machines and circuits
connected to it simultaneously.

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AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Lift/Elevator System
An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or
goods between floors (levels or decks) of a building, vessel or other structure.
Types of hoist mechanism:
1. Pneumatic vacuum elevators
2. Hydraulic elevators
3. Cable-borne elevators
4. Traction elevators

Types of Elevators
1.Passenger elevators
4.Stage lifts
7.Aircraft elevators
10.Scissor lift
2.Residential elevators 3.Freight elevators
5.Vehicle elevators 6.Boat elevators
8.Dumbwaiters 9.Paternoster
11.Rack & pinion lift

Paternoster:- is a type of lift having a chain of open compartments that move continually
in an endless loop so that (agile) passengers can step on or off at each floor they like. The
same technique is also used for filing cabinets to store large amounts of (paper) documents
or small spare parts 53

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Elevator sample

Passenger elevators Rack & pinion lift

Scissor lift Vehicle elevators
For a motor driven lift/elevators
Motor efficiency = output mechanical power/ input electrical power

Input electrical power = 3 x V x I x cos

...where
V is the line voltage (usually 415 V)
I is the line current
and  is the phase angle.
Output mechanical power (Watts) =  x n
...where
n is speed in radians per second
 is torque in Newton.metres 54

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AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Escalator
Escalator is a stairway whose steps move continuously (no waiting interval) on a
circulating belt. Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls,
airports, transit systems, convention centres, hotels and public buildings.

They have the capacity to move large numbers of people and they can be placed in the
same physical space as one might install a staircase.

Configuration options
• Parallel Configuration (up and down escalators "side by side or separated by a distance",
seen often in metro stations and multilevel motion picture theatres)
• Crisscross Configuration (minimizes structural space requirements by "stacking“
escalators that go in one direction, frequently used in department stores or shopping
centres)
• Multiple parallel Configuration (two or more escalators together that travel in one
direction next to one or two escalators in the same bank)
55

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Escalator samples

Summary of the relationship between

the power consumption of an escalator
shows that its rise as the number of
passengers boarding per minute

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AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Conveyor System
A conveyor system is a mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one
location to another. It is a quick and efficient transportation for heavy or bulky materials.
Mostly used in in the material handling and packaging industries.
Types: Belt conveyors, Pneumatic conveyors, Roller conveyors (Gravity & Powered),
Flexible conveyor, Bucket conveyors (chain driven), Vertical conveyors etc.

Belt Conveyors: A belt is stretched over two drums

so that the top belt is flat and carries goods along.

Vertical, Flexible and Spiral Conveyors: They have

buckets, pouches or spiral sections. Useful when the
materials being transported must take sharp turns
around obstacles or go vertically up or down.
57

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Pumping Motors
Pump machines are used to add energy to fluid stream using suction or pressure when the
flow is liquid or slurry. Fluid machines are broadly classified as either positive
displacement or dynamic type.

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic
energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.
The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. Common uses
include water treatment, sewage, agriculture, petroleum and petrochemical pumping.

The reverse function of the centrifugal pump is

a water turbine converting potential energy of
water pressure into mechanical rotational
energy.
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AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Pump Characteristics Curve

The pump characteristic curves can be defined as ‘the graphical representation of a

particular pump’s behaviour and performance under different operating conditions

Curves relating total head, efficiency, power, and net positive suction head required
(NPSHR) to discharge or pump capacity (Q) are utilized to describe the operating
properties (characteristics) of a pump.
The energy usage in a pumping installation is determined by the flow
required, the height lifted and the length and friction characteristics of
the pipeline.

The power required to drive a pump (Pi) is defined in SI units by:

where:
Pi is the input power required (W), ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3)
ɡ is the standard acceleration of gravity (9.80665 m/s2), H is the energy Head
added to the flow (m)
Operating characteristic curves Q is the flow rate (m3/s), η is the efficiency of the pump plant as a decimal
of a centrifugal pump
59

Group Assignment

Obtain a 3/4-bedroom house plan with proper dimension and design the building electrical
services. The design to cover the lighting system, power outlets, air conditioning system,
security facilities, protection system and other necessary (special) load provision. The cable
sizing should be specified and proper recommendation should be made on all equipment
required for the services installation. At each stage of the design, the relevant standards and
regulations should be stated and adhere to during the design project. The technical design
drawing, the calculation results and the bill of engineering measurement and evaluation (BEME)
should be attached to the project report.

