Assignment 0

Company: Raith

Team number: A
Introduction 3

Electron beam lithography (EBL) 4

EBL system 4
Steps to a final product 5
Applications 6
Advantages and limitations 6

Two-photon polymerisation (2PP) 8

Resists in 2PP 8
Applications 9
Advantages and limitations 9

Laser Beam Lithography (LBL) 10

Direct write LBL 10
Applications 11
Advantages and limitations 11

Conclusion 13

References 14

2
Introduction
Raith is a company that specializes in lithography for nanofabrication. Lithography is the
practice of transferring patterns on a surface and making several more steps to actually
isolate the pattern. Raith produces, as the word nanofabrication suggests, devices and
structures on a very small scale (nanoscale). A possible goal is to create structures that are
extremely small, so that one can fit the highest possible number of structures on a surface.
This is only possible by achieving a very high resolution. Resolution is the smallest feature
one is able to print on a surface for the feature to still work. Raith currently uses electron
beam lithography to produce microscopical structures. The two emerging technologies are
laser beam lithography and two-photon polymerization. Per technology, we will explain how
it works, its functional needs and advantages as well as factors that limit the technology.

Lithography comes from the Greek words lithos, or ‘stone’ and graphein, meaning ‘to write’.
However, lithography didn’t even exist until the late 18th century. Originally, the technique
was a form of art, but it is in the 1820’s that we find the first traces of the ideas that would
eventually develop into the technology we now use for the production of structures on an
extremely small scale.
The french inventor Nicéphore Niépce applied a substance known as Syrian asphalt to a
metal plate, exposed it to light, and washed it with a solvent. The areas which were exposed
to light became less solvable and didn’t wash away, while those that were less exposed did.
When this plate was now washed with an acid, the area where the resist hardened the plate
was protected, while in less exposed areas the plate would become etched by the acid,
producing one of the first permanent photographs (Stulik et al.,2013). The use of this Syrian
asphalt was the first use of what we would now call a photoresist, or resist for short. It would
not be until halfway the 20th century that this kind of process was first used to produce
electronic chips, and other microscopic structures.

3
Electron beam lithography (EBL)
Electron beam lithography, EBL for short, is the practice of drawing a custom structure on a
surface by shooting beams of electrons on that surface. Its applications span a wide range.
For example, it is used to make nanodevices like chips as well as gratings or other
structures on nanoscale. Electrons are incredibly small charged particles and weigh close to
nothing. They are, together with other particles, the building blocks of everything around us.
For simplicity, one can compare the shape of an electron to that of a football. However, an
electron is approximately ten trillion times smaller than a football, so humans cannot see
them with the naked eye.

For this type of lithography, electron beams are used, which are just a lot of electrons fired at
once together. In EBL, these electrons are fired at a surface. The fundamental surface
where the nanostructure will be built upon, is called the wafer. Wafers are usually made of
silicon. Silicon is a chemical element, just like oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, iron et cetera.
Silicon is often used because of its semi-conducting properties (Brain, 2021). This property
makes it so that silicon does not readily interact with other materials. Because of this,
materials can stick to silicon very well without silicon actually influencing the nanodevice.
Secondly, the wafer has to be ‘coated’ with a resist. The resist is the electron-sensitive
material that will be carved out by the electron beams. The two key-properties of a resist are
that it adheres very well to silicon, glass and most metals (What are e-beam resists
composed of and how do they work, n.d.) and that it reacts to electrons being shot at it.
Resists can be made of multiple materials, like polymers. Polymers are long chains of
repeating molecules. The combination of the wafer and the resist is called the substrate.

EBL system
It is important to know roughly how an EBL system works, because this system is vital in
producing nanostructures. Again, EBL makes use of electrons. The EBL system (see figure
below) consists of the following components:
● the electron source, also called the electron gun. Within this gun, electrons are sped
up to high speeds by creating a high voltage over the gun. These high speeds are
necessary for the accuracy of the beam and the interactions of the electrons. The
voltage makes the electrons ‘want’ to fly away from it. The electrons are not yet a
parallel beam and will diverge.
● an anode. The anode is used to attract the electrons coming out of the source.
Electrons have a negative charge and an anode is positively charged, so there is an
interaction which pulls electrons to the anode.
● blanking plates. The blanking plates are essentially a switch which disrupts the flow
of electrons by inserting a plate which deflect and absorb the electrons. They can
turn the beam ‘off’ instantly, so that the beam leaves no streaks in the resist (Braun,
2008).
● electromagnetic lens(es). The lens focuses the diverging electron beams to a parallel
beam with a very small radius. It is able to bend the electron's trajectory by creating a
magnetic field. The more lenses used, the more precise the beam is.
● beam deflectors. The final instrument coordinates where the electron beam must fall
on the substrate by bending it with a precise angle. The pattern that will be carved

4
 into the resist is determined beforehand with a CAD (Computer Aided Design)
program written by the user.
● a stage where the substrate or sample is placed to be fired at. This stage must be
isolated to vibrations from outside. Otherwise, the electron beams will not end up
where they were targeted at.

Schematic figure of EBL system

(Altissimo, 2010)

Steps to a final product

The CAD allows one to program the pattern that has to be drawn. The system will then only
fire the electron beams at the places selected with CAD beforehand. When the electron
beam comes into contact with the resist, they chemically react. The electron beam exposure
alters the structure of the resist by breaking chemical bonds inside of the resist (Electron
Beam Resists, 2022). This basically means that the resist (often a polymer) gets broken into
smaller pieces. The portions of resist that get exposed to the electrons and therefore
undergo a structural change are called positive resist, the rest is called negative resist
(Electron Beam Resists, 2022).

The next step is called developing. The developer is a fluid that will either remove the
positive resist or the negative resist, depending on what the user wants to produce. Firstly,
the substrate gets immersed in the developer. The developer is made to dissolve one kind of
resist, while being unable to dissolve the other kind of resist. After the immersion, the
developer and the dissolved resist are removed. What remains is the substrate with resist in
some places and no resist in others. This is comparable to a mold, but then on nanoscale.

The final step is actually making a useful device of the nanostructure. One technique that
does this is called lift-off (Introduction to EBL, 2020). After developing, a thin plate made of
a metal is placed on top of the substrate. Where resist has been removed, the metal will
stick to the wafer. However, the metal that lays on top of the resist does not make contact
with the wafer. That remaining resist and the metal on top of it can then be removed with a

5
second developing fluid. The result is the wafer with metal lining on it that perfectly follows
the pattern that the user drew with the CAD program.

Another method that is used is etching (Electron Beam Lithography, 2019). Etching (in the
field of microstructuring technology) is the process of creating cavities in the underlying
wafer. In the areas where resist has been removed, the top layer of the wafer gets carved
out. The depth of the etch depends on how long the etching process lasts and the etching
rate (Angely, 2020). As with lift-off, the remaining resist gets removed with a second
chemical. The product is a wafer with the desired pattern etched into it.

Applications
In the scientific and medical fields, nano- and
microstructures are much demanded. The
application areas of EBL span a wide range:
from cryo-electric devices, opto-electronic
devices, quantum structures, transport
mechanism studies of
semiconductor/superconductor interfaces,
microsystem techniques and optical devices.
A well-known example of a structure on
microscale is a chip. Chips are essential to
every electrical device people use in their daily
life. EBL can be used for the production of
these chips, or rather: the even tinier transistors
that make up the chip. However, EBL is mostly
used for unique projects as the costs are high
and precision of a few nanometers usually is
not required for most commercial purposes and
The series of steps taken to get thus other techniques are more cost-efficient to
to the final product with EBL, in use. Another application for EBL is the
this case by using lift-off. The production of masks needed for the production
yellow material is the metal of chips (Robbins 2007).
(Baumann, 2015)
Advantages and limitations
An important advantage of EBL is that it allows
the user to draw patterns in a direct-write mode. One could compare this direct-write mode
to writing with a pen. The result is drawing patterns with EBL can be done very precisely. In
other words, EBL has a high resolution. This makes EBL well-suited for products that need
patterns at nanometer scale, because the electromagnetic lens creates a beam with a cross
section of only 5 nanometers (one nanometer is one billionth of a meter) (Applied Surface
Science, 2000). This is in contrast to photolithography (lithography with light instead of
electron beams), which requires a mask. A mask acts as a filter that lets light pass through in
some places and does not in other places. Masks decrease the resolution and techniques
that use masks can therefore not reach the same scale EBL can.