Report to be submitted in 3 WEEKS TIME

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6.0
Telecommunication Design & Installation:
Telephone, PABX, cables, cablings, trucking, calculations, etc.

61

7.0
Computer Networking: Design, topology, cables, cabling

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COMPUTER NETWORKING

The word “Tele” is derived from the Greek meaning “at a distance”, used to describe the
long distance transmission of information. All telecommunications systems consist of the
sender, channel and the receiver.

Telecommunications infrastructure is an essential component of any office building. It

permits rapid exchange of information between individuals located within the building
and connects them to others around the world.

Traditionally, antenna and telephone systems were the only telecommunications systems
provided in buildings. Today, computer networks in rooms/halls, building management
systems and communications systems for security networks have been added.

A typical office complex has hundreds of kilometres of telecommunications cabling that

must be correctly installed and properly managed to provide essential communications.

It is important that the design approach of a telecommunications infrastructure look at the

building as a single entity and consider individual departments as all being part of the
single entity.
63

COMPUTER NETWORKING

Telecommunications infrastructure in a building consists of two subsystems:

i. Telecommunications spaces and pathways (e.g. rooms, cable tray, conduit e.t.c)
ii. Telecommunications cabling systems linking rooms together and running from the
telecoms room(s) (called "telecommunication closet") to the work areas or end devices,
such as PC and servers.

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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Basic Component of Communication Model

Source: data to be transmitted is generated from a device e.g. telephones, PC etc.

Transmitter: transforms/encodes the data in a form to produce electromagnetic waves or
signals.
Transmission System: it connects source and destination.
Receiver: accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form
easily managed by the destination device.
Destination: Destination receives the incoming data from the receiver.

Computer Networking
A set of devices often called nodes connected by media link is called a Network
Computer or data network can share data with other computers or devices connected to
the network.
A network is expected to meet certain requirements: (i) Performance (transit and response
time), (ii) Reliability (no or less failure) and (iii) Security (no authorised access) 65

COMPUTER NETWORKING

Data Communication Technique

The exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium is called data
communication and the data is exchanged in the form of 0's and 1’s.

There two types of data communication:

Local: communicating devices are in the same geographical area, same building, or
face-to-face
Remote: Remote communication takes place over a distance i.e. devices are farther

The line configuration in computer networking

There are two ways to connect the devices on a computer network :

Point-to-Point connection Multipoint connection

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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Network Topology
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology: network device is RING Topology: forms a ring as each

connected to single cable computer is connected to another

MESH Topology: all the network

STAR Topology: all computers are
nodes are connected to each other
connected to a single hub through cable 67

COMPUTER NETWORKING

TREE Topology: has a root node and all other

are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
HYBRID Topology: has mixture
of two or more topologies

Factors for Choosing a Topology

i. Size of the Network

ii. Budget Limitations
iii. Network Flexibility
iv. Need for Reliability
v. Networking Equipment/Available Hardware
vi. Network Expansion
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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks

Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. The
signals are transmitted in form of electrical signal or electromagnetic energy from one
device to another.
Electromagnetic signals travels through vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to
move from one point to another (from sender to receiver).
Transmission modes and medium
Factors for selecting a transmission
medium
1. Data/Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation
3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
4. Distances

3KHz to 1GHz 1GHz to 300 GHz

69

COMPUTER NETWORKING

Bounded/Guided Transmission Media

Guided media, are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include use of
Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fibre-Optic Cable. A signal travelling along any
of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable uses metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.

Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used, has lightweight and is cheaper than others.
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals and the other is
used as ground reference
Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Pair Cable consisting of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation. UTP cables consist
of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use
RJ-45 connector

RJ-11 connector RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. It is faster and
more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

71

COMPUTER NETWORKING

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable contains two parallel conductors. Copper is used as centre conductor which
can be a solid wire or a standard one surrounded by PVC insulation sheath which is
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor
which completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath.
The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by Radio Government (RG) ratings (set of physical
specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and the type
of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, the size and type of the outer casing).
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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Fiber Optic Cable

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. It
use reflection to guide light through a channel.
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through
the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

Optical fibres are to defined by the ratio of the

diameter i.e core diameter to cladding diameter,
both expressed in micrometers. The common sizes
Internal view of an Optical fibre are shown in the Table below:

Fibre Sizes for Fibre Optic Cable

73

COMPUTER NETWORKING

Cable Connectors
Coaxial Cable Connectors
The most common type of connector used to connect
coaxial cable to devices is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector. The Figure to the right shows 3
popular types of these connectors: the BNC Connector,
the BNC T connector and the BNC terminator.