6
However, EBL is expensive: the price of an EBL system for commercial purposes can range
from one million to ten million euros (Dirne, 2016). Also, EBL requires the use of a clean
room (a room free of dust and other substances), because it can damage the products.
These measures add to the production costs, as it is expensive to build and maintain such a
facility. Furthermore, the throughput of EBL is dependent on the resolution. With higher
resolution products take more time to produce than lower resolution products (Groves,
2014).
This makes EBL not ideal for mass production, as its main advantage is making products at
high resolutions.

Two-dimensional nanosurfaces like the substrates discussed before are hard to integrate in
three-dimensional devices (Van Zeijl, 2010). That is why a major challenge right now is to
use EBL on 3D surfaces. Currently, a technique called grayscale lithography tackles that
problem. Grayscale lithography uses conventional electron/laser beam lithography, but
modulates the intensity of the beam, so one can change the depth of the resist that will be
developed (Grushina, 2019). Though, this technique has multiple constraints. The maximal
height variations on the wafer that grayscale lithography can still handle is in the micrometer
scale (one millionth of a meter).

7
Two-photon polymerisation (2PP)
The main benefits of this technique are that it allows for truly 3D production and a high
resolution. It achieves this by using a tightly focussed laser beam and a photosensitive
resist, which reacts to light. One of the big differences with EBL is that 2PP does not use
electrons, but photons. These are small packages of energy without any mass. For example
light is made up out of photons. These photons also contain a certain energy that depends
on their frequency and wavelength. The higher this frequency, the higher the energy is, for
example, low frequency radio waves contain a lot less energy than high energy x-rays used
for medical imaging. Wavelength is inversely proportional to this frequency, so the radio
waves will have a long wavelength, while x-rays will have a very short one. The lasers used
in 2PP use photons with an energy slightly lower than those of visible light.

The critical difference between 2PP and other

technologies is that it makes use of multi-photon
absorption instead of single-photon absorption.
This phenomenon can occur when multiple photons
“add” their energy to a molecule and are able to cause
polymerisation this way. That means that they initiate a
chemical reaction in the material being shot at. For this
to occur the 2 photons need to be absorbed within a
time frame of a few femtoseconds (10-15 seconds). The
chance of this occurring is dependent on the power of
the intensity of the photon beam (Korkin et al., 2008). Diagram showing the
relation between the focus
One of the most effective ways to create favorable conditions
of the beam and the
for this absorption to occur is to use a beam with a very high
intensity. It would be very difficult to consistently provide the
chance of absorption
electricity needed to power the beam over longer times. (Korkin et al., 2008)
Because of this, lasers which produce very short pulses are
used. Typically these pulses are a couple of femtoseconds long (Korkin et al., 2008).

The use of this kind of laser also offers other advantages. By using lenses to focus the
beam, we can manipulate the beam to only cause polymerisation in a small volume around
the focal point (the central point of focus of the beam) by only providing the needed intensity
around this spot (Korkin et al., 2008).
This allows this technique to achieve a typical resolution of about 100 nm, but with certain
systems even better resolutions can be achieved (Emont et al., 2012).

Resists in 2PP
The materials are photosensitive, so they change their chemical structure when they are
exposed to photons. The process that starts is a chain reaction, therefore once it is started,
some reaction products (bigger molecules) will directly react with other atoms and so on.
Thus an important property of the materials which are used for the resist is that they
normally are fluid (or very soft), and become solid when they are exposed to UV light. In the
polymerization process that follows small monomers will connect in the fluid material to form

8
a solid material, also called a polymer. Monomers are very small molecules which can join
together with other similar molecules to form bigger molecules or polymers (monomer stands
for 'consisting of one molecule‘ and polymer stands for 'consisting of multiple molecules’ ).
The following step, which is very similar to the process for EBL, is to wash off the rest of the
material which was not exposed to the laser beam, and therefore wasn’t polymerized, and
the result is an unique 3D product (Korkin et al., 2008).

There is a wide variety of materials

available for 2PP, because almost all
photosensitive materials can be used.
These materials can be divided into two
groups, the positive and the negative
resists. Negative resists work as explained,
after illumination the unexposed parts will
get washed off while positive resists work
exactly the opposite way. The irradiated
volume will fall apart and only the parts not
irradiated will form the 3D product.

If we combine this with a resist that is

transparent for infrared photons, but can still be Scanning electron
polymerized by MPA, we can create 3D microscope image of a
structures in the resist by moving this focal point castle constructed on top
around. of the tip of a pencil,
showing the versatility of
Applications the 2PP technique
2PP is generally limited to specific cases, where the
(Gruber, 2016).
benefits of 2PP heavily outweigh the long
production. For example, 2PP allows for rapid
design alterations in between prototypes. Another main area of applications is micro-optics,
where 2PP might, for example, be used to produce microscopic prisms, and lenses.

One other interesting possible application of 2PP is in the biomedical domain. For example,
2PP can be used to produce scaffolds that help regrowing tissue. Other biomedical
applications are the delivery of medicine via microneedles, and the production of small
prosthetics, like replacements for the inner-ear bones (Korkin et al., 2008).

Advantages and limitations

2PP is not the only way to create 3D structures, an alternative that requires less specialized
equipment is grayscale lithography, as stated before. This technique is still limited to the
surface of the resist, and in the structures it can create. (Grushina, 2019). 2PP, in
contradiction to this, is not limited by these constraints, and can create truly 3D structures,
due to the fact that the beam can polymerise the resist (nearly) everywhere in 3D space.This
truly 3D way of production offers a high flexibility in design, since it requires no mask and
therefore designs can be altered rapidly between prototypes. This allows for a wide variety of
applications and it is already used for the fabrication of very different things such as
micromechanical systems or natural proteins. (Korkin et al., 2008).

9
2PP does however also have some major drawbacks,like the cost of the machines needed,
the need for a cleanroom, and the limited throughput. It is not uncommon to see production
times up to a day on larger features. This however could change in the future with the
introduction of multiple spot writing or parallel writing, where multiple beams are used to
create multiple structures simultaneously (Arnoux et al., 2022) (Kotaro et al., 2010).

Laser Beam Lithography (LBL)

Direct-write laser beam is another way of creating a pattern on the waver with a resolution of
micron to sub-micrometres. Laser Beam Lithography, LBL for short, uses either photons or
electrons. LBL using electrons is a fairly new concept, where photons have been used for a
longer time.

The optical technique (called direct optical write laser beam lithography) uses photons to
engrave a pattern in the wafer. The photoresist is an emulsion on the wafer that interacts
with photons falling into the emulsion of photon sensitive polymers. This interaction with
photons either makes the emulsion dissolve or thicken at the place of interaction (negative or
positive photoresist), which creates a pattern. The ‘direct’ in Direct (optical) write laser beam
lithography implies that the used technique produces a pattern in the wafer without having to
use a so-called photomask. A photomask is a mask that only allows certain beams of light
(generally photons with a wavelength of 370-400 nm) to pass through, thus creating a
pattern of light behind the mask on the photoresist (Walsh, 2014). Direct laser beam
lithography also uses electrons but aims them directly at the wafer using a laser beam. Other
than not having to use a mask, LBL also does not need to operate in a vacuum, whereas
other lithography techniques do usually operate in a vacuum (Ivan, 2009).