Fibre Optic Cable Connectors

There are three types of connectors for fibre-optic
cables, as shown in the Figures.
The Subscriber Channel (SC) connector is used for cable
TV, uses push/pull locking system
The Straight-Tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to the networking devices. MT-RJ
connector which has the same size as RJ45.
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COMPUTER NETWORKING

Computer Network Installation

Basic Requirement for a Network

1. A minimum of at least 2 computers

2. Cables that connect the computers to each other, wireless is becoming more common
3. A network interface device on each computer (network interface card/NIC)
4. A ‘Switch’ used to switch the data from one point to another.
5. Network operating system software

75

COMPUTER NETWORKING

For Safety Purposes

All telecom rooms must comply with municipality and national authority standards and
regulations, such as:

i. All telecom spaces should be fitted with smoke detectors and emergency lighting.
ii. All containment openings to telecom spaces must be sealed with a fire retardant
material.
iii. All doors to the telecom rooms must be made of materials with fire resistance.
iv. All doors to telecom rooms must be outward opening with an automatic door closer
system fitted on the hinged edge.
v. All doors/casing to telecom rooms must be labelled.
vi. The room must be free from contaminants and pollutants.
vii. All telecom rooms should have basic fire fighting provision to handheld CO2 cylinder
type extinguishers.

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8.0
Protection Systems: Fire, Surge and Lightning
Fire alarm, earthing, surge and lightning equipment selection and installation.

77

FIRE, LIGHTNING AND SURGE PROTECTION

Fire Alarm System

A fire alarm system consists of fire sensors, such as smoke and heat detectors, located
throughout the building, and connected to a main alarm panel by special cables.
The panel is in turn connected to a set of hooters/speakers that give an audible alarm
throughout the building and its surrounding areas.
A fire alarm system detect and warn people through visual and audio appliances when
smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other emergencies are present.
The alarms activation cab be automatic from smoke and heat detectors or may also be
activated via manual fire alarm activation devices such as manual call points or pull
stations.

Parts of Fire Alarm System

Fire alarm control panel/unit (FACP/U):- monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs
and relays information.
Initiating devices:- These components act as inputs to the fire alarm control unit and are either
manually or automatically activated. Examples of such devices is pull stations, heat detectors, and
smoke detectors.
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FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Notification appliances:- This component inform the proximate persons of the need to take action,
usually to evacuate. This is done by means of a pulsing incandescent light, flashing strobe light,
electromechanical horn, electronic horn, chime, bell, speaker, or a combination of these devices.

Building safety interfaces:- This interface allows the fire alarm system to control aspects of the
built environment and to prepare the building for fire. It controls the spread of smoke fumes and fire
by influencing air movement, lighting, process control, human transport and exit [Modern Tech]

Primary power supply:- 120 or 240-volt alternating current source supplied from a commercial
power utility.

Secondary (backup) power supplies:- usually a sealed lead-acid storage batteries or other
emergency sources including generators to supply energy in the event of a primary power failure.
The batteries can be inside/bottom of the panel or in a separate battery box installed near the panel.

79

FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Fire alarm control panel/Unit (FACP/U)

A fire alarm control panel receives information from devices designed to detect and report
fires, monitors their operational integrity and provides for automatic control of equipment,
and transmission of information necessary to prepare the facility for fire based on a
predetermined sequence. The panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any
associated initiating device, notification appliance, control, transmitter, or relay.

Wiring diagram for a simple fire alarm system

consisting of two input loops (one closed, one open) 80

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FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Earthing Systems
An earthing/grounding system is circuitry that connects parts of the electric installation
with the earth conductive surface for safety and functional purposes.

Objectives of Electrical Earthing

Protective earthing: An earth ground connection helps protect electrical equipment and
people from electric shock, lightning strike, electrocution and fire hazard by keeping the
conductive surface of connected devices close to earth potential, when a failure of
electrical insulation occurs.
Functional earthing: Serves a purpose other than electrical safety, may carry current as
part of normal operation. Example include single-wire earth return power distribution
system (earth forms one conductor of the circuit and carries the load current), surge
suppressors, electromagnetic interference filters and telegraph lines.