The laser beam is aimed at a mirror that can move around. Then again, this mirror is aimed
at the wafer. Before the light/electron beam hits the substrate, it is focused by a lens built-in
in the mirror construction. This lens causes the intensity of the beam to be at a maximum at
the surface of the wafer, in order to create maximum contrast. By moving around the mirror
and lens, the location of the focal point of the laser can be altered. As stated before, the
mirror is being moved because it is way smaller and lighter than the laser. The lens focuses
the beam to a width of about 5 nm (IVAN, 2009), which gives a high resolution. The higher
the resolution, the smaller and more precise the patterns will be. If a lot of patterns fit in a
small space, the chip will be more useful. The part of the construction that involves the mask
is very expensive. So, by using this lithography technique one can lower the cost of their
setup.

Direct write LBL

Instead of having the mask decide where photons will land on the substrate, we now have a
computer produced laser beam which precisely and directly targets the exact spot at which
we want to have more contrast. Aiming the laser beam exactly at the spot you want it to aim
at takes a lot of time, so compared to other mask-using photon lithography techniques, this
one takes longer per produced wafer. However, it is still faster than most electron beam
techniques, which is still the most used technique. The speed at which most LBL systems
operate is 1 to 5 mm2/s. This means the system can scan an area of 5 mm2 every second.
Which in the best case means a throughput ten times greater than EBL (Li et al., 2016).

10
The computer-produced laser beam can be altered at any time. With LBL one can change
the pattern to their desired pattern immediately.
The ability to alter the pattern at any time makes direct-write LBL a useful technique for
producing prototypes, as one can cycle through a lot of patterns fast and decide which one is
best. Because LBL does not have to take place in a vacuum, the cost for such a system
lowers too.

Multiple methods of direct laser lithography exist. One example is the Gaussian beam raster
scan (Grushina, 2019). Here, a scanning beam moves along a line while the writing beam is
moving perpendicular to the scanning laser. The writing laser is turned on and off during the
movement following the pattern to be written. The movement of the scanning laser is
calculated by a computer and needs a bit map of the pattern data. The raster scan produces
an image by connecting dots through a line produced by the laser beam.

Another method is the shaped beam system (Grushina,

2019). Here, each figure is split into small shape features
which are called “flashed”. Flashed are images of the
intersection between the intersection of two different
apertures. If two apertures are overlapping with a 90 or 45-
degree angle (Pain et al, 2006) rectangle and triangle beam
shapes are formed. This method of manufacturing increases
the speed significantly.
Printing a part of the circuit in one go is done by making a
cell projection. This is done by making memory cells of
repetitive structures. Although this is only efficient if the
circuit contains multiple repetitive structures. If the circuit
does not contain repetitive structures/patterns, the memory A few images made by
cells will not have anything to memorize, thus they will not using direct-write
work. (grayscale) laser beam
lithography (Grushina,
Applications
2019).
LBL does not need a mask to funcion, this makes it ideal
for prototyping of silicon templates. Since there is no lead
time for the masks, and you can directly change the pattern
on a computer it makes prototyping faster, but also cheaper because the masks used for the
other technologies are expensive to manufacture. The Gaussian beam raster scans are also
being used for imaging in televisions. The refined way of connecting the dots to make an
image satisfies the need for a high resolution in television images (Grushina, 2019).

Advantages and limitations

One of the biggest advantages of LBL is eliminating the need for a mask. This reduces the
production cost of production because the mask is relatively expensive. It also allows for
easy prototyping because again, there is no need for a mask. Another advantage is that LBL
does not need a vacuum to operate, thus not needing a vacuum chamber. Also decreasing
the cost of the machine. The speed at which LBL technology operates is also relatively
quick, thus increasing the throughput.

11
A disadvantage of LBL is the lower resolution compared to EBL and 2PP. Therefore, LBL
cannot reach feature sizes on nanostructures as small as EBL and 2PP can.

12
Conclusion
These three methods of direct-writing all have their distinct advantages and disadvantages
which make them useful for certain goals.
In general EBL and 2PP offer high resolution, and in the case of 2PP the option of truely 3D
production, but this comes at the cost of long production times, and the costs associated
with this. In contradiction to this stands LBL, which offers a relatively quick and cheap
method of direct-writing, but has a significantly lower resolution.

13
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