13-Jan-22
81

FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Earthing Systems
The three types of earthing system that are common in use are the TT, TN-S and TN-C-S
[T stands for ‘terra’, a latin word used for earth, dirt or land].
TT supply system: The TT indicates that the supply
system and the installation have two points of
earthing. The earth has to be provided by the installer
using an earth electrode dedicated to the installation.
• When there is an electrical fault to earth, the fault
current will flow through the electrical supply line
conductor to the consumer’s earth electrode and
then through the earth (soil) back to the supply
transformer electrode.

TN-S supply system: : Uses only one point of

earth, separate protective earth (PE) and neutral
(N) conductors from transformer to consuming
device, which are not connected together at any
point after the building distribution point. 82

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SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

TN-C-S supply system: Also uses a single point of earth,

combined protective earth and neutral (PEN) conductor
from transformer to building distribution point, but
separate PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring

Earth Electrodes

Earth electrode is commonly use to provide an earth for a TT system. A copper-plated steel
rod or steel pipe are common types of earth electrode for domestic installation

 Before installing an earth electrode, consideration must be given to where it is going to

be positioned. Ideally, it should be placed where its less prone to damages or contact
with chemicals that may cause it to corrode.

 Earth electrode position should be in area where the

soil is unlikely to freeze, shaded and less chance of
soil drying out. A standard rod electrode used in a
domestic installation would be driven into the ground
to a depth of around 1m
83

FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Lightning and Surge Protection

Lightning strikes are electrostatic discharges, which usually travel from cloud to cloud
or cloud to the ground, with magnitudes of millions of volts (V) and current (A)
Lightning and surge protectors are used for protecting power system insulator, conductor
and equipment against the transient and spark voltages.
Equipment/devises used to achieve the power system protection include lightning arrester
for voltage above 1000V, SPD (Surge Protective Device), TVSS (Transient Voltage Surge
Suppressor) for voltages well below 1000 volts.
Effect of Lightning/Surge on Power System
• Causes damage to the crucial equipment
• Damage of insulators/conductors due to excess heating from high current flow
• Brings about temporary blackouts

The sources of lightning voltage surge in electric power systems:

 Lightning Strike/Surge
 Switching Surge
 Back Flashover Surge
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FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Lightning Arrester
Lightning arrester is a device used on power systems above 1000V to protect equipment
from lightning voltage surges
Lightning arrester is NOT same as lightning rod, although lightning rods are devices that
divert lightning surges to ground, they are simple conductive terminals that are always at
ground potential and are never energized

Lightning Arresters Protect Power Systems

When lightning strikes the system
Equipment is damaged and the lights goes off

With Lightning
Without Lightning
Arrester
Arrester 85

SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Operation of Lightning arrester

Lighting Arrester does not absorb the lightning, and does not stop the lightning, but
- divert lightning to ground
- It clamp (limit) the voltage produced by the lightning
- And protects equipment electrically in parallel with it.

The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) Disk is a very fast

acting electronic switch

It is an open switch/insulator to standard system AC

voltages and a closed switch to lightning voltages

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FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

In summary,
A lightning arrester is essentially a collection of billions of microscopic junctions
of Metal Oxide Grains that turn on and off in microseconds to form a current path
from the top terminal to the ground terminal of the arrester

87

FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Surge Protection Devices

A surge protector (spike/surge suppressor/surge diverter) is an appliance or device
designed to protect electrical devices from voltage spikes. Surge Protection Device (SPD)
is a component of the electrical installation protection system.
A transient surge protector attempts to limit the voltage supplied to an electric device by
either blocking or shorting current to reduce the voltage to a safe threshold.
The blocking is done by using inductors which inhibit a sudden change in current.
Shorting is done by spark gaps, discharge tubes, zener-type semiconductors, and MOVs,
all of which begin to conduct current once a certain voltage threshold is reached.

Surge Protective Device

Power outlet with surge protector 88

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SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

SPD Deployment
The terms surge protection device (SPD) and transient
voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) are used to describe
electrical devices typically installed in power
distribution panels, process control systems,
communications systems, and other heavy-duty
industrial systems, for the purpose of protecting against
electrical surges and spikes, including those caused by
lightning.
Risks of Electrical Surges Damage equipment

Voltage transients can cause damage ranging from the premature

ageing of equipment, logic failures and down time, to the
complete destruction of equipment within the entire electrical
installation.
Products such as LCD screens, data servers and industrial
equipment such as PLC’s are critical to business activity,
protecting this equipment is a necessity.
89

FIRE, SURGE AND LIGHTING PROTECTIONS

Surge Protection Devices Classification

Surge protection devices are classified according to their standard into different types:
 Type 1 - SPD which can discharge partial lightning current with a typical
waveform 10/350μs (impulse current). Usually employs spark gap technology.
 Type 2 - SPD which can prevent the spread of overvoltage in the electrical
installations and protects equipment connected to it. It usually employs metal oxide
varistor (MOV) technology and is characterized by an 8/20μs (discharge surge
current) current wave.
 Type 3 – These SPDs have a low discharge capacity. They must therefore only be
installed as a supplement to Type 2 SPD and in the vicinity of sensitive loads. Type
3 SPD’s are characterised by a combination of voltage waves (1.2/50μs) and
current waves (8/20μs).

In summary, a Type 1 SPD is used at the origin of the installation, a Type 2 SPD is used at
distribution boards and a Type 3 SPD is used near terminal equipment

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9.0
Contract Proposal and Document Preparation:
Project costing and preparation of BEME.

91

CONTRACT PROPOSAL

CONTRACT PROPOSAL AND DOCUMENT PREPARATION

A contract or business proposal is a document prepared for selling and negotiating a sale.
Most proposals are written in order to propose a sale to a potential client and generally
outlines a solution of services to the requirements set out by the client.
A proposal can include many parts of a project that the client can agree to or negotiate,
if they do not require all of the elements provided in the proposal.
It discusses the deliverables, rights and responsibilities of each parties (service provide
& client); changes can still be done until the point of agreement is established.
Before a contract is made, there is need to come up with a proposal that will allow potential
clients be sure that you are the best option for the transaction.
A well written proposals require a clear understanding of the company's services or
products, the contract and acquisitions processes and pricing.
It is usual practice to leave a space at the end of the proposal document where clients can
affix signature as a sign of their approval for the proposal to be realized. Once agreements is
done, then a contract can further be developed.
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Tips for Writing a Strategic Proposal

1. Work backwards: begin with the end in mind, most proposals are based on how well
you understand your customer and what they care about

2. Create an outline based on a compliance checklist: Make outline that will serve as the
document shell, it makes writing the proposal easier and ensure that you do not miss
important details.

3. Collection of right data: gathering all the ingredients, such as your management plan,
methodology, deliverables and quality assurance plan, that need to go into the proposal
before start writing.

4. Develop a differentiation strategy: The way you articulate your difference is reason for
a customer to select you, example is of a typical claim that: We have an excellent track
record.

5. Start writing: Once done with the above, start writing, little about your company and
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Project Cost Estimation

Cost estimation is a predictive process used to quantify, cost, and price the resources
required by the scope of the project
Cost estimate helps to better manage budgets and deliver projects that do not exceed the
identified scope, and that are on time throughout the development process.
The need for estimation process can satisfy four areas:
1. State/Client financial plan
2. Creation of public satisfaction and a positive response
3. Project control
4. Problems encounter

Each phase of an estimate may require different estimating inputs, methods, techniques,
and tools. The task requires the application of prudent judgment, from the initiation to the
completion

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Step in the Cost Estimating Process

1. Determine the Basis of Estimate
The Basis of Estimate describes the project, the estimate document including work
breakdown structure, project information and schedule data, from which a project
cost is estimated. The level of detail provided in Basis of Estimate varies depending
on a project’s phase, type, and complexity, but would include the design matrix and
criteria, all assumptions, and pertinent scope details.

2. Prepare a Baseline Estimate

Baseline estimated costs for the project components (items) are determined in current
year monetary value. The components may be estimated using different techniques
depending on the level of scope definition and the size and complexity of the project.
3. Review the Baseline Estimate
This activity confirms that: (i) project and estimate assumptions are appropriate for
the project; (ii) the baseline cost estimate is an accurate reflection of the project’s
scope of work; (iii) scope, schedule, and cost items are calculated properly, and
required components are not missing or double counted; and (iv) historical data and
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4. Perform a Risk Assessment

This activity captures the effect of uncertainties on project cost and schedule using a
structured and documented approach

5. Determine the Estimate Communication Approach

Project cost estimate data normally needs to be communicated to both internal and
external constituencies.
6. Obtain Management Endorsement
Estimates are key products of the project management process and are fundamental
documents upon which management decisions are based. All estimates should be
reviewed by an independent party, and then be reconciled and revised as
recommended by reviewers and presented to management staff for their endorsement

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Subject matter experts (SME)

Estimating methodologies can be apply at

various stages of project development
include: (1) parametric, (2) historical bid-
based, (3) cost based, and (4) risk-based.

Figure 9.0 Cost Estimating Process

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Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME)

Depending on the complexity of a project, BEME preparation can also follow the cost
estimate process.

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10.0
Basic Law of Contract

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BASIC LAW OF CONTRACT

A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between parties to do something (or to not do

something), which is recognised by law.
The first requisite of a contract is that the parties should have reached an agreement when
one party makes an offer, which is accepted by another party.
A contract is formed when the following components are established:
A. Offer: An offer is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms,
made with the intention that it is to be binding once accepted by the person to whom it
is addressed. It can be made expressly (by words) or by conduct to a single person, to
a specified group of persons, or to the world at large.
B. Acceptance: An acceptance is a final and unqualified expression of assent to the
terms of an offer. Acceptance is in accordance with its precise terms if it is to form an
agreement, must exactly match the offer and ALL terms must be accepted.
C. Consideration: consideration means something of value, which is usually money,
bargained for in exchange for the product or service that is being offered.
consideration must be sufficient, but need not be adequate
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D. Contractual Intention: An agreement is binding as a contract if it is made with

intention to create legal entity. That is, the parties must be aware and intend their
agreement to be legally binding and can be enforce by law.

Contents of a Contract

i. Express Terms: express are provisions or terms that the parties have to set out in their
agreement. These are the details of the agreement, including the specifics of who, what,
how much, and when. The parties may record their agreement, and hence the terms of
their contract, in more than one document. Those terms may be incorporated by
reference into the contract.

ii. Implied Terms: A contract may contain terms which are not expressly stated but
which are implied, either because the parties intended this, or by operation of law, or by
custom or usage. It is important to note that the courts will not imply a term merely
because it would be reasonable or desirable to do so. Also, a term cannot be implied if it
conflicts with the express terms of the contract.
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The End of a Contract

There Four ways in which a contract can be brought to an end include:
1. Expiration: This refers to a contract which comes to an end in accordance with its
terms, either because it has a fixed expiry date or there is a right to terminate contained in
the contract.
2. Termination by Breach: A breach of contract is committed when a party, without
lawful excuse, fails or refuses to perform what is due from him under the contract, or
performs defectively, or incapacitates himself from performing. Bringing proceedings for
breach of contract does not necessarily amount to termination of that contract. It may be
that the claimant is seeking damages alone and/or the contract may contain specified
formalities to be met before termination can occur.
3. Vitiation: There are situations where the parties have reached agreement but the
question arises whether the existence or non-existence of some fact, or the occurrence or
non-occurrence of some event, has destroyed the basis on which that agreement was
reached so that the agreement is discharged or in some other way vitiated. (event,
mistakes, misinterpretation etc)
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4. Frustration: a contract may be discharged if, after its formation, an unforeseen event
occurs making performance of the contract impossible, illegal or essentially different from
what was contemplated. Frustration will not occur where the frustrating event was caused
by the fault of one party or if the parties made express provision for the event in their
contract (such as in a force majeure clause). Frustration discharges the parties only from
duties of future performance but rights accrued before the frustrating event is enforceable

The Damages / Remedies

Damages are intended to compensate the injured party for the loss that might be suffered as
a result of the breach of contract. In order to establish an entitlement to substantial damages
for breach of contract, the injured party must show that:
(i) actual loss has been caused by the breach;
(ii) the type of loss is recognised as giving an entitlement to compensation; and
(iii) the loss is not too remote.
A breach of contract can be established even if there is no actual loss but in that case, there
will be an entitlement to only nominal damages. The underlying principle is to put the
injured party financially, as near as possible, into the position he would have been in had
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Damages may sometimes be an inadequate remedy. There are a number of equitable

remedies, which are discretionary, directed at ensuring that the injured party is not
unjustly treated by being confined to the common law remedy of damages.

There could be provision for:

Specific Performance: where damages are deemed inadequate, the court may make an
order for specific performance which will compel the party in breach to fulfil the terms of
a contract

Injunction: A court may restrain a party from committing a breach of contract by

injunction. Such injunctions may be "interlocutory" ones which are designed to regulate
the position of the parties pending a full hearing of a dispute or permanent.

Thank You !!! 104

